Republic of the Philippines

COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY

Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No.1
Phylum Arthropods: Classes of Organisms

Introduction

The Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum of the entire animal kingdom comprising
80-85% of all animals. All animals under this group possess a certain fundamental character
that distinguished them from other phyla by having a) externally segmented bodies and
appendages; b) appendages modified for feeding, c) an exoskeleton with chitin; d) a hemocoel
instead of coelom; e) no celia on a ventral nerve cord and dorsal brain; and g) bilateral
symmetry.
Arthropods are believed to have originated from annelid-like ancestors, although
traditional forms are lacking to substantiate this hypothesis. They represented an extremely
successful group of animals for they live in the greatest variety of habitats, exhibit diverse
types of locomotion, have the widest range of structural variations, eat the greatest variety of
food, and include the greatest number of species (Elzinga, 1981).

Objectives
The students will be able to:
1. Determine the distinguishing features of the classes of organisms under Phylum
Arthropoda.
2. Show that many crawling organisms are not insects but have some characteristics in
common, and
3. Discuss the importance of these forms in relation to plants and animals.

Materials and Methods

1
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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

1. Collect the following arthropods: Any insect- Class Insecta, Shrimp or Crabs – Class
Crustacea, Spider or Mites – Class Arachnida; Millipede - Class Diplopoda; Centipedes –
Class Chilopoda
2. Observe and Locate on your specimen the following characteristics: a) segmented
body; b) Chitinous exoskeleton; and c) paired, jointed appendages
3. Draw and label the collected specimens.

Questions:
1. Discuss the importance of these different classes of arthropods in relation to plants and
animals.

2. In what ways are insects similar and different from shrimps, spiders, centipedes, and
millipedes? Tabulate your answer.

Arthropods Similarities Differences

1. Insects

2. Shrimps

3. Spiders

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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

4. Centipedes

5. Millipedes

Illustration:

3
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No.2

INSECT ORDERS AND THEIR DISTINGUISHING FEATURES

INTRODUCTION
One prerequisite to effective Insect Pest Management is proper identification of the
pests involved. Class Insecta is composed of so many species with diverse morphological
features and behavior, thus it is subdivided into orders based on easily observable
morphological features to facilitate later identification of species. Some of these important
features include the antennae, mouthparts, legs, and wings. Entomologist recognizes 28 to 29
orders (Baltazar and Salazar 1979; Mackerras 1970; Nauman1991) of insects. In this exercise,
only 14 orders, which include the majority of known species of importance to man and
agriculture, are summarized together with their important distinguishing features. These
orders are Orthoptera, Blattodea, Phasmatodea, Mantodea, Isoptera, Dermaptera, Hemiptera,
Thysanoptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and Neuroptera (Table 1). A
key to these orders also presented. The rest of the orders, their importance and
characteristics are discussed in Entomology courses. These include: Archaeognatha,
Thysanura, Ephemeroptera, Zoraptera, Grylloblattodea, Plecoptera, Embioptera, Psocoptera,
Pthiraptera, Mecoptera, Siphonaptera, Trichoptera.

In addition to easily observable morphological features, insects are also grouped

according to the different types of development that they undergo namely ametabolous,
hemimetabolous, paurometabolous, and holometabolous. In the ametabolous type, the insect
(e.g. silverfish, Order Thysanura) is primitively wingless and continues molting throughout its
adult life. Among hemimetabolous insects (e.g. dragonfly, order Odonata), the immature
(naiad) appear to be very much different from the adult. It has gills to adapt to an aquatic
habitat. Its wing and gonads are underdeveloped. Upon reaching the adult stage, which is
aerial/ terrestrial in habit, these gills are lost and the wings and gonads become fully

4
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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

developed. Among paurometabolous insects (e.g. leafhopper, Order Hemiptera), the immature
(nymph) resembles the adult in many respects and both have the same habitat. However, the
gonads and wings are underdeveloped. The latter appears only on external pads on the
thorax. The paurometabolous and hemimetabolous groupings have been abandoned by some
entomologists and the two merged under the heading hemimetabolous or incomplete/
gradual type of development. Among the holometabolous insects (e.g. butterfly, Order
Lepidoptera), the immature (larva) looks very much different from the adult and is generally
adapted to different environmental situations. Most changes in the last instar larva to the
adult are accomplished in a pupal stage. This type of development is also known as a complete
type of development (Romoser 1973; Daly et al 1998).

OBJECTIVES:

1. To identify the various types of antennae, mouthparts, legs, and wings of insects;
2. To identify the various types of development of insects and be familiar with the various
stages in each type;
3. To distinguish the different orders of insects of economic importance; and
4. To learn how to use the key in identifying the orders of insects of economic
importance.

MATERIALS:
Representative samples of insects with:
Different types of antennae
Different types of mouthparts
Different types of legs
Different types of wings
Representative samples of insects having different types of development
Representative samples of insects belonging to different order
Unknown samples of insects belonging to different orders
Stereomicroscope and forceps

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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Styrofoam
Forceps
PROCEDURE:

1. Examine the different types of insect antennae, mouthparts, legs and wings.
2. Examine samples of insects with different types of development.
3. Practice identifying unknown specimens to orders using the identification key, Table 1,
on the reference specimens on the accuracy of your identification.
4. Consult your instruction key, Table 1, references specimens and illustrations for any
misidentified specimen.

REQUIREMENT:

Identify the orders of unknown specimens to be provided by the Instructor towards

the end of the laboratory period.

Table 1. Specimens are classified into orders including their Common names, Scientific names,
Order, type of mouthparts, antenna, wings, and legs.
COMMON SCIENTIFIC ORDER TYPE OF TYPE OF TYPE OF TYPE OF
NAME NAME MOUTHPARTS ANTENNAE WINGS LEGS

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

ILLUSTRATION:

7
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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

REFERENCES:

Baltazar C. R., Salazar, N.P., 1979. Philippine Insect: An Introduction.

Quezon City: U.P. Press 138 p.
Calilung V. J., Facundo, H. T.1999 Manual for General Entomology, 2nd Ed.
Laguna, Philippines: College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Baños ,
208 p.

Castner J. L. 2000. Photographic Atlas of Entomology and Guide to Insect Identification. USA.
Feline Press, 174 p.

Daly H.V. , Doyen [Link] Purchell III A.H.1998. Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity,
2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 680 p

Mackeras, I. I. M. 1970 Evolution and Classification of the insects. In: The insects of Australia.
Hongkong: Dal Nippon Printing Co. Ltd, 1029 p

Naumann I. D., chief ed. 1991. The insects of Australia, 2 nd ed. Vols I &II. Australia: Brown Prior
Anderson Pty. Ltd, 1075 p

Romoser W. S. 1973. The Science of Entomology. USA: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. 4449 p.

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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Table 1. Major orders of insects and their distinguishing characteristics.

Order Types of Types of Mouth type or Type of wings Other distinguishing Examples
development antennae feeding organ characteristics

ODONATA Hemimetabolous Setaceous Adult: chewing 1st & 2nd Long slender Dragonflies,
naiad: chewing membranous abdomen compound damselflies
with nodus eyes large,
stigma (fig 4a) occupying most of
the head

ORTHOPTERA Paurometabolous Filiform Adult: chewing 1st tegmen 2nd Many well- Grasshoppers,
membranous developed cerci crickets, mole
Nymph; chewing
ovipositors; crickets
jumping hindlegs or
digging forelegs

BLATTODEA Paurometabolous filiform Adult: chewing 1st tegmen 2nd Body dorsal Cockroaches
nymph: chewing membranous ventrally flattened;
Termites
pronotum shield
like; walking/
running legs

PHASMATODEA Paurometabolous Filiform or Adult: chewing 1st tegmen 2nd Body twig-like or Walking sticks;
moniliform nymph: chewing membranous leaf-like leaf insects

MANTODEA Paurometabolous filiform Adult: chewing 1st tegmen 2nd Grasping forelegs Praying mantids

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nymph: chewing membranous

DERMAPTERA Paurometabolous filiform Adult: chewing 1st tegmen 2nd With a pair of Earwigs
nymph: chewing membranous forcep-like cerci
short wings

HEMIPTERA Paurometabolous Filiform or Adult: piercing- 1st hemelytron True bugs cicada,
setaceous sucking nymph: (true bags) or leafhoppers,
piercing- membranous aphids, mealybugs
sucking 2nd
membranous

THYSONOPTERA Paurometabolous filiform Adult: rasping- 1st fringe; 2nd Minute, slender- Thrips
with 2 or 3 pupa- sucking nymph: fringe bodied
like instars rasping sucking

LEPIDOPTERA Holometabolous Bipectinate Adult: siphoning 1st scaly 2nd Butterflies, moth,
or clavate nymph: chewing scaly caterpillars

COLEOPTERA Holometabolous Lamellate or Adult: chewing 1st elytron 2nd Beetles, weevils,
variable nymph: chewing membranous grubs

HYMENOPTERA Holometabolous Geniculate Adult: chewing 1st Some with Bees, wasps, ants
or filiform or chewing- membranous ovipositor modified
lapping nymph: 2nd into a sting
chewing membranous,
with hamuli

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DIPTERA Holometabolous Aristate or Adult: fly; 1st Houseflies,

variable sponging; membranous mosquitoes,
mosquito 2nd halters maggots
piercing –
sucking; larva:
pair of mouth
hooks

NEUROPTERA Holometabolous Filiform or Adult: chewing 1st Wings with many Antlions,
moniliform larva: chewing membranous cross-veins lacewings
2nd
membranous

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Key to Order of Insects of Economic Importance (Adults)

1. Wings present and variously modified……………...................................................2

Wing absent ……………………………………………………………….15
2 (1) Wings scaly, mouthparts siphoning ………………. ...LEPIDOPTERA
(Butterflies, moths, caterpillars)
Wings not scaly; mouthparts not siphoning…………………….……………..3
3(2) With one pair of functional wings, 2nd pair reduced (haltere) …...DIPTERA
(houseflies, mosquitoes)
With two pairs of functional wings……………….…………………………..4
4(3) Hindwings distinctly smaller than the forewings, with hamuli...HYMENOPTERA (in
part)
(bees, wasps, ants)
Hindwings larger or approximately of the same size with
forewings, without hamuli …………………………………………………5
5(4) mouthparts chewing ………………………… …………….…………………..6
Mouthparts sucking………………………………………………………….14
6(5) Tip of the abdomen with forceps-like cerci……….………………….…. DERMEPTERA
(earwigs)
Tip of the abdomen without veins (elytron) …………………….... COLEOPTERA
(beetles, weevils)
Forewing membranous or tegmen …………………………………. .8
8(7) with a pair of modified legs- jumping hindlegs or digging forelegs
…………………………………………………………………...ORTHOPTERA
(grasshopper, crickets, mole crickets)

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All legs of same type (running or walking, or if forelegs
Modified, not on the digging type……………………………………….…...9
9(8) Forewing with nodus and stigma ………………………………..ODONATA
(dragonflies, damselflies)
Forewing without nodus stigma ……………………………….…...10
10(9) Body stick-line or leaf like…………………………..…PHASMATODEA (in part)
(walking sticks, leaf insects)
Body not stick- line nor leaf-line ……………..……………………………11
11(10) Forelegs grasping)…………………………………..………MANTODEA
(praying mantids
Forelegs not grasping…………………………….………………………….12
12(11) Body dorso- ventraly flattened; pronotum shield-like…...BLATTODEA
(Cockroaches)
Body cylindrical, not dorso ventrally flattened; pronotum not shield-like
……………………………………………………………………...13
13(12) Wings with a few cross-veins; tarsi 4-segmentd…………… ISOPTRA (in part)
Termites
Wings with numerous cross-veins; tarsi 5 segmented………. NEUROPTERA
(Antlions, lacewings
14(5) Forewing fringe type ………………………………..THYSANOPTERA
(Thrips)
Forewing hemelytron or fully membranous (pigmented or Unpigmented)
……………………………………………….…..HEMIPTERA (in part)
(true bugs, cicada, leafhoppers, aphids)

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15 (1) Body stick-like………………………………………..PHASMATODEA (in part) (walking
sticks)
Body not stick-like……………………………………………..……………16
16(15) Antennae moniliform ………………………….…….ISOPTERA (in part)
(termites)
Antennae filiform …………………………………………….…...HEMIPTERA (in part)
(aphids, mealybugs, scale insects)
Antennae geniculate …………………………..HYMENOPTERA (in part) (ants)

14
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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 3
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECTS

Introduction
One of the best ways to learn about insects is to go out and collect them; handling
them and preparing collections will reveal to the student many things he will not get from
textbooks. Many people find the collection and study of insects an extremely interesting
hobby for it provides not only the satisfaction that comes being in the field, but also the
satisfaction of learning at first hand.

The student will develop much more interest in insects by collecting and hauling
them than he will by merely looking at pictures or preserved specimens. He will have seen
the specimens alive, and thus gain an insight

Objectives:
The students will be able to:
1. Prepare and construct the necessary insect-collecting equipment;
2. Collect representative Samples of insect orders from their respective habitats; and
3. Properly preserve collected specimens for future reference and study.

Materials and Methods

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Insect Net
Killing Jar
Larvae, pupa, and soft-bodied insects mentioned in the texts
Insect pins
Pinning block
White cartolina (for card point and label)
Colorless nail polish
Vials (with 70% ethyl alcohol)
Styrofoam
Fine-pointed forceps
Fine-pointed laboratory scissors
Millimeter ruler
drawing pencil

A. Collecting Equipment
Examples below are some of the equipment used in collecting insects depending on
the insect group one is interested in. Other materials used in the collection are enumerated
by Calilung (1990).

1. Insect Net. There are three useful types of insect nets. first is for collecting aquatic
insects called dip nets; the other for collecting insects are called air nets and
the third is the sweeping net which is used in collecting insects in heavy grass
and underbrush.
2. Killing jars. Insects should be killed in jars containing some poisonous substance if they
are intended to be preserved and kept for a long time. Some materials that can
be used as toxic agents in a killing jar are potassium, sodium or calcium
cyanide, ethyl acetate, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. Cyanide,
however, is the most preferred because it can kill insects quickly and last a

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

long time. Cyanide crystals and their fumes are extremely poisonous, so great
care should be exercised in labeling the jars “Poison” or “Poisonous Fumes”.
Cyanide jars are made of about ¼ - ½ inch potassium or sodium cyanide in the
bottom of the jar, covered with ½ -3/4 inch dry fine sawdust, 1/8 – ¼ inch dry
plaster of Paris, blotting paper, and strips of paper to absorb moisture.
3. Vials of Preservative. These are needed in collecting soft-bodied and aquatic insects,
and immature forms of insects. The most common preservative used is alcohol
although other kinds of preservative mixtures are also used.
4. Paper envelopes. These are needed for the temporary storage of hard-bodied insects.

B. Pinning
Pinning is the best way to preserve hard-bodied insects. Pinned specimens that are
kept well, retain their normal appearance and are easily handled and studied. The color
often fades when the insect dries, but it is difficult to avoid; bright colors are generally
better preserved if the specimens are dried rapidly.

Common pins are undesirable for pinning insects. They are usually too thick and too
short, and they rust. Insects should be pinned with a special type of steel pin known as an
insect pin. These pins are longer than common pins, they can be obtained in various sizes
(thickness) and they do not rust. Insect-pin sizes range from 00 to 7; the smaller size (that
is, smaller in diameter) are too slender for general use, for which sizes 2 and 3 are the best.
These pins may be obtained from various supply houses.

Methods of Pinning Insects

Insects are usually pinned through the body.

1. Bees, wasps, flies, butterflies, and moths are pinned through the thorax between the
bases of the front wings.
2. Flies and wasps are desirably pinned a little to the right of the midline.

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

3. Bees are pinned through the scutellum, a little to the right of the midline if the
scutellum is large.
4. Grasshoppers are pinned through the posterior part of the pronotum just to the
right of the midline.
5. Beetles should be pinned through the right elytron, about halfway between the two
ends of the body; the pin should go through the right metathorax and emerge
through the metasternum so as not to damage the bases of the legs.
6. Dragonflies and damselflies are best pinned horizontally through the thorax, with
the left side uppermost.
Insect Group Sketch Diagram Pinning Region
Grasshoppers, crickets, Pronotum
Preying mantids, and
cockroaches

Bugs (most of the Scutellum

Hemipterans)

Beetles and weevils Right elytra

(Coleopterans)

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Dragonfly, damselfly, Thorax
antlion, green lacewings fly,
Moths, butterfly bees,
wasps, ants
and true flies etc.

C. Mounting of Small Insects

Insects too small to pin may be mounted on a card-point on a minuten pen or on a

microscope slide, or they may be preserved in liquid. Most small specimens are mounted
on points.

Points are elongated triangular pieces of light cardboard or celluloid, about 8 or 10

mm long and 3 to 4 mm wide at the base. The point is pinned through the base, and the
insect is glued to the tip of the point. Points can be cut with scissors, or they can be cut
with a special type of punch (obtainable from supply houses).

Putting an insect on a point is a very simple process. The point is put on the pin, the
pin a grasped by the pointed end, the upper side of the tip of the point is touched to the
glue and then touched to the insect. One should use as little glue as possible (so that the
body parts are not covered by it), and the specimen should be correctly oriented on the
point.

The glue used in mounting insects on points should be quick-drying and should be
quite hard when it is set. A good type of glue to use is commercial glue (not paste or
mucilage), or household cement. Glue is useful in repairing specimens and replacing
broken-off wings or legs.

The Standard Position of an Insect Mounted on Point:

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1. Bug on point is dorsal side up. Beetles mounted point should not extend beyond the
middle of the body.
2. Fly on point is left side up.
3. Beetle mounted is dorsal side up. Beetle mounted points should always have the
ventral side of the body visible.
4. Wasps and other insects in which the wings are extended above the body are best
mounted on their side.

D. Preservation of Insects in Fluids

Any type of insect can be preserved in fluid. Insects may be preserved in fluid
temporarily until one has an opportunity to pin them, and many collectors prefer to store
their collection in fluid rather than dried in envelopes or pill boxes. However, specimens
preserved in fluids are usually not so easily examined as those on pins or points, and in
general, any insect that can be preserved dry should be mounted on a pin or point.

The fluid generally used for the preservation of insects and other arthropods is ethyl
alcohol (70 to 80%).

The forms for which preservation in fluids is the standard of preservation consist of
the following:

1. Soft-bodied insects (i.e. mayflies, caddisflies, stoneflies, midges, and others)

which would shrivel and become distorted if pinned and allowed to dry.
2. Many very small insects are best studied in detail when mounted on a
microscope and other
3. Insect larvae and most insect nymphs.
4. Arthropods other than insects.

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E. Labeling

The scientific value of an insect specimen depends to a large extent on the

information regarding the date and locality of its capture, and to a lesser extent on such
additional information as the name of the collector and the habitat or food plant on which
the specimen is collected; additional data are desirable but optional.

The appearance of a collection of pinned insects is greatly influenced by the nature

of the labels. Small, neat, and properly oriented labels should be done to the collection.
They should be on a fairly stiff white paper, and preferably not larger than 6 by 9 mm in
size. They should be at uniform height on the pin, parallel to and underneath the insect.
One label only is placed about 16 mm above the point of the pin, or if more than one label is
used, the uppermost one should be oriented so that all are read from one side, but most
people prefer that they be read from the left side. In the case of the specimens mounted on
points, the label should extend parallel and arranged to be read from the same.

Labels indicating locality, host, date, and collector may be printed by hand with a
fine-pointed pen. The size of the print will determine the size of the labels.

Labels for specimens preserved in fluids should be written on a good grade or rags
paper with India or other waterproof ink, and place the container with the specimen.

Requirements:
Each Student must submit the following:
1. Pinned insects with labels – 20 individuals
2. Insects mounted on points with labels – 5 individuals
3. Insects preserved in 70% alcohol with labels – 5 vials (soft-bodied insects)

21
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Input each specimen with the Local Name, Common name, Scientific Name, Order, and
Host/Predator/Parasitoid, and check for curation and label completeness.
Specimen Local Name Common Scientific name Order Host Plant/Predator
Name (Italized) /Parasitoid
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

20.

Illustration:

Observation:

Conclusion:

References:

Calilung, V.C. J. 1999. Manual for General Entomology. 2nd Ed. Dept. of Entomology, UPLB,
Philippines. 198 pp.
Fuentes, J. C., et al. 1993. Laboratory Manual for Principles of Entomology. Dept. of
Entomology, College of Agriculture, USM, Kabacan, Cotabato. 46 pp.

23
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ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Ross, H. H. 1967. A Textbook of Entomology. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. N. Y., London,
Sydney, ix-529 pp.

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 5.1
PESTS OF CROPS AND THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES

INTRODUCTION

Insects and some vertebrates are labeled “pests’ when these conflict with human
interests or affect their welfare. The term ‘pest’ is defined purely from the anthropocentric
viewpoint and has no particular biological or ecological meaning. In terms of biological
diversity, they constitute very much less than 1 % of the whole organic diversity. Pests of
crop plants consist mostly of arthropods (insects and mites), a few mollusks (snails), and
rodents. They caused plant damage by their feeding habits. Snails chew portions of plants,
mites suck plant saps, rodents chew grains, plant parts, and roots, and insects chew or suck
sap of plants.

Both immature and adult Paurometabolous insects are destructive since they share
the same habits and habitats. Examples of these include the orders Orthoptera and
Hemiptera. For holometabolous orders such as Lepidoptera and Diptera, only the
immatures are destructive while the adults are usually nectar and/ or pollen feeders. Of
course, there are some exceptions to the rule. In the holometabolous order of Coleoptera,
for example, both the phytophagous adults and immature are destructive. The adults and
immature other pest species such as rodents, snails, and mites are destructive.

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Damages by chewing pests are characterized by portions of the crop plants eaten
out such as holes or mine leaves, flowers, and stems. Feeding damage by sucking insects
and mites is indicated by spotted discoloration of plant parts. In addition, their feeding may
cause wilting, discoloration, curling, and sometimes the formation of galls on leaves and
stems. Sucking insects may also serve as vectors of some plant pathogens. Precise
identification of pest species is the key to their proper management. It opens up a wealth of
information that is available about the particular pest species such as feeding habits,
distribution, seasonal abundance, and natural enemies.

Pest species consume crop plants and they, in turn, are attacked by other organisms
specifically parasitoids, predators, or pathogens. These beneficial organisms that consume
or kill pests of crop plants are generally referred to as natural enemies. They regulate or
suppress pest populations and, in some cases, they are significant factors in reducing pest
populations. Natural enemies are considered vital in any pest management scheme, and
due considerations are recognized to enhance their activities and increase their population.
This exercise is good for two meetings.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To observe the feeding and corresponding damage to crops of live insects with
chewing and piercing-sucking type of mouthparts;
2. To familiarize the students with the common invertebrate and vertebrate pest
species and their corresponding damage to major crop plants;
3. To observe the feeding behavior of live predators; and
4. To familiarize the students with the pest’s natural enemies.

MATERIALS:

Ocular equipment’s
Hand lens
Stereo microscope

25
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Demonstration materials
Live insects with chewing mouth type and their food
(e.g. grasshopper and corn leaves)
Live insects with piercing-sucking mouth types and their food
(e.g. cotton stainer and okra fruit)
Pest collections
Plant parts damaged by specific pests
Live predators and their corresponding prey
(e.g. praying mantids and small grasshoppers; coccinellid beetles and aphids)
Live parasitoids and their host
(e.g. Trichogramma sp. On Corcyra eggs)
Collections of natural enemies

PROCEDURE:
1. Observe the feeding behavior of live grasshoppers and cotton stainers. Note how
they use their mouthparts to consume the food. Note how specific mouthparts
create damage to the plant parts.
2. Examine demonstration specimens of invertebrate and vegetable pests of major
crops and examples of feeding damage of these pests.
3. Watch how predators (e.g. praying mantid, coccinellid beetles) catch and consume
their prey.
4. Examine demonstration specimens of natural enemies.
5. Augment personal observation specimens of pests and natural enemies by obtaining
information from available publications.

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Input each specimen with the common name, scientific name, crop name, Damage, and their
predator or parasitoid, and check for curation and label completeness.
Pest Common Scientific name Crops Damage Prey or
Name (Italized) Parasitoid
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Illustration

Observation:

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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Conclusion

REQUIREMENT:
At the end of the laboratory session, submit your written observations on the
feeding behavior of the live specimens observed. Focus your report on the relationship
between the different mouthparts and the damage they cause to plant parts.

REFERENCES:

ARTHROPOD PESTS

Amalin, DM. Vasquez, E.A. 1993. A book on Philippine Sweet Potato Arthropods Pests and
Their Natural Enemies, Potato Research Training Center, Visayas State
College of Agriculture, Philippine Root Crop and Training Center. 82 p
Esguerra, NM, Gabriel, BP. 1969. Insect Pests of Vegetable. Technical Bull 25: U.P. Los
Baños. 86p.

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 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Cendaña, SM. Gabriel BP, Magallona, ED. 1984. Insect Pests of Fruit Crops in the Philippines.
U.P. Los Baños 60 p.
Gabriel, BP 1971. Insect Pests on Field Corn. Technical Bull. 26 p. U.P Los Baños 60 p.
Gabriel, BP 1976. Pests of Coconut in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Coconut Studies
1:15-25 p.

Mueller, KE 1993. Field Problems of Tropical Rice. International Rice Research Institute.
169
Reissig, WH., Henrich, EH, Litsinger, JA, Moody KF, Fiddle, RL, Mew, TE, Barrion, AT. 1985.
Guide to the Integrated Pest Management on Rice. International Research
Institute, Los Baños, Laguna 411 p.
Shepard, BM, Barrion, AT, Litsinger, JA 1995. Rice Feeding Insects of Tropical Asia,
International Rice Research Institute 228 p.

NATURAL ENEMIES
Debach, PH and Rosen, D. 1991. Biological Control of Natural Enemies, 2 nd ed. London &
New York Cambridge University Press. 440p.
Koni, KL, Deogracias, L, Amend, J. 1993 Mass Rearing and Utilization of Diadegma
semiclausum. Philippines- German Biological Plant Protection Project, Bureau
of Plat and Industry. 18p.
Koni KL, Ateano L, Bustamante R. 1992. Manual for Mass Rearing Trichogramma.
Philippines- German Biological Control Plant Protection Project, Bureau of
Plant Industry. 18p.
Shepard BM, Barrion AT, Litsinger JA. 1987. Friends of the Rice Farmer, Helpful Insects,
Spiders and Pathogens. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,
Laguna. 127p.
UPLB. Undated. Crop Protection I Laboratory Manual. College, Laguna.

29
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 5
FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON CROP PESTS

INTRODUCTION
In the last exercise, the students learned the concept of pests, examined specimens
of pests and the characteristics of damage that each inflicts on crops, and observed some
representative pests and natural enemies feed on the plant parts and prey, respectively. All
of the live and preserved materials were provided for the student and observed/examined
under laboratory conditions. However, preserved specimens may not look the same as
when alive, and live ones under artificial environments may exhibit behaviors different
from those in natural settings.
In this exercise, the students shall be allowed to watch insects and other organisms
that they earlier studied in the laboratory, in their natural habitats. This exercise shall be
considered as a field of application of what students learned in the previous exercises.
Specially, the students are expected to:

OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify the most common pests for at least one cropping system and determine the
injurious stage (s) of each;

30
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

2. Recognize damage(s) or symptom(s) associated with and relate them to the mouth
type and/or behavior of each pest species;
3. Distinguish between pests and natural enemies in the field; and,
4. Describe the observed feeding behavior (and others like mating and oviposition) of
specific organisms in the field

MATERIALS NEEDED:

Field notebook insect net

Pen killing jar
Magnifying lens vial with 70% ethanol
Pocketknife field clothes
Forceps container of specimens (plastic tray or bag,
Optional
PROCEDURE:

1. Before leaving the classroom, organize yourselves into a group of 3 or 4. Each group
shall prepare the needed materials listed above.
2. The instructor shall bring the class to a corn, rice, or vegetable production site, or
preferably an area where a variety of crops are available (e.g. intercrop system).
3. Locate insects (and other organisms of interest) and identify the order, stage of
development (larva, nymph, adult, etc), and if possible, the common and binomial
scientific name of each species found. It may be necessary to use a pocketknife to
expose the insect inside the stem or use a magnifying glass to see minute ones.
4. Closely observe feeding insect pests and note the resulting damage to the crop.
Watch how they use their mouthparts to secure and imbibe food. Also watch other
activities such as mating, flying, walking, perching, etc. that might interest you. Your
patience and perseverance may be rewarded with new insights into how insects

31
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

behave in the field. Do the same for natural enemies and their interaction with
respective prey/hosts.
5. Find and observe as many species as possible, focusing on the major pests and
natural enemies. Differentiate damages or symptoms associated with the various
major pests. Examine how each species or the different stages of each feed.
6. Write all your observations in your field notebook. Use terms that you learned from
previous exercises to refer to insect body parts as well as different types of legs,
wings, etc. Utilize verbs, adjectives, and adverbs commonly used by laymen to
describe what you see.
7. You may use the insect net to sweep vegetation to catch insects and then sort them
as pests, natural enemies, or other (pollinators, detritivores, etc.). You may want to
save specimens of insects, damaged plant parts, etc. for the purpose of specimen
determination/ validation or as reference materials for the exam.
8. Towards the end of the laboratory session, each group shall give an oral report
focusing on the following:
a. the species (binomial scientific name, order and/or common name) of pests
and natural enemies (and other categories) found in the field;
b. the characteristic damage inflicted on the crop by each pest;
c. observed impact of natural enemies on the pests; and,
d. a first-hand account of the behaviors observed on at least five pests or
natural enemies encountered in the site(s) visited as well as some
comparisons/contrasts between these and what were observed in the
laboratory in the previous exercise.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:

The following guide may also be useful in preparing for your oral presentation:

1. What are the pests of the crop(s) examined? What makes you categorize these as
pests?
2. Are all stages of an insect pest injurious to the crop? How can one determine
which stage is damaging?
3. What is the relationship between the mouth type of an insect pest and the injury
it can cause to the plant?

32
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

References:

Debach, PH and Rosen, D. 1991. Biological Control of Natural Enemies, 2 nd ed. London &
New York Cambridge University Press. 440p.

Koni KL, Deogracias L, Amend J. 1993. Mass Rearing and Utilization of Diadegma
semiclausum. Philippines- German Biological Plant Protection Project, Bureau
of Plat and Industry. 18p.

Koni KL, Ateano L, Bustamante R. 1992. Manual for Mass Rearing Trichogramma.
Philippines- German Biological Control Plant Protection Project, Bureau of
Plant Industry. 18p.

Reissig, WH., Henrich EH, Litsinger, JA, Moody K, Fiddle RL, Mew TE, Barrion AT. 1985.
Guide to the Integrated Pest Management on Rice. International Research
Institute, Los Baños, Laguna 411 p.

Shepard, BM, Barrion, AT, Litsinger, JA 1995. Rice Feeding Insects of Tropical Asia,
International Rice Research Institute 228 p.

33
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Shepard, BM, Barrion, AT, Litsinger JA. 1987. Friends of the Rice Farmer, Helpful Insects,
Spiders and Pathogens. International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños,
Laguna. 127p.

UPLB. Undated. Crop Protection I Laboratory Manual. College, Laguna.

Worksheet
Pest Common Scientific name Crops Injurious stage Damage (s) or
Name (Italized) (s) symptoms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Observation:

34
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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Conclusion:

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 6

Insect Damage Assessment on Crop

Introduction

Accurate assessment of the damage done by insects is one of the necessary

protocols upon which to base decisions for pest management actions. The host plant has to
be observed and studied in detail to see exactly what and where the damage is in relation
to the major pests by which it is attacked. The upper, underside, and edges of the leaf,
whorl, buds, flowers, fruits, seeds, stems, under bark and even the roots have to be
examined to avoid underestimation or overestimations of damage potential.

The nature of the damage done by insect pests varies on the type of mouthparts they
possess. Removal of a portion of a plant part their whole part or even the whole plant
indicates the chewing type mouthparts of the insect pests. The presence of punctures,
curling, wrinkling, necrosis, or drying of the plant part or whole plant indicates the
presence of the pest with piercing-sucking type mouthparts.

Objectives:

35
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

At the end of the activity, the students should have acquired:

1. The skills to relate damage on plants with the type of mouthparts of the insects that
cause damage.
2. The ability to qualify and quantify damage level done by insects on host plants

Materials:

Field plot plan, plant sampling form, rearing cups or jars, empty glass jar with
screw-capped cover, insect net, rubber bands, forceps, hand lens, acetone, 70% alcohol,
record notebook, pencil, labeling materials, waist bag, leaf disc cutter, cooler camera
stereomicroscope.

Procedure:

Each group (5 students) is given an option as to what activity to perform.

Option 1. Leaf Damage Assessment on Corn

The students will be brought to the field with standing corn plants.

Three (3) 10x10 m2 plots will be established per group of students. Each plot will have a
distance of about ten (10) meters from each other.

Within each plot, select ten plants at random as sample plants. To assess leaf
damage done by herbivores, leaf damage will be assessed following the leaf injury rating in
Table 2.1. Fill out Table 2.2. in worksheet no. 2.1.

Table 1. Leaf injury rating scale (at early {30 DAP} and late whorl {50 DAP} STAGES
(Guthrie et al., 1960)

36
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Score Rating Description
1 Highly Resistant No visible injury or a small amount of pain or fine
shot-hole type of injury on a few leaves
2 A small amount of shot hole-type lesions on a few
leaves
3 Resistant Shot hole injury common to several leaves
4 Several leaves with shot holes and elongated lesions
5 Intermediate Several leaves with elongated lesions
6 Susceptible Several leaves with elongated lesions about 2.5 cm
7 Long lesions are common on about one half of the
leaves
8 Highly Susceptible Long lesions commonly on about 2/3 of the leaves
9 Most leaves with long lesions

Option 2. Leaf Damage Assessment on Leguminous Crops

The students will be brought to the field with standing leguminous plants.

Three (3) 5x5 m2 plot will be established per group of students. Each plot will have a
distance of about five (5) meters from each other.

Within each plot, select three (3) plants at random as sample plants. To assess leaf
damage done by herbivores, see Figure 1 for leaf injury rating. Fill out table 2.3 in
worksheet no. 2.2.

In the common form of damage on leguminous or other crops caused by leaf eating,
the lamina removed or tissue loss can be measured and expressed as a percentage of the
total area. The decision however will be based on knowledge of the economic threshold for
defoliation. Since only the damage threshold level for soybeans is available at hand, it is
presented here as a model (figure 2.1). estimate of defoliation for other crops can be based
on the illustrations below but cannot proceed to control consideration due to the absence
of established economic threshold levels upon which to base decisions.

To estimate defoliation on soybeans, the following procedure is recommended:

1. Pick a trifoliate leaf from the top, middle, and low third of 10 randomly selected
plants. (it is suggested that one carry a plastic bag for the collection of foliage so that
damage assessment may be made at one time).

37
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

2. From each trifoliate discard the most and least damaged leaflets. At this point, one
should have 30 leaflets upon which the defoliation estimate will be based.
3. Compare the selected leaflets to the illustration below and record the average level
of defoliation.

Figure 2.1. Representative insect defoliation levels of soybean leaflets (From Mike Gray,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in Extension filed and Forage Crops of
Pennsylvania, accessed August 2015).

Soybean Development Economic threshold for

defoliation
Pre-bloom (i.e., vegetative stages) 30%
Bloom to pod-fill 15%
Pod-fill to maturity (unless pod feeding observed) 25%

Option 3. Damage Assessment on a Crop of Student Choice

Select a particular commodity and evaluate the damage done by insects on it. You
may follow the procedure in options 1 and 2 or prepare your own methodology. You may
consult your instructor/professor on this.

References:

GUTHRIE, W.D. F.F. DICKE AND C.K. NEISWANDER. 1960. LEAF AND Sheath feeding
resistance to the European Corn borer in 8 inbred lines of dent corn. Ohio Agriculture
Experiment Station Research Bulletin 860.

Hill, D.S. 1997. THE Economic Importance of Insects. Chapman and Hall.

HEINRICHS, E.A. (ed.). 1994. Biology and Management of Rice Insects. Wiley Eastern
Limited, India.

IRRI, 2014. Training on Basic Insect and Spider Identification Manual.

JERVIS, M.A (ed.). 2005. Insect as Natural Enimies. A practical Perspective. Springer, The
Netherlands.

38
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

SHEPARD, B.M., A.T. BARRION and J.A. Litsinger. 2000. Helpful insects, Spiders an
Pathogens. IRRI, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

SHEPARD,B.M., G.R. CARNER, [Link], P.A.C. 00I and H. VAN DEN BERG. 1999.
Insects and their Natural Enemies Associated with Vegetables and Soybean in Southeast
Asia. Quality Printing Company, USA.

TOOKER, J., accessed 2015. Assesting Soybean Fields for Insects Damage Penn State
Agronomy Guide, Soybean Pest Management. Penn State College of Agriculture Sciences.

TRIPLEHORN, C.A. and N.C. JOHNSON. 2005. Borror and Delongs Introduction to the Study
of Insects . 6th ed. Thompson Learning, USA.

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 6
Insect Damage Assessment

Worksheet No. 1

Plant No. Score Rating Description

(Average of 3 plants)
1,1,1
2,2,2
3,3,3
4,4,4
5,5,5
6,6,6
7,7,7
8,8,8
9,9,9

39
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

10,10,10
Average

Make a list of insects observe and determine the characteristic damage done on corn
plants.

Insect Pest Development Stage Characteristic Damage on

Corn
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Discuss the above results.

Conclusion:

40
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 6
Insect Damage Assessment

Worksheet No. 2
Table 2.3. Leaf damage rating on _______________________ plant

Plant No. Score Rating Description

(Average of 3 plants)
Top leaves
1,1,1
2,2,2

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

3,3,3
Average
Middle leaves
1,1,1
2,2,2
3,3,3
Average
Low third
leaves
1,1,1
2,2,2
3,3,3
Average
Total

Make a list of insects observe and determine the characteristic damage done on__________
plant.

Insect Pest Development Stage Characteristic Damage on

Corn
1
2
3

Discuss the above results.

Conclusions for option 2:

Table 2.4. Damage rating on a plant of the student’s choice (lay out your own table, discuss
results, and make the corresponding conclusion.

42
 Republic of the Philippines
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Illustration:

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 7
Rearing of Insects
Introduction
Collections should take every opportunity to rear insect since reared specimens are
generally in the best possible conditions as well as provide the life stages that otherwise might be
collected only rarely or with great difficulty. By preserving one or more specimens from each of
the stages as they are reared, if sufficient number is available, the collector can obtain series of
immature stages along with associated adults. Such series are desirable, especially for species in
which the adult is known but the immature stages are unknown or difficult to identify.
Conversely, some species of insects such as stem-mining flies are fairly abundant in the larval

43
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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

stage but have never been reared to the adult stage. Since adults of these flies are seldom found,
the earliest way to obtain stage necessary for specific determination is to rear the larvae or pupae.
Moreover, the rearing of destructive insects provides the idea as to how, what, when, and where
control measures will be implemented. On the other hand, rearing beneficial ones is also
encouraged for mass production.
Objectives:
At the end of the rearing period, the students shall be able to:
1. Obtain samples of the different life stages of the reared insects
2. Provide a record of the habits and biology/life history of reared insects; and
3. Describe the external characteristics of the different life stages of the reared insects
Materials:
Inspect species to be reared, rearing containers, natural food for specimens, brushes,
tissue papers.
Procedure:
A. Containers for rearing
To rear specimen successfully, simulate as closely as possible in the rearing cages the natural
conditions under which the immature stages are found. Almost any container will serve as
temporary cage for living insects. One simple temporary cage is a paper bag. Plant material or a
soil sample containing insects is placed in the paper bag which is then sealed. A paper bag can be
placed over the top of the plant on which the insects are around. The bottom edge of the bag is
tied tightly around the exposed stems, which are cut and placed in a jar of water.
Another simple temporary cage is a glass jar with its lid replaced by a piece of organdy cloth
or gauze held in place by a rubber band. For aquatic insects are to be transported over a
considerable distance, fewer will die if the jar is packed with wet moss or leaves than if the
specimens are allowed to slosh around in water alone. After arrival at your destination, release
the insects into a good rearing container.
Aquatic insects can be reared at their natural habitat by confining them in a wire screen or
gauze cage, part of which is submerged in water. Be sure to anchor the cage securely. The screen
used should be coarse enough to allow the food to flow through, yet fine enough to retain insects
reared.
A flowerpot cage is one of the best containers for rearing plant feeding species over an
extended period. The host plant, if its size and habitat permit, is placed in a flowerpot, and a
cylinder glass, plastic or wire screen is placed around the plant. Another type of flowerpot cage

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

is inserting a cane or stick taller than the plant into the soil in the pot. One end of net or muslin
tube is fitted over the edge of the pot and is held in place by a string. The other end of the tube is
tied around the top of the stick. An advantage of the flowerpot cage is that the plant is living, and
fresh material need not to be added daily.
An emergence box works well for rearing adults from larvae living in debris, soil, excrement,
and other materials. This material containing the larvae is placed in the box, which then closed
tightly. When the adults emerge, they are attracted to light coming into the box through the vial
and go into the vial.
The best way to rear some insects is to leave them in their habitat and cage them there.
B. Rearing Conditions
When rearing insect indoors, make sure that the conditions of the temperature and humidity
are satisfactory and that sufficient food and water are provided.
Most species can be held at normal room temperature; the optimum temperature for rearing
will vary from species to species and with different stages of the same species. Never place an
enclosed rearing cage in direct sunlight, the heat becomes too intense and may kill the specimen.
Moisture can be added to indoor rearing cage in several ways. To increase the humidity in
cage, keep a moist pad of cotton on top of the screen cover of the cage, or place a moist sponge
or a small glass vial is plugged with cotton and the vial laid on its side so the cotton remains
moist.
Too much moisture may result in water condensation on the sides of the cage; which may
trap the specimens and damage or kill them. Excess moisture also enhances the growth of mold
and fungus which is detrimental to the development of most insects. A 2-3% solution of table
salt sprayed regularly in the cage will help prevent mold and fungus growth. The choice of food
depends on the species being reared. Some species are general feeders and will accept assortment
of food, while the other groups are specific feeders, with food preferences so restricted that only
a single species of plant or animal is acceptable. Carefully note at that time of collection the food
being consumed by the specimen and the same food in the rearing cages.
C. Rearing Precautions
1. Do not overcrowd the caged specimens for they might resort to cannibalism.
2. Disease problem can be caused by introducing an unhealthy specimen into the
colony, poor sanitary conditions, lack of food or overcrowding.
3. Cages should be cleaned frequently and all dead or clearly unhealthy specimens
removed.

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

4. Carefully examine the host material when it is brought indoors and before it is placed
in the rearing containers to lessen the possibility of the predators and parasites being
introduced accidentally.
5. Place rearing cages where they will be safe from ants, mice, cat and other predators.
Observation
Keep careful notes throughout the rearing period so that all data relative to the biology of the
species are properly correlated. Submit a written report at the end of the rearing period together
with samples at the different life stages of the insects reared.
Life History Data
1. Food – plant (name of species when known)
2. Time and date of oviposition, if seen
3. Number of eggs laid by females, if known. Laid singly or laid in clusters.
4. Place oviposition: e.g., pods, flower heads, tips of the fronds, undersides of leaves or
trunks.
5. Brief description of egg – shape, color, size and other characteristics.
6. Number of days incubation if known, date of hatching.
7. Description of color of the newly hatched larvae.
8. Observed feeding habits: e.g., young shoots only, night feeder, in web, gregarious or
solitary.
9. Number of days per larval instar, if this can be recorded.
10. Number of larval instars, if this can be recorded.
11. Description of fully-grown larvae (sketch of photo if possible)
12. Total length in days of larval stages.
13. Pre-pupation activity: e.g., spinning web on bark, in leaves, in leaf litter, etc.
14. Date of pupation.
15. Description of pupa.
16. Date of emergence into adult.
17. Number of males and females, if distinguishable.
18. Number of larvae which did not reach adult stage, and reason why, e.g., fungus,
unidentified diseases, parasitized, etc.
REQUIREMENT:
At the end of the laboratory session, submit your written observations on the life history
of insects. You can also discuss some reflections, what are the lessons learned, what are the
advantages and what are the challenges encountered in doing this laboratory exercise. Cite also
references you used in the conduct of this activity.

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 Republic of the Philippines
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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Observation:

Illustration:

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 Republic of the Philippines
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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Conclusion:

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 8
Understanding the Insecticide Label

Introduction

Insecticides are chemicals or a mixture of substances intended to prevent, destroy,

repose, or mitigate any insect that may infest vegetation, man, or animals. Insecticides
remain the first line of defense when insect damage reaches economic levels. In insect pest

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 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Management, insecticides will continue to be a vital part of the program serving as the
stopgap or the method of last resort in keeping the insect pest from damaging the crop.

An insecticide label is the written, printed, or graphic material firmly attached to a

product container. It contains the best source of information concerning the safe and
effective use of an insecticide. Regulations governing the registration of insecticides are
such that even the most highly toxic material can be used safely and effectively if one
follows label directions. On the other hand, even the least poisonous insecticide can be a
hazard to people and the environment if it is not used properly.

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, the students have:

1. A ready understanding of the different pieces of information found on a given
insecticide label.
2. The ability to convey essential safety information and use recommendations found
on insecticide labels

Materials: Different samples of insecticide labels for use on crops

Procedure:

Examine ten (10) insecticide labels and give the information on the label. The
information to be collected and recorded should include the following:

1. Trade or band name – each company has brand names for its products. It is the most
prominent lettering on the label.

2. Active ingredient – is usually the generic name of the actual pesticide on the label.

3. Formulation – is the active ingredient pesticide plus emulsifier, inert powders, or

clay particles so that the product can be applied most effectively. See pages 24-27 of
your lecture manual for the descriptions of the different insecticide forms.

4. Color bands – the most toxic chemicals are color-coded red, followed by yellow,
blue, and green–banded, in decreasing degree of toxicity.

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

5. Direction for use – contains the instruction on how to use the insecticide; indicates
the pest to which the product is registered to control, the crop on which the product
can be used, the form in which the product should be applied, how much to use,
where the material should be applied and when it should be applied and how
frequently.

References:

HEONG, K.L., K.H. TAN, C.P.F. GARCIA, Z. LIU and Z. LU. 2013. Research Methods in Toxicicty
abd Insecticide Resistance Monitoring of Rice Plantthoppers. 2nd ed. Los Baños Philippines;
International Rice Research Institute. 145p.

SPENCER, T. AND H. WIILCUTT. 2010. Farm Chemical Safety Series. Mississippi State
University. Date Retrieved: October 4, 2011.
[Link]

UN ECONOMIC and SOCIAL COMMISION for ASIA and the PACIFIC. Agro-Pesticides.
Properties and Functions in Integrated Crop Protection.

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 8

Understanding the Insecticide Label

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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Worksheet No. 1

Brand Name Active formulation color Insect Pest

ingredient Applied
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Observation:

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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Conclusion:

Illustration: (attached Insecticide labels)

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 8
Understanding the Insecticide Label

52
 Republic of the Philippines
COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Worksheet No. 2

What other pieces of information can you get from the insecticide label? (Define or
describe):

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Name: ___________________________________ Date Performed: ____________________

Course and Year: _______________________ Score: ________________________________

Entomology
Exercise No. 9
Pesticide Formulation and Calculations; and Calibration

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

of Application Equipment

Introduction

Pesticide Formulations

A pesticide formulation is a mixture of chemicals that effectively controls a pest. Formulating a

pesticide involves processing it to improve its storage, handling, safety, application, or
effectiveness.

The pesticide formulation is a mixture of active and other ingredients (previously called inert
ingredients). An active ingredient is a substance that prevents, kills, or repels a pest or acts as a
plant regulator, desiccant, defoliant, synergist, or nitrogen stabilizer. Pesticides come in many
different formulations due to variations in the active ingredient's solubility, ability to control the
pest, and ease of handling and transport.

Synergists are a type of active ingredient that are sometimes added to formulations. They
enhance another active ingredient's ability to kill the pest while using the minimum amount of
active ingredient but do not themselves possess pesticidal properties. For example, insecticides
containing the active ingredient pyrethrins often contain piperonyl butoxide or n-octyl
bicycloheptane dicarboximide as a synergist.

Other (or inert) ingredients may aid in the application of the active ingredient. Other ingredients
can be solvents, carriers, adjuvants, or any other compound, besides the active ingredient, which
is intentionally added.4 There are many types of other ingredients: solvents are liquids that
dissolve the active ingredient, carriers are liquids or solid chemicals that are added to a pesticide
product to aid in the delivery of the active ingredient, and adjuvants often help make the
pesticide stick to or spread out on the application surface (i.e., leaves).5 Other adjuvants aid in
the mixing of some formulations when they are diluted for application.

Insecticide Calculation

Insecticide calculation is necessary to achieve desired results in insect control. Hence, one must
know how to calculate the quantity of insecticide required in making a recommended application

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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

of foliar spray, dust or granules. The recommended rate or dosage of an insecticide may be
expressed in:
1. Percent concentration of the active ingredient (a.i) in the spray solution;
2. Weight (kg) or volume (liter) of active ingredient per area to be treated (ha); and
3. Liter or kilogram of the formulated product (FP) per hectare to be treated.

We also have to remember the following measurements/ equivalents:

Area: 1 ha=10,000 square meters (m2)

1acre=4,000 m2 or 0.40 km2

Volume: 1 liter =1,000 milliliter (ml)or cc

1ml = 1,000 microliter (Ul) = 1g=1 cc
1ul/ liter (lit. or 1.)=1ppm

Weight: 1kilo=1,000 grams

1 gram=1,000 milligram (mg)
1mg/kg= 1ppm

Before any calculation can be made, at least three of the following 5 bits of information must be known:

1. The recommended weight in kg. or lit. have the active ingredient/ha or liter(s) or the
formulated product to be applied/ha
2. Percent spray concentration to be applied
3. Amount of spray solution per ha when applying foliar spray
4. Percent a.i. of the insecticide in the commercial formulation.
5. Area to be treated.

Problem-solving: Examples

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Recommended rate of EC, WP, F, based on % conc. Of spray solution
Given: rec. conc. = 0.04%
Specified spray vol. = 320 liters/ha
% a.i. in the formulation = 45%

1. Problem: how many liters of the commercial formulation are needed to treat an area of 0.5 ha?
Solution :

first compute 320 lit/ha x0.5= 160 lit. Of spray solution or volume needed for 0.5. ha

Formula: lit of comm.=amt. of spray vol. x% spray conc.

% a.i. in a formulation
Application :

Lit. of the 160lit x 0.04% = 160 x .0004 = 0.142 lit or 142 ml

45% 0.45

2. Problem: How many sprayer loads are needed if 1 spray load is 16 liters?

No. of sprayer load =160 liters =10.

16 iters

3. Problem: How many liter(s) of the commercial formulation are needed or required per sprayer load?

Lit. of comm. formulation = 16 lit. x 0.04%

45% = o.01422 ml

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 Republic of the Philippines
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Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Calibration of Spray/Application Equipment

The desired biological activity can only be achieved by correct pesticide calculations and calibrating the
applicator that will be used for the application of a pesticide preparation to achieve the desired results.
Calibration is defined as the process of determining the amount of spray solution delivered by a specific
equipment. Proper calibration of sprayers will ensure that pesticides are uniformly distributed and the
crop is covered adequately. This will improve pest control and save money.

The following are the steps of sprayer calibration:

1. Check the sprayer to make sure that there are no leaks, the nozzle is clear and the parts are in good
conditions
2. Stake out a test area in the field.
3. Place a known amount of water into a sprayer tank.
4. Establish a spray swath.
5. Enter the test area and make the test run, spraying at the area at the recommended pressure and speed.
6. After spraying the test area measure the length of the test area sprayed.
7. Calculate the application rate in liters per hectare.

Area sprayed = swath established x distance traveled (m)

(ha) 10,000 m2

Application rate = volume sprayed

Area sprayed

Example: Spray swath = 4 m

Distance traveled = 40 m
Volume sprayed = 5.0 liters

Area sprayed = 4 x 40 m = 0.016 ha.

10,000 m2

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

Application Rate = 5.0 L = 313 L/ha

0.016 ha

Objectives
At the end of the exercise, students are expected to:
1. Identify the different types of pesticide formulations.
2. List the different active ingredients of the different pesticides.
3. Calculate pesticides or formulated products or active ingredients to be used in a specified area.
4. Calibrate spray application equipment.

Methods:
Part I. Search the internet for the different pesticide formulations and identify the brand name
and active ingredients for each pesticide form. In tabular form, list 10 trade names/brand names,
formulations, and active ingredients and target insect pests to be killed.

Part 2. Based on the examples of pesticide calculations above, solve the following problems:

Recommended rate of EC, WP, F, based on % conc. Of spray solution

Given: rec. conc. = 0.09%
Specified spray vol. = 320 liters/ha
% a.i. in the formulation = 30%

1. Problem: how many liters of the commercial formulation are needed to treat an area of 2.5 has.?
Solution :

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Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

first compute specified spray = volume x area needed to treat

Formula: liter of comm.= amt. of spray vol. x% spray conc.

% a.i. in a formulation

2. Problem: How many sprayer loads are needed if 1 spray load is 16 liters?

3. Problem: How many liter(s) of the commercial formulation are needed or required per sprayer load?

5. Problem: You have a 10-liter capacity sprayer and you want to apply 313 liters of spray solution/ha.
You want to apply 0.5 kg ai(active ingredients) of pesticide per hectare and the formulated pesticide is 25
EC (25% emulsifiable concentrate)
A. Calculate the number of sprayer loads/ha
Number of sprayer load/ha = liters of spray solution/ha

Sprayer capacity in liters

B. Calculate the amount of commercial formulation to be applied/ha

Amount of commercial formulation = rate in kg/ha
To apply/ha % ai in formulation

C. Divide the amount of commercial formulation to be applied/ha

Amount of commercial formulation = amount of commercial formulation
To apply/sprayer load number of sprayer load

Part 3. Calibrate the sprayer following the steps mentioned above on the Calibration of
Sprayer/Application Equipment.
References. State the reference you used in this Laboratory exercise.

Worksheet no. 1

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COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF GINGOOG CITY
Motoomull Street, Barangay 22, Gingoog City
ccgc.gingoog2018@[Link] | ccgcagribusiness@[Link]

Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness

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