Bacteria

The history of bacterial discovery

• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1676)
The First Observation of Bacteria:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a
Dutch tradesman and scientist, is credited with the first discovery
of bacteria. In 1676, he observed tiny, living microorganisms, which
he called "animalcules," using a simple, single-lens microscope he
had built.
Discovery Method: Van Leeuwenhoek examined substances like
pond water, teeth scrapings, and even his own feces under the
microscope, describing the bacteria’s movement and shapes.
Spontaneous Generation Debate (17th - 19th
Century)
Spontaneous Generation Theory: For centuries, it was believed that
life, including bacteria, could arise spontaneously from non-living
matter. This theory persisted until the late 19th century.
• Francesco Redi (1668): Redi conducted experiments debunking
spontaneous generation in larger organisms but left
microorganisms unexplored.
• Louis Pasteur (1861): Through his famous swan-neck flask
experiment, Pasteur definitively disproved the theory of
spontaneous generation, demonstrating that microorganisms like
bacteria only arose from preexisting microorganisms and not from
non-living matter.
Louis Pasteur (19th Century)
• Fermentation and Pasteurization (1857-1864):Louis Pasteur’s
research in fermentation led him to discover that microorganisms,
particularly bacteria and yeast, were responsible for the
fermentation process in beer, wine, and milk.
• He developed pasteurization—a method to kill harmful bacteria in
liquids by heating them to a specific temperature, thereby
preventing spoilage.
• Germ Theory of Disease: Pasteur was a key proponent of the germ
theory of disease, which proposed that microorganisms, including
bacteria, were responsible for many infectious diseases.
Robert Koch (1870s - 1880s)
• Koch’s Postulates : German physician Robert Koch established
four criteria, known as Koch’s postulates, for proving that a
specific bacterium caused a specific disease.
• Using these principles, he discovered the bacteria responsible for
anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in 1876, tuberculosis (Mycobacterium
tuberculosis) in 1882, and cholera (Vibrio cholerae) in 1883.
• Pure Culture Techniques: Koch pioneered methods for isolating
bacteria in pure culture, including the development of agar plates,
which allowed for more precise study of bacterial colonies.
Paul Ehrlich and Antibiotics (Early 20th
Century)
• Paul Ehrlich was a German scientist who discovered the first
chemical treatment for bacterial infections. In 1909, he developed
Salvarsan, the first effective treatment for syphilis caused by the
bacterium Treponema pallidum.
• Penicillin (1928): British scientist Alexander Fleming accidentally
discovered the antibiotic penicillin, produced by the fungus
Penicillium notatum, which killed surrounding bacteria. This
discovery would revolutionize the treatment of bacterial
infections.
Overview of Bacterial Structure
• Prokaryotic Nature: Bacteria are unicellular organisms lacking a
true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Size: Typically 0.5 - 5 µm in size.
External Structures
• Cell Envelope
1. Cell Wall: Composed of peptidoglycan (in Gram-positive) or a
thinner peptidoglycan layer plus an outer membrane (in Gram-
negative bacteria).
Function: Provides rigidity, shapes the bacterium, and protects it
from osmotic pressure.
• Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):Phospholipid bilayer
responsible for selective permeability, nutrient transport, and
energy generation.
• Glycocalyx (Capsule/Slime Layer)
Capsule: Thick, organized layer around some bacteria; protects
against phagocytosis.
Slime Layer: Thin, loose, and helps with adherence to surfaces.
Flagella
Long, whip-like structures used for locomotion. Flagellar
arrangements can be monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous,
or peritrichous.
Fimbriae and Pili
Fimbriae: Short, hair-like projections for attachment to surfaces
and host cells.
Pili: Involved in the transfer of genetic material between bacteria
(conjugation).
Internal Structures of Bacteria
• Cytoplasm:Jelly-like substance where metabolic reactions occur.
• Nucleoid:
Region where bacterial DNA is located. Unlike eukaryotes, bacteria
have a single, circular chromosome without a nuclear membrane.
• Plasmids
Small, extra-chromosomal DNA molecules that often carry genes
for antibiotic resistance or virulence factors.
• Ribosomes
70S ribosomes (made of 50S and 30S subunits) responsible for
protein synthesis.
Inclusion Bodies
• Storage granules for nutrients, gases, or waste products, e.g.,
glycogen, polyphosphate granules.
Endospores (in some bacteria)
Dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structures formed by
bacteria like Bacillus and Clostridium during unfavorable
conditions. They are resistant to extreme conditions.
Specialized Structures
Magnetosomes: Organelles containing magnetic particles, found in
magnetotactic bacteria, help with navigation.
Gram
staining
techniques
Gram-Positive Bacteria
• Gram-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall that retains the
crystal violet dye during Gram staining, giving them a purple
appearance under the microscope.
Cell Envelope Components:
• Cell Wall (Peptidoglycan Layer)Thick Layer (20-80 nm):
The peptidoglycan layer is much thicker in Gram-positive bacteria
than in Gram-negative bacteria, providing strength and rigidity.
Peptidoglycan Composition: Repeating units of N-
acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM), cross-
linked by short peptide chains.
Teichoic Acids
Found only in Gram-positive bacteria.
• Wall Teichoic Acids: Covalently bonded to the peptidoglycan, they
extend outward and contribute to the overall charge and rigidity of the
cell wall.
• Lipoteichoic Acids: Anchored to the cytoplasmic membrane and span
the peptidoglycan layer. They play a role in cell wall maintenance and
ion transport.
Function:
• The thick peptidoglycan provides structural support and protection
from environmental stress, including osmotic pressure.
Cytoplasmic (Plasma) Membrane
• Located beneath the peptidoglycan layer.
• Phospholipid Bilayer: Similar to the membrane in Gram-negative
bacteria, it controls the entry and exit of substances.
• Proteins: Embedded proteins in the membrane facilitate transport
and other cellular functions.
Periplasmic Space:
In Gram-positive bacteria, this space is small and often not well
defined. It contains enzymes involved in cell wall biosynthesis.
Other External Structures:
• Capsule (if present): A polysaccharide or polypeptide outer layer
that can protect the bacterium from desiccation and immune
defenses.
• Flagella (if present): Usually simpler in structure than in Gram-
negative bacteria.
Gram-Negative Bacteria
• Gram-negative bacteria have a more complex cell envelope with a
thinner peptidoglycan layer, but an additional outer membrane.
After Gram staining, they appear pink or red because they lose the
crystal violet and take up the counterstain (safranin).
Cell Envelope Components:
Outer Membrane
Lipid Bilayer: This is unique to Gram-negative bacteria and serves
as a barrier to protect against harmful substances.
Lipoproteins
Anchor the outer membrane to the peptidoglycan.
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS):
• Composed of Lipid A (toxic component), core polysaccharide, and
O-antigen.
• Plays a key role in triggering immune responses and is a major
virulence factor in pathogens.
• LPS provides additional protection and structural integrity.
Porins:
• Protein channels that allow the passage of small molecules (e.g.,
sugars, ions).
Periplasmic Space
• Wider Space than in Gram-positive bacteria.Contains a thin layer
of peptidoglycan (1-3 nm thick) and enzymes involved in nutrient
acquisition, metabolism, and peptidoglycan assembly.Enzymes in
the periplasmic space help degrade large molecules that cannot
directly pass through the outer membrane.
Peptidoglycan Layer
Thin Layer (2-7 nm): Much thinner than in Gram-positive bacteria.
Lies within the periplasmic space between the inner and outer
membranes.
Cytoplasmic (Plasma) Membrane
• Similar to the membrane in Gram-positive bacteria, it controls
transport into and out of the cytoplasm.Contains transport
proteins, enzymes for cell wall biosynthesis, and energy
generation machinery
Structural Comparison:
Feature Gram-Positive Bacteria Gram-Negative Bacteria

Peptidoglycan Layer Thick (20-80 nm) Thin (2-7 nm)

Teichoic Acids Present (both wall teichoic and Absent

lipoteichoic acids)
Outer Membrane Absent Present

Lipoprotein/LPS Absent Present (Lipopolysaccharides

Periplasmic Space Small or absent Large, well-defined

Gram Stain Retains crystal violet (purple) Does not retain crystal violet,
stains pink
Porins Absent Present in the outer membrane

Sensitivity to Antibiotics More sensitive to antibiotics that Often more resistant due to the
target peptidoglycan outer membrane
Why the Difference in Gram Staining?
• Gram-Positive: The thick peptidoglycan layer traps the crystal
violet-iodine complex, preventing it from being washed out by
alcohol during the Gram staining procedure.
• Gram-Negative: The alcohol dissolves the outer membrane and
thin peptidoglycan layer, allowing the crystal violet-iodine
complex to escape, which leads to the uptake of the counterstain
(safranin).