Short Notes for Engineering Materials Crystal Structure of Materials ‘+ When metals solidify from molten state, the atoms arrange themselves into various erderly configurations called crystal. + There are seven basic crystal structures, they are Crystal Relation | Interface Examples system between | angles primitives Cubic Fe, Al,Cu Tetragonal Sn, SO, Orthogonal | a=b=c KNO,, BaSO, Hexagonal a=bec SiO,, AgCI,Zn Rhombohedral | a=b=c CaSO, ,CaCO, Monoclinic azbzc FeSO,, Naso, Friclinic azb=c CuSO, KYCr,0, simple Cubic Cell (SCC) + The total number of atoms present in crystal structure, na hoo 8 ‘© Atomic Packing Factor (APF) ‘olume of atomsina cell Volume of unit cell ara xa 3.14 6 6 0. + Percentage APF = 52% ‘+ Percentage of voids = 100-5? = 48% Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure* Total effective number of atoms present in the crystal ole ‘+ Atomic Packing Factor (APF) 3.14 x 1.732 8 0.68 + Percentage APF = 68% + Percentage of voids = 100-68 = 32% Face Centred Crystal (FCC) In this arrangement, each face has an atom and corners are also occupied by atoms, Total effective number of atoms in cell. + Atomic Packing Factor (APF) © Percentage APF = 74% # Percentage of voids = 100~ 74 = 26% Gibbs phase rule: © F=C=P+2 ‘+ Number of external factors = 2 (pressure and temperature). + For metallurgical system, pressure has no appreciable effect on phase equilibrium and hence, © FecopeaEngineering and True Stress-Strain Diagrams: ‘+ When we calculate the stress on the basis of the original area, it nominal stress. + If we calculate the stress based upon the instantaneous area at any instant of load it is then termed as true stress ‘+ lf weuse the original length to calculate the strain, then it is called the engineering strain. called the enginezring or x Instantaneous’load True stress (6. = ___ Instantaneous cross-sectional area 2. A Brittleness: ‘+ Itmay be defined as the property of ametal by virtue of which it will fracture without any appreciable deformation. ‘+ This property is just opposite to the ductility of a metal. Toughness: ‘+ Itmay be definedas the property of a metal by virtue of which it can absorb maximum energy before fracture takes place. ‘+ Toughness is also calculated in terms of area under stress-strain curve. ‘+ Toughness is the property of materials which enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched under 2 high stress before rupture. Resilience: ‘+ This may be defined as the property of a metal by virtue ot which it stores energy and resists shocks or impacts. ‘+ Itis measured by the amount of energy absorbed per Unit volume, in stressing a material up to elastic limit. Endurance: ‘+ This is defined as the property of a metal by virtue of which it can withstand varying stresses (same or opposite nature). + The maximum value of stress, which can be applied for indefinite times without causing its failure, is termed as its endurance limit. Anelastic Behaviour: ‘+ Recoverable deformation that takes place as a function of time is termed an-elastic deformation. ‘+ Due to some relaxation process within the material, the elastic deformation of the material continues even after the application of the loadIsomorphous system. ‘+ There are 5 invariant reactions occurring in binary phase system: ‘+ Eutectic reaction: When a liquid phase changes into two different solid phases during cooling or two solid phases change into a single liquid phase during heating, this point is. known as eutectic point ‘+ Eutectoid reaction: When a solid phase changes into two solid phases during cooling and vice-versa that point is known as eutectoid point + Peritectic reaction: A binary system when solid and liquid phases changes solid phase on cooling and vice-versa on heating, then state of system is known as peritectic point + Peritectoid reaction: if a binary phase diagram when two solid phases changes to one soli phase, then state of system is known as peritectoi point. Normalising ‘+ For this process, the metal is placed in the furnace and heated to just above its ‘Upper Critical Temperature’ ‘+ When the new grain structure is formed itis then removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in air as it cools new grains will be formed. ‘+ These grains, although similar to the original ones, will in fact be smaller and more evenly spaced. + Normalising is used to relieve stresses and to restore the grain structure to normal. Quenching ‘+ itis @ heat treatment when metal at a high temperature is rapidly cooled by immersion in water or oil. + Quenching makes steal harder and more brittle, with small grains structure Annealing (Softer 18) ‘+ Annealing is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and holdingit at a certain temperature (annealing temperature), followed by controlled cooling. ‘+ Annealing results in relief of internal stresses, softening, chemical homogenising and transformation of the grain structure into more stable state. ‘+ The annealing process is carried out in the same way as normalising, except that the component is cooled very slowly. Thisis usually done by leaving the component to cool down in the furnace for up to48 hours Hardening ‘+ Hardening also requires the steel to be heated to its upper critical temperature (plus 50°C) and then quenched. ‘+ The quenching is to hold the grains in their solid solution state called Austenite; cooling at sucha rate (called the critical cooling rate) is to prevent the grains forming into ferrite and pearite ‘+ Hardening is a process of increasing the metal hardness, strength, toughness, fatigue resistance. TemperingAs there are very few applications for very hard and brittle steel, the hardness and brittleness needs to be reduced. The process for reducing hardness and brittleness is called. tempering. ‘Tempering consists of reheating the previously hardened steel. During this heating, small flakes of carbon begin to appear in the needle like structure. (See below) This has the effect of reducing the hardness and brittleness. Stress Relieving When a metal is heated, expansion oc-curs which is more or less proportional to the temperature rise, Upon cooling a metal, the reverse reaction takes place. That is, a contraction is observed. When a steel bar or plate is heated at one point more thant another, as in welding or during forging, internal stresses are set up. During heating, expansion of the heated area cannot take place unhindered, and it tends to deform. On cooling, contraction is prevented from taking place by the unyiel surrounding the heated area. ng cold metalCasting * Solidification Time- 7, = k(4) \VeVolume of casting, S.A= Surface area of casting, k=Solidification time (see/m?) © Gaine’s Formulas =X’ v and Y => a, band care constants c © Shape Factor- spoke L- Length of casting, W- Width of the casting and T- Avg. thickness of section © Modulus Method- Mg Ms .2Me =| v. ‘© Gating Design- 1. Vertical Gating- ~ ARs where V= Volume of mould, Ag=Cross-section area 2. Bottom Gating- Bottom Gating Atmospheric pressiite 4 t * Aspiration Effect- Forging * FlowStress-Rolling © Bite Angle- Cos8 = Reduction (Draft)- Ah < wR Max Draftah =2R © Roll Separating Force- Feeprot = LW (1 +42) L = VRBR, w-width Extrusion and Wire Drawing Bending Bend Allowance=6(R+Kt) t= Sheet thickness angle in radians, K=Stretch factor (0.33 when R<2t and 0.5 when R>2t) Rebend radius Punching and Blanking Penetration Punch load = nDt x keer aS Shear on punch K’2Yield strength in shear Deep Drawing D=Biank Diameter, d=Cup diameter D = Draw ratio pte di gD? = 4d? + adh Metal Cutting ‘© Cutting Speed in Turning V=aDN Where D is the diameter of the work piece, m; N is the rotational speed of the work piece, revs © Economies of Machining 1) Total Minimum Cost ( where, Cm =Machine cost in /time, T.= Tool changing time Vo = Total cost, Ce = Cost of tool/grind.2) Maximum Production Rate 2 Cc ‘ont = 1 PR ee 2 3) Maximum Profit Rate R-G 1 Profit rate= 7 Tse T.+T, + wy T © Shear angle ( Bo)- tan Bo= r cosy./1-r sinyo Rake angle, yo(in orthogonal plane), r-Chip thickness before and after cut © Velocity Ratio cosa cos(g—a) sind ‘= Shear angle, aRake angle, B= Friction angle © Shear Strain y=tan@ +cot (=a) © Tool Li vrs V = Cutting speed. T = Too! liféin minutes, n = A exponent which depends on cutting condition C= Constant. VI"@#= Constant Where d= Depth of cut, f = Feed rate (in mm/rev) in turning.© Yield Shear Strength (t:) wes r neg So s = Sing, t-Thickness, So-feed Bo=Shear angle © Specific Power Consumption- uate S MRR Pr=Cutting force, Ve= Cutting Velocity ‘+ Cutting Force Expression- F,=F.¢0s-F, sing, —_—— Fa = Fesing + F,cosp Now, F,=F,,cos@ —F, sing F, =F, sing + F, cos © Peak to Valley Height (Hax)- re Hoax = BR f- feed, R-Nose radius iE Tank + Com, N=Side Cutting Edge Angle, X,=End Cutting Edge Angle Non Conventional Machining * Electrochemical Machining- Hyax _ Ar Mass removal rate im = TF | Al Volumetric Removal Rate Q = paF A=Gram atomic weight of the metallic ions I=Current (Amps)P= density of the anode (g/cm?) Z= Valency of the cation, F=mFeraday (96,500 coulombs) © Electro Discharge Machining- V=V,(1- e/a) V.=Max. Voltage, tstime, R=Resistance, C= Capacitance Welding © Dilution Ap + AR Ap=Area of Penetration Anz Area of reinforcement ‘* Relation in Voltage and Arc Length V=A+BI j=Arc length, V=Voltage, A&B= Constant = Duty Cycle- PD = Constant D=Duty cycle time, I=current ‘© Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) and Short-Circuit Current(SCC) relation- ocy Vere = OCV—[FRE|I Resistance Welding- HPRt For spot welding, diameter of nugget d, = 6Vt Height of the nugget H,, = 2(t — indentation)/sheet Metrology * Assembly Representation Hole Jo deviation ¥ | Lower | devation Upper daviation | Lower Gavan Pais ate deviation oe ran © Tolerances- i=0.45D'/s + 0.001D D=VDmax X DninTolerance Table- "Tot To itt r2 0:3+0.0080] | [05400120] | [08+ 00D ar a m3 74 75 We ar ar =Tizar’ 101 7 | 178 iT m0 010)" 010°" y0(10)* 4010)" = 16 = 25i = 40) = 64) mt me m3 m4 100i 160i 250i 400i 115 116 640i 10001