Human Dentition

Tooth Morphology & Physiology

Academic Year 2012

TOOTH
Editor

Prof. Maged Lotfy

OMS, School of Dentistry,

MORPHOLOGY
MOI University, Eldoret, Kenya
(Formerly) Chairman, OMS Dept,
AinShams Univ., Cairo, Egypt
E.mail: Prof_mlotfy@hotmail.com

Ainshams University
T eeth are more than projection in the mouth that allow you to grind the food and
prepare it for the initial phase of digestive process, nor do they merely serve for a
limited time before ending between the claws of an extracting forceps.
, man, like most mammals is supplied through his life by two sets of teeth, a deciduous
or primary set, followed by a permanent set. They are permanent teeth and it is your
future responsibility to see that they remain permanent.
Teeth are one of the most important elements of the masticatory system. The student is
expected to thoroughly know and understand the basic external morphology of every
tooth, as well as, their proper arrangement and relation to each other and their relation to
fixed points in the skull and the mandible.■

Dental Formula & Coding

A in Shams University, an institute of
higher education located in Cairo, Egypt.
Founded in 1950, the university provides Systems
education at the undergraduate, graduate and
post-graduate levels.
Ain Shams University, was founded in July Dental Arches and Quadrants
1950, making it the third-oldest non-sectarian  Upper left quadrant or Maxillary
The twenty deciduous teeth in the young left quadrant.
native public Egyptian university (ancient
Islamic universities such as Al-Azhar and
mouth and the thirty two permanent teeth  Lower left quadrant or Mandibular
private institutions such as the American in the adult mouth are arranged in two left quadrant.
University in Cairo are older), arches called the “Dental Arches”, one
 Lower right quadrant or Mandibu-
upper and one lower. Each arch contains
In 1950, there were only eight faculties: facul- lar right quadrant.
half of the number of the teeth (10 de-
tIes of Arts, Law, Commerce, Science, Engi- ciduous then later 16 permanent teeth). Types and Forms of Teeth
neering, Medicine, Agriculture, in addition to (Fig. 1)
Women's college. In 1969, the faculty of
Teeth vary in form, this variation reflects
Education, known since 1880 as Teachers' The upper jaw is called the “Maxilla” differences in function. Based on forms
college, became the ninth faculty in the uni- and the teeth in this arch is called the and functions the teeth are classified into
versity. In 1973 the faculty of Al-Alsun was “Upper of Maxillary Teeth”. On the incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
made the tenth member in the university. In other hand, the lower jaw is called the (Fig. 1)
1994, a decree was issued for the establish- “Mandible” and the teeth in this arch is
ment of two more faculties; the faculty of  Incisors: They are the four front
called the “Lower or Mandibular
Pharmacy and the faculty of Dentistry, the teeth in each arch. The Central
Teeth”.
actual study was started the following year in incisor is the first tooth next to the
both faculties. The imaginary vertical line which midline. The Lateral Incisor is the
equally divides the body into right and second. The form of the incisors is
left halves is called the midline or the more or less similar to a chisel.,
FREE NOT FOR SALE “Midsagittal Plan”. This line also divides
each dental arch into right and left seg-
which makes them suitable for
cutting of incising food. The side of
Issued as part of the scientific cooperation ments, referred to as “Quadrants”. The the tooth toward the tongue, the
between Egypt and Kenya permanent teeth and the deciduous teeth lingual surface, is shaped like a
Digested from “Fundamentals of Tooth are equally arranged into four quadrants, shovel, to aid in guiding the food
Morphology and Physiology”. Ed. A. Ads, as follows:
into the mouth.
M. El-Zainy, S. Shenaishen and A. Lotfy,
Oral Biology Dept., Faculty of Dentistry,  Upper right quadrant or Maxillary  Canine (Cuspid): It is the third
Ainshams University, Cairo, Egypt. right quadrant. tooth from the midline. The canine
2 HUMAN DENTITION
Molar or wisdom tooth. The molars are characteri-zed by wide surface with multi-
is cone or wedge shape and it is ple projections (cusps) and therefore are suitable for grinding food.
designed to function as a holding
or grasping teeth suitable for Grouping of Teeth
piercing, cutting and tearing. The teeth in the dental arch can be grouped into
 Premolars (Bicuspids): They are  Anterior teeth: including the incisors and canines
the fourth and fifth tooth from the  Posterior teeth: including the premolars and molars.
midline. The fourth tooth is the
Functions of Teeth
First Premolar, the fifth tooth is  Mastication: it is the most important function of the teeth. The teeth are designed
the Second Premolar. These teeth to perform this function, accord-ingly the incisors are designed for cutting, the
are characterized by the presence canines for tearing and holding, premolars for grinding and holding and molars for
of at least two projections (cusps),
grinding and chewing.
a wedge-shaped projection similar
to that of the canine, and a slightly  Appearance: well arranged clean teeth with proper alignment give nice appear-
rounded projection. Because of ance to the face and also support the facial expressions.
their intermediate form and loca-  Speech: The teeth are important for clear pronunciation and for production of
tion between canine and molars, sound.
they also have an intermediate  Growth of Jaws: The teeth play a role in the growth of the jaws during some peri-
function of tearing and grinding ods of the facial growth.
food.  In Animals: The first function of teeth is to hold food and kill prey mechanically,
 Molars: These are the sixth, sev- as the lion, or by chemical poisons, as vipers. Other animals use their teeth in com-
enth and eighth tooth from the bat as weapons in the struggle for existence.■
midline. The sixth is the First
Molar, the seventh is the Second
Molar and the eighth is the Third

The Dental Formula

T he number and type of teeth for all
mammal are expressed by the den-
tal formula. The type of each tooth is
teeth. The most popular systems are
universal system, Palmer notation system
and the Federation Dentaire International
represented by its initial letter: (FDI) system.
I: Incisors  Universal System: This system
C: Canines uses the Arabic numbers 1 through
P: Premolars 32 for the permanent teeth and the
letters A through T for the decidu-
M: Molars
ous teeth. The number (1) is as-
Each letter is followed by a horizontal signed to the most posterior upper
line and the number of each type of teeth right permanent tooth (the perma-
is placed above the line for maxillary nent maxillary right third molar).
half and below it for the mandibular half. The highest number is given to the
A typical mammalian dentition is com- most posterior lower right tooth
posed of 44 teeth. This is well repre- (the permanent mandibular right
sented in pigs, where 22 teeth are present third molar). On the same way, the
in each jaw (3 incisors, 1 canine, 4 pre- letter A is given to the most poste-
molars and 3 molars), i.e. the dental
rior lower right deciduous tooth
formula is: I3/3, C1/1, P4/4, M3/3,
(the upper deciduous right second
which is equal to 22 teeth on each side of
molar) and the letter T to the most
the mouth.
posterior deciduous lower right
 The human deciduous teeth are 20 tooth (the lower deciduous right
in number and are expressed by the second molar). (Fig. 2)
following formula: I2/2 - C1/1 -
 Palmer Notation System: In this
M2/2 = 10 teeth on jaw
system each of the four quadrants
 The human permanent teeth are 32 of the mouth is given its own sym-
in number and is expressed in the bol. A cross is drown, the horizon-
following formula: I2/2 - C1/1 -
tal line of which separates the max-
P2/2 - M3/3 = 16 teeth for jaw

Numbering and Coding

Systems of Teeth Table I. Identifying a specific tooth
When identifying a specific tooth, list the
dentition, arch, quadrant and tooth name Dentition Permanent Deciduous
in that order. An example is shown in Arch Maxillary Mandibular
table I.
Fig. 1. The permanent dental arches Quadrant Right Left
(Left) and the deciduous dental arches It is essential to be familiar with the
(Upper) Tooth Lateral Incisor Canine
various systems of naming and coding
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 3
Table II. Various tooth Identification
systems

Fig.2. Universal system of tooth

identification. Permanent dentition (left)
and deciduous dentition (right)

Fig. 3. Plamer notation system. Decidu- Fig. 4. Federation Dentaire International

ous teeth (upper) and permanent teeth system. Permanent teeth (upper) and
(lower) deciduous teeth (lower)

illary teeth above from the mandibular teeth below. The vertical line represents the
midline of the mouth and separates the right from the left side. Accordingly the
deciduous (upper) and permanent (lower) dentitions is represented as shown in
figure 3.
 The Federation Dentaire International (FDI): It is a simple bi-digital system in
also by numbers from 1-to-5,
which each tooth is referred to by two digits the first digit represent the quadrant
where 1 is the central incisor and 5
of the mouth and the second digit represent the tooth. The maxillary right quadrant
is the second molar. Accordingly
is given number “1”, maxillary left quadrant “2”, mandibular left quadrant “3”,
the deciduous (upper) and perma-
and mandibular right quadrant “4”. For deciduous dentition the maxillary right
nent (lower) dentitions is repre-
quadrant is given number “5”, maxillary left quadrant “6”, mandibular left quad-
sented as figure 4.■
rant “7” and mandibular right quadrant “8”. The type of each tooth is represented

Morphological & Structural  Double Roots: There is a bifurca-

tion, dividing the root portion into
two extensions or roots as found in
Features of Teeth lower molars and upper first pre-
molar.
 Treble Roots: There is a trifurca-
Macro Anatomy of Teeth tion dividing the root portion into
Each tooth has “Crown” and “Root” portion. The crown is covered with enamel and three roots as the case in upper
the root is covered with cementum. The root is embedded in the jaw bones. The crown molars.
and root joined at the “Cementoenamel Junction”. The line demarcate this junction is
called the “Cervical Line”. (Fig 5) The undivided portion of the root is
called the “trunk”. The root portion of
Crown and Root of the Tooth the tooth is held in its position relative to
other teeth in the dental arch by being
 Anatomical Crown: is that portion of the tooth which is covered by enamel. firmly anchored in the bony process of
 Clinical Crown: Is that portion of the tooth which is visible in the mouth regard- the jaw serves to support the teeth and is
less whether or not it corresponds to the anatomical crown in length, as the clinical termed “Alveolar Process”.
crown may change it length through life.
 Anatomical Root: It is that portion of the tooth which is covered by cementum. The bony space in the alveolar process in
 Clinical Root: It is that portion of the tooth which is not visible in the mouth. As which the roots of an erupted tooth is
with the clinical crown the clinical root may change its length throughout life. found is called the dental “Socket”. On
the other hand, the bony space in which
Forms of the Root the developing unerupted tooth is found
is called “Crypt”.
The teeth may have single root, double roots or treble roots.
 Single Root: All the anterior teeth and the premolar teeth, except the upper first The tooth is attached to the bony alveo-
premolar, are single rooted teeth. lus by a strong ligament known as the
4 HUMAN DENTITION

“Periodontal Ligament”. The soft fi- tion and the “Pulp Ca-
brous tissue which covers the alveolar nal” which is located
process and surrounds the necks of the within the root portion of
teeth is termed the “Gingiva” of the the tooth.
“Gum”.  The constricted opening
of the pulp canal is called
Structural Elements of the the “Apical Foramen”
Tooth and it sis possible for a
The four tissues that constitute the tooth pulp canal to have two or
are the “Enamel”, “Dentin”, more branches which
“Cementum” and “Pulp”. The first three make their exist at or near
the apex of the root, these
tissues are hard mineralized tissues com-
posed of organic matrix embedded by are called “Multiple Fo- Fig. 5. Macro anatomy of the tooth
crystalline forms of calcium phosphate ramina” or “Supp-
salt. The pulp is soft connective tissue. lementary Canals”. How-
ever many roots may
(Fig. 6)
have more than one canal 1
that end n a common fora-
Enamel men. 2
The enamel covers the outer surface of  The shape of the pulp ca- 3
the crown. It is thickest over the tip of nal or canals follows that
the crown and becomes thinner until it of the respective root. It 4
ends at the cervical line. Enamel is the tapers from the apex to the 5
most mineralized and hardest tissue in final constriction at the 6
the human body. This dense mineraliza- apical foramen
tion gives the enamel the ability to resist  The “Pulp Chamber” is 7
the wear that the corn of the tooth is always a single cavity and
subjected to. The enamel is very smooth, 8
is centered in the crown,
a characteristic that gives the crown a with an outline that 9
self-cleaning ability. roughly conforms with that
of the crown. There are
10
Cementum prolongations in the roof
of the pulp chamber that
It is a bony like substance that covers the
correspond to various Fig. 6. Structure elements of teeth and
root of the tooth. Its main function is to
provide a medium for the attachment of cusps of the crown of posterior their supporting structures
the tooth to the alveolar bone. Cemen- teeth and the developmental lobes 1. Enamel, 2. Dentino-enamel junction, 3.
tum is less dense and less hard than of the anterior teeth of young per- Dentin, 4. Pulp horn, 5. Pulp chamber, 6.
sons, these are called “Pulp Gingiva, 7. Cementum, 8. Pulp canal, 9.
enamel and dentin, but denser and harder
Horns” and it disappear by age.■ Periodontal ligament, 10. Alveolar bone
than bone. The cementum is quite thin at
the cervical line but increase slightly in
thickness at the apex of the roots.

Dentin
Dentin forms the main bulk of the body
of the tooth. It is wrapped in an envelop
of enamel, which covers the crown, an
Surface Characteristics
an envelop of cementum, which covers
the root. Dentin is a hard dense calcified of Teeth
tissue that is softer than enamel but
harder than cementum and bone. The
junction of enamel and dentin is called T he crown of the tooth is divided into surfaces which are named according to the
direction in which they face. The anterior teeth , incisors and canines, have four
surfaces and a ridge, while the posterior teeth, premolars and molars, have five surfaces.
“Dentino-Enamel Junction” and the
junction between cementum and dentin The surfaces are named as follow:
is called “Dentino-Cemental Junction”.  Facial or Labial / Buccal Surface: this is the outer surface of the anterior teeth,
which is facing the face or the lip. The term “labial surface” is more commonly
Pulp used. The outer surface of the posterior teeth, premolars and molars, is termed the
“buccal surface”.
The pulp is the nourishing, sensory and
 Palatal / Lingual Surface: it is the inner surface of all teeth, anterior and poste-
dentin reparative system of the tooth. It
rior. That of the maxillary tooth is termed “palatal surface” because it face the
is made up of connective tissue, blood
palate, while the inner surface of the mandibular teeth is termed “lingual surface”
vessels, lymphatic and nerves. The pulp
because it faces the tongue.
tissues is housed in the pulp cavity in the
center of the tooth, that is surrounded by  Mesial and Distal Surfaces: The surface of the tooth that faces the midline is
dentin. termed “mesial surface” while that faces away from the midline toward the back
of the mouth is termed “distal surface”. The term “Proximal Surface” denotes
 Anatomically the pulp cavity con- any surface between two adjacent teeth, it could be mesial or distal. The area of
sists of two parts, the “Pulp Cham- the mesial and/or the distal surface which touches its neighbor in the arch is
ber” housed within the crown por- termed the “Contact Area”.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 5

distal boundaries of the occlu-

sal surface of the posterior
teeth.
 Triangular Ridge: Is a linear
ridge which descends from the
tip of the cusp toward the cen-
tral area of the occlusal surface
of the posterior teeth.
 Transverse Ridge: Is the union
of two triangular ridges which
transversly cross the occlusal
surface of posterior teeth usu-
ally the lower first premolar.
Fig. 7. Divisions of toot surfaces. Vertical divisions into thirds (upper) and buccal and  Oblique Ridge: It is the union
proximal horizontal divisions (lower) between two triangular ridges
of two cusps, not facing each
 Incisal Edge or Ridge and Occlu- 1 6 7 14 others and crossing the occlu-
sal Surface: The cutting edge of sal surface of the maxillary
the anterior teeth that is used for 2 5
13 molars. It extends obliquely
mastication is termed the “incisal 8
3 4 12 from mesiolingual cusp to
edge or ridge”, while in the poste- 9 distobuccal cusp.
rior teeth it is termed the “occlusal
surface”. 10 11

Division of Tooth
Surfaces
For purpose of facilitating localization of
various areas within a specific surface of
the tooth, the surface is divided into 7
1 4 5
thirds in horizontal direction, as well as,
in mesiodistal and bucco-lingual /palatal 6 8
2 3
directions. (Fig. 7)

Line Angles and Point

Angles
“Line angles” are imaginary lines
formed by the junction of two surfaces.
The line where surface A met surface B
is called AB line angle. If A is the labial
surface and B is the mesial surface of an
anterior tooth, accordingly the line that is Fig. 8. Line angles (upper) and point an-
formed by the meeting of them is termed gles (lower) .
“Mesio-Labial Line Angle”. Line Angles
Labioincisal, 2. Mesiolingual,
“Point Angle”, on the other hand, is the 3. Mesiolabial, 4. Lingoinicsal,
point where three surfaces met. The 5. Distolingual, 6. Distolabia, 7. Mesio-
point where the labial and mesial surface occlusal, 8. Mesilingual, 9. Mesiobucca,
join with the incisal ridge of an anterior 10. Bucco-occlusal, 11. Linguo-occlusal,
tooth is termed “Mesio-Labio-Incisal 12. Distolingual, 13. Distobuccal,
Point Angle”. (Fig. 8) 14. Disto-occlusal
Point Angles
1. Mesiolabioincisal, 2. mesiolinguoin-
Crown Elevations cisal, 3. distolabioincisal, 4. distolinguoin-
 Cusps: This are conical or pyrami- cisal, 5. mesiolinguocclusal, 6. Mesiobuc-
dal projections on the crown por- coocclusal, 7. Destolinguooclusal, 8. dis-
tion of the tooth that makes up a tobuccoocclusal
major division of its occlusal sur-
face. Cusps are found in premolars,
molars and canines and each cusp represent the lingual developmental
represent a calcified developmental lobe.
lobe. (Figs 9 and 10)  Ridges: This are linear elevations
 Tubercle: It is a small elevation on on the surfaces of the crown and
some portion of the crown which is are named according to their loca-
produced by extra formation of tion and/or shape. Several types
enamel. It is mostly present in the can be identified as follows:
second deciduous molar and the  Marginal Ridge: Is the linear
first permanent molars. elevation which is found on the Fig. 9. Examples of major cusps of lower
 Cingulum: It is a convex bulk of mesial and distal boundaries of second premolar (upper), Lower first mo-
the cervical third of the lingual the lingual surface of the ante- lar (middle) and upper first molar (lower)
surface of the anterior teeth that rior teeth and the mesial and
6 HUMAN DENTITION

Fig. 10. Ridges of upper first

permanent molar.

Other ridges are named according to

their site and present as elevations are
“incisal, labial, lingual, buccal and cer-
vical ridges”.
Fig. 11. Developmental grooves of lower 5 (upper), lower first molar (middle) and upper
first molar (lower).
Crown Depressions
 Fossa: This is an irregular depres-
sion or concavity and is named
according to its shape and location.
 Central Fossa: present on
the occlusal surface of
molars and formed by the
converging of ridges and
cusps that terminate at the
center as a depression.
 Lingual Fossa: Is a depres-
sion formed on the lingual
surface of the anterior
teeth.
 Mesial or Distal triangular
Fossa: Found on the occlu- Fig. 12. Fossae and pits of lower second premolar (upper), lower first molar (middle) and
sal surfaces of premolars upper first molar (lower).
and molars, mesial or distal
to the triangular ridges. Fig. 13. General
 Sulcus: It is a long depression or outline of some of
valley between ridges and cusps, the lobes. a: Labial
the inclines of which meets at an aspect of maxillary
angle. A Sulcus has a developmen- central incisor,
tal groove at the junction of its mesial lobe (1),
inclines. labial lobe (2) and
 Developmental Grooves: It is a distal lobe (3), b and
groove or line in the bottom of the e: Mesial and
Sulcus which denotes union of the occlusal aspect of
primary parts or lobes of the crown maxillary first
premolar, mesial
of the tooth. (Figs 11 and 12)
lobe (1), buccal lobe
 Supplemental Grooves: These are (2), distal lobe (3)
groves which branch from the de- and lingual lobe (4),
velopmental grooves, they do not c: Occlusal aspect of
indicate union between primary mandibular first molar,
lobes. mesiobuccal lobe (1), distobuccal
 Pits: These are small pinpoint de- lobe (2), distal lobe (3),
pression located at the junction of mesiolingual lobe (4) and
developmental grooves and/or at distolingual lobe (5), d: Occlusal
their terminals. aspect of maxillary first molar,
mesiobuccal lobe (1), distobuccal
lobe (2), mesiolingual lobe (3),
Other Terms distolingual lobe (4) and fifth lobe
 Inclined Planes: These are slopes (fifth cusp) (5)
from cusp tips to the developmental
grooves.  The anterior teeth, the maxillary premolars and the mandibular first premolar de-
 Height of Contour: This is the velop from four developmental lobes, three labial and one lingual.
point of maximum convexity of  The mandibular second premolar may be two-cuspid, and show the same number
tooth surface. and arrangement of the developmental lobes as the mandibular first premolar, or
 Developmental Lobe: Is the first three-cuspid and, therefore, have five lobes three labial and two lingual.
site of calcium deposition. Each  All molar teeth have two buccal and two lingual lobes, except the mandibular first
tooth begins it development from molar which may have a fifth buccal lobe.
four or more growth centers which  The lobes grow until they fuse, and the line of fusion is marked by a line that is
are known as “Developmental termed the “Developmental Groove”, that can be seen on the tooth after its erup-
Lobes”: tion but soon disappear due to wear and attrition.
 The developmental lobes are represented by cusp, cingulum and mamelon.■
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 7

Development, Calcification
& Eruption of Teeth 1

2
Development of Teeth
During the six week of fetal life tiny teeth germs begin to grow within the alveolar proc- 3
ess of the fetus. “Tooth Germs” are small clumps of cells that have the ability to form
dental (tooth) tissues i.e. enamel, dentin, cementum and pulp. (Fig. 14)
4
 From the deepest layer of oral epithelium a band called the “Dental Lamina” ex-
tends deep inside the jaw all around. 5
 From the dental lamina epithelium bud out and named the “Dental Organ”, which
is the first sign of tooth development.
 The mesodermal tissue around each dental organ become influenced by its grow-
ing cells forming localized area of mesoderm called the “Dental Papillae”, which
is seen in the concavity of the dental organ. Fig. 14. Early stage of tooth development.
1. permanent tooth bud,
 A mesoderm tissue also encircle each dental organ and dental papilla forming the 2. Dental lamina,
“Dental Sac”. 3. Enamel organ,
 The dental organ, dental papilla and dental sac are called the “Tooth Germ”. 4. Dental papilla,
5. Dental sac
 Cells forming the “Enamel” are differentiated from the “Dental Organ”.
 The cells forming “Dentin and Pulp” are differentiated from the “Dental Papilla”.
 Cells that form “Cementum, Periodontal Ligament and Alveolar Bone” are de-
rived from the “Tooth Sac”.
The dental lamina of each jaw gives off ten dental organs of deciduous teeth. Lingual to
the deciduous dental organs, “Successional Laminae” are extended to form the perma-
nent successors. These teeth are the permanent incisors, canines and premolars. The
development of the dental organ begins at the fifth month intrauterine for the permanent
central incisors and ends at about the age of ten months for the second premolar. The
tooth germs for the developing permanent incisors and canines are in a position lingual
to the deciduous roots, while that for the premolar are within the bifurcation of the de-
ciduous molar roots.

Calcification
Each cell is specialized to form one of the
hard dental tissues, enamel, dentin and
cementum, first lays down a soft organic after the emergence of the tooth in the
matrix. This is followed by deposition of mouth for the deciduous teeth and be-
mineral salts, mostly calcium, circulating tween 2-3 years for the permanent teeth.
in the blood, into this matrix in the form
After the tooth reach the occlusal plane it
of globules called “Calcospherites”. The
continue to erupt and more of the crown
calcospherites enlarge and fuse together become exposed as the tooth moves
forming the calcified dental tissues. This
occlusally. Formation of the root dentin
calcification process continue till about
and cementum continue after the tooth is
the fourth year of life for the deciduous
completely formed.
teeth and for the permanent dentition
until the twenty-fifth year of life. As for the chronology of eruption of
teeth the following rules is to be consid-
Eruption ered:
The development of the crown and root  Eruption of mandibular teeth usu-
takes place within a bony “Crypt” in the ally precede that of maxillary teeth.
jaw bone. After the formation of the  Teeth in both jaws erupt in pairs,
crown and about 1/3 of the root, the one on the right and one on the left.
tooth starts to erupt and penetrate the  Teeth erupts slightly earlier in girls
oral mucous membrane. The tooth con- than in boys.
tinue to erupt and as it reaches the occlu-
sal plane 2/3 of it root becomes formed. Deciduous Dentition
When the tooth is newly erupted, the
dental pulp is large and then becomes At the age of 6 months, the deciduous
progressively smaller. mandibular central incisors show up in
the mouth. The usual sequence of erup- Fig. 15. Eruption of teeth.
Formation of the tooth is said to be com- tion of deciduous dentition are: Central
pleted when the apex of the root is Incisors, 6 months lower and 7 months
formed. This occur between 1-11/2 years upper, lateral incisors, 7 months lower
8 HUMAN DENTITION

and 8 months upper, first molar, 12 ual during an important period of Table II. Permanent dentition chronology
months lower and 14 months upper, growth between 6-12 years.
E.O Cr. Erup- Root
canines, 16 months lower and 18 months Tooth
App.
S. Cal.
Comp. tion Comp.
upper, second molar, 20 months lower Permanent Dentition
and 24 months upper. U 5 MIU 7-8 Y 10 Y
The permanent tooth in its follicle at- 1 3-4 M 4-5 Y
L 5 MIU 6-7 Y 9Y
Although deciduous teeth are temporary tempt to force its way into the position
U 5 MIU 10-12 M 8-9 Y 11 Y
yet they are important for the following held by its predecessor. The pressure 2 4-5 Y
brought to bear against the deciduous L 5 MIU 3-4 M 7-8 Y 10 Y
reasons:
root result in its resorption. Root resorp- 3
U 6 MIU
4-5 M 6-7 Y
11-12 Y 14-15 Y
 Normal function on both sides of tion of deciduous teeth will continue L 6 MIU 9-10 Y 12-14 Y
the dental arches is important for until the crown looses its anchorage, U 7 MIU 18-21 M 10-11Y
normal jaw development. becomes loose and finally exfoliated.
4
L 7 MIU 21-24 M
5-6 Y
10-12 Y
12-13 Y

 To guide the first permanent molars The first tooth of the permanent dentition U 8 MIU 24-27 M 10-12 Y
into their normal position. to erupt and emerge in oral cavity is the 5 6-7 Y 13-15
L 8 MIU 27-30 M 11-12 Y
 Deciduous teeth contribute to the first mandibular molar. The first perma- U 4 MIU 3-4 Y
health and wellbeing of the individ- nent molars are called the “Six Years 6 At Birth 6-7 Y 9-10 Y
L 4 MIU 2.5-3 Y
Molars” because they erupt at the age of
U 1Y 2.5-3 Y
7 7-8 Y 12-13 Y 14-16
L 1Y 2.5-3 Y
U 4Y 7-9 Y 12-16
8 17-21 Y 18-25
L 4Y 8-10 Y Y

E.O.App, Enamel organ apperarance -

S.Cal., Start calcification -
Cr.Comp., Crown completed -
MIU, Month interuterine - Y, Year

6 years, just distal to the second decidu-

ous molar. The chronology of the perma-
nent dentition is shown in table II.■

Fig. 16. diagrammatic representation for the dentition stages.

Maxillary
DESCRIPTION OF Incisors
PERMANENT TEETH Maxillary Central
Incisor
T o describe a tooth it advisable to start with the chronology of the tooth followed by
its type and function, number of lobes, relation of the tooth, number of surfaces
and roots, geometric outline and anatomy of each surface, root curvatures and anatomy
This tooth has the functions of incising
food material as well as esthetic. It has
four lobes, three mamelons and a cin-
gulum. The two central incisors make
contact mesially with each other and
The Incisors distally with the mesial surface of the
lateral incisor. It has four surfaces, labial,
palatal, mesial and distal, and incisal
General Features aspect. Chronology of the upper central
 There are eight permanent incisors, four maxillary (upper) and four mandibular incisor is listed in table I.
(lower). The maxillary consist of two centrals and two laterals, as do the mandibu-
lar. Labial Aspect
The maxillary central incisor is the most
 When viewed from the labial or the lingual aspect the crown of all incisors is
widest anterior tooth. The geometric
trapezoidal in shape. The longer parallel side of the trapezoid is at the icisal edge outline of the crown is trapezoid. The
and the shorter side is close to the cementoenamel junction. Whrn viewed from the mesial outline of the crown is straight or
proximal side the crown is triangular in shape with the base represented by the slightly convex with the crest of the cur-
cervical portion. vature at the contact area approaching
 The labial and lingual crest of curvatures are at the cervical third of the crown. the mesioincisal angle. The mesioincisal
 Another common feature of all newly erupted incisors is the presence of rounded angle is relatively sharp.
portions on the incisal ridge called “Mamelons”. Each mamelon forms the incisal The distal outline of the crown is more
ridge of one of the labial primary lobes (each incisor has four primary lobes, three convex than the mesial outline wit the
labial and one lingual). After normal use the mamelons wear down into a flat crest of curvature being higher toward
ridge, therefore the term “Incisal Edge” is more appropriate than ridge. the cervical line as the distal contact area
 The main function of incisors is to incise and cut food material during the process approaching the middle third. The disto-
of mastication. incisal angle is round.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 9

Fig. 18 . Pulp cavity characteristics of

Fig. 17. Surface characteristics of upper right central incisor.
upper right central incisor.
Cing, cingulum - DMR, distal marginal ridge - DMR, distal mar-
ginal ridge, IM, incisal margin - LF lingual fossa - CA, contact

Table III. Chronology of Upper Central

incisor
that on the labial surface. Immediately below it is a smooth large convexity called the
Dental Organ Appearance 5 MIU
“cingulum”, it represents the lingual lobe. The cingulum is located slightly toward the
Start Calcification 3-4 M distal surface.
Enamel Completed 4-5 Y The mesial and distal margins take the form of linear ridges that extend from the incisal
line angle to the cingulum. They are refered to as mesial and distal marginal ridges.
Eruption 7-8 Y
Root Completed 10 Y
The lingual fossa is a shallow smooth concavity below the cingulum that involves the
largest part of the middle and incisal part of the lingual surface. It is bordered proxi-
mally by the mesial and distal marginal ridges, incisally by the incisal edge and cervi-
The incisal margin is generally straight cally by the cingulum. The lingual fossa may show few irregular lines. In some teeth
and nearly perpendicular to the long axis poorly defined ridges extends from the cingulum to the lingual fossa. The lingual aspect
of the tooth. In newly erupted tooth this of the root is convex, conical in shape and narrower than the labial aspect.
margin is characterized by the presence
of three mamelons. The cervical line is
Mesial Aspect
semicircular with the convexity of the
The mesial surface of the crown is triangular in shape, its base at the cervix and the apex
root.
at the incisal ridge. The incisal ridge of the crown is on a line that bisects the center of
The labial surface is convex in all direc- the root. This alignment is characteristic for maxillary central and lateral incisors.
tions with the highest point of curvature
The labial outline of the crown is convex cervically (the cervical ridge) then it becomes
(crest of curvature) located in the cervi-
somewhat flattened or slightly curved toward the incisal ridge. The lingual outline, on
cal third. The convexity tends to de-
the other hand, is convex at the cingulum, then becomes concave at the lingual fossa
crease to almost a flat surface from the
and it become slightly convex again at the linguo-incisal ridge. The mesial surface is
middle one third to the incisal ridge.
convex with the maximum convexity at the junction of the incisal and middle thirds (the
There are two faint but distinguished
contact area). The cervical curvature is greater on the mesial surface than any other
shallow grooves extending cervically
tooth in the mouth. For the average crown length the curvature is 3-4 mm.
from the incisal edge and fading out in
the middle third. They are termed the The root from the mesial aspect is cone-shaped with blunt apex.
mesio-labial and disto-labial develop-
mental grooves and they separate the Distal Aspect
three mamelons. There is a little difference between the distal and mesial surfaces. The curvature of the
The root of the upper central incisor is cervical line is less on the distal surface (about 1 mm less). This is a characteristic for
cone-shaped with blunt apex and regular most teeth. The distal surface shows maximum convexity located at the center of the
outline mesially and distally. The root is middle third (the contact area).
usually 2-3 mm longer than the crown
which is 10-11 mm long. Incisal Aspect
The crown shows a triangular shape with its apex at the lingual surface and the base
Lingual Surface placed labially. The incisal ridge can be seen clearly slopping lingually. The labial sur-
The crown dimension from this aspect is face of the crown from this aspect is broad and flat in comparison with the lingual sur-
narrower mesio-distally than from the face, especially toward the incisal third. Labially the cervical portion of the crown is
labial aspect since the mesial and distal convex (the cervical ridge).
surfaces converge toward the lingual
surface i.e. lingual convergence. The lingual outline tapers lingually toward the cingulum. The cingulum is shifted dis-
tally; accordingly a line drawn from the mesio-incisal angle to center of the cingulum is
The lingual outline is the reverse of that longer than a line drawn from the disto-incisal angle to the center of the cingulum. A
of the labial aspect. While the labial view of the crown from this aspect superimposes it over the root entirely, so that the
surface is smooth the lingual surface is later is not visible.
irregular. The cervical line is similar to
10 HUMAN DENTITION

Fig. 20. Pulp cavity characteristics of

Fig. 19. Surface characteristics of upper right lateral incisor. Cing, cingulum - DMR, distal
upper right lateral incisor.
marginal ridge - MMR, mesial marginal ridge, IM, incisal margin - LF lingual fossa - CA,
contact area. (From left-to-right: Labial, Lingual, Mesial, Distal and Incisal surfaces)
The root is about one and half the length
of the crown. It tapers evenly from the
The Pulp Cavity cervical line to a point approximately
Table VI. Chronology of Upper Lateral two thirds of its length then it usually
The pulp cavity has pulp chamber and incisor
one root canal which varies in size with curves sharply in a distal direction and
the age of the tooth. When the tooth first Dental Organ Appearance 5 MIU end in a pointed apex.
erupts, it is very large and the root is
Start Calcification 1Y Lingual Aspect
incompletely formed, so the canal looks
somewhat funnel shaped in the region of Enamel Completed 4-5 Y The outline is the reverse of the labial
the apical foramen. Later as the tooth aspect. Mesial and distal marginal ridges
Eruption 8-9 Y and cingulum is usually prominent, with
develops completely, the pulp becomes
smaller and the apical foramen is then Root Completed 11 Y tendency toward deep developmental
very small. This process is continuous grooves within the lingual fossa, where
throughout life. as it joins the cingulum. It is common to
mouth except the third molar. It may find a deep developmental groove at the
On a Labio-lingual section the pulp show a large pointed tubercle as a part of distal side of the cingulum, which ex-
chamber point incisally then follows the the cingulum, or deep developmental tends up to the root for part or all of its
increase in the crown dimension cervi- grooves which extends which extends length. The lingual fossa is more con-
cally. Starting from the cervical level of down with on the root lingually with cave than that of the central.
the crown the root canal tapers gradually deep fold in the cingulum. Other laterals
as it traverses the root to end in a con- may show twisted roots of distorted Mesial Aspect
striction at the apex which is termed “the crowns. Not uncommon situation is to The crown outline is triangular. It is
apical foramen” find maxillary lateral incisors that have similar to, but smaller than, that of the
On a mesio-distal section the pulp cham- pointed form. Such teeth are called “peg- central incisor. The root appears longer
ber is wider from this view, confirming shaped” lateral incisor. In some individu- and the labio-lingual measurement of the
the shape of the crown. It tapers from the als the lateral incisors are missing. crown and the root is about one millime-
incisal part, but is further wide at the ter less than that of the central. The con-
cervix. It represents three pulp horns Labial Aspect tact area is located near the junction of
corresponding to the three mamelons. The labial surface of the crown is more the incisal and middle thirds. It is
The root canal tapers toward the apex. convex than that of the central incisor. It slightly wider, larger and closer to the
On cervical cross section the pulp cham- shows rounded incisal ridge and rounded incisal edge than the distal contact area.
ber is roughly triangular in young teeth incisal angles both mesially and distally. The cervical line is less curved than that
and becomes rounded or crescent shaped Like the central incisor, labial develop- of the central incisor.
in old teeth. It is perfectly centered. mental grooves are present.
A line drawn through the central of the

Maxillary Lateral The mesial outline of the crown resem-

bles that of the central incisor, but usu-
root tends to bisect the incisal ridge of
the crown. The root is conical in shape
ally shows more curvature with the crest and shows shallow depression.
Incisor of curvature at the contact areas at the
junction of the middle and incisal thirds.
The maxillary lateral incisors comple-
Distal Aspect
The distal outline is more convex and the The distal surface is smaller, but more
ment the central incisor in function. It is
crest of curvature is more cervically, convex in all dimensions than the mesial
smaller in all dimensions than the central
usually at the center of the middle third. surface. The distal marginal ridge is
except for the root length. The crown is The disto-incisal angle is more rounded
about 2 mm narrower mesio-distally and irregular. The contact area is narrower
than the mesio-incisal angle. The incisal and more cervically placed than the me-
2 mm shorter and 1 mm less labio-
outline is more curved than that of the sial one. The cervical line shows less
lingually than the central incisor. Chro-
central because of the more rounded curvature than the mesial surface.
nology of the upper central incisor is incisal angles. The cervical line curves
listed in table I. apically with about the same depth of Incisal Aspects
The lateral incisor may show malforma- curvature as the case with the central It usually resembles that of the central
tion more than any other tooth in the incisor. incisor, but rarely it may resemble that of
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 11

a small canine. The cingulum and incisal

edge or ridge may be large. The labio-
lingual dimension may be greater than
usual in comparison with that of the
central incisor, resembling that of a ca-
nine. All maxillary lateral incisors show
more convexity labially and lingually
from the incisal aspect than the maxillary
central incisors and the cingulum is cen-
tered.

Pulp Cavity
It consists of pulp chamber and a root Fig. 21. Surface characteristics of lower
canal. The chamber is quite similar to central incisor. (left upper) A, labial as-
that of the central incisor, but without the pect, B, lingual aspect, C, Mesial aspect,
D, Distal aspect and E, incisal aspect.
three sharp pulp horns. More often the
(right lower) characteristics of lingual and
pulp chamber ends incisally as one round incisal surfaces. IR, incisal ridge, MMR,
horn or two less sharp plup horns, a me- mesial marginal ridge, DMR, distal mar-
sial and distal. ginal ridge, C, cingulum, LF, lingual fossa,
CL, cervical line. (upper right) pulp cham-

Mandibular ber characteristics

Incisors Table V. Chronology of mandibular

line of a narrow incisal edge. The curva-
tures above the cervical line labially and
lingually are less than the maxillary inci-
The mandibular incisors are four in num-
central incisor sor.
ber and have smaller mesio-distal dimen-
sions than any other tooth. The contact Dental Organ Appearance 5 MIU The incisal margin is straight of slightly
areas are near the incisal edge both dis- rounded, and its center is located just
tally and mesially. The labial surfaces Start Calcification 3-4 M lingual to the center of the root. The
are inclined lingually so that the incisal Enamel Completed 4-5 Y contact area is very close to the incisal
ridges are lingual to a line bisecting the edge. The cervical line shows a marked
root. Eruption 6-7 Y curvature incisally about one third the
length of the crown.
Mandibular
Root Completed 9Y
The root outlines labially and lingually

Central Incisors faint if present. The cervical line is sym- are straight with the crown outline from
metrically curved towardthe root with the cervical line. The root start to taper in
The mandibular central incisor is the distal diviation. the middle third to either a bluntly
smallest in the dental arch. The crown rounded or pointed root end. The mesial
The mesial and distal root outlines are
has little more than half of the mesio- surface of the root is flat just below the
straight and are continuous with the me-
distal dimension of the maxillary central cervical line. Most of these roots have a
sial and distal outlines of the crown.
incisor; however, the labio-lingual di- They slop down to the apical portion and broad developmental depression for the
ameter is only about one millimeter less terminate in small pointed taper in most most of the root length which is deeper at
than that of the maxillary central incisor. cases curving distally. the junction of the middle and apical
The crown is shorter than that of the thirds. In rare cases the root apex is bifid.
maxillary central by about 1.5 mm. Lingual Aspect
The outline of the crown is the reverse of Distal Aspect
Labial Aspect the labial surface, and is narrower. It It is the reverse of the mesial aspect. The
It is trapezoidal in outline with smallest presents a cingulum much smaller than cervical line curves incisally about 1 mm
side at the cervix. The mesial and distal that of the maxillary anteriors. The lin- less than on the mesial. The developmen-
outline of the crown make a straight drop gual fossa is shallow and the mesial and tal depression is more marked with well
downward from the incisal angles to the distal marginal ridges are less prominent. defined developmental groove at its cen-
contact areas which are close to the in- The cingulum is placed more cervically ter.
cisal edge. The mesial and distal sides and is centered. It is smooth withno ac-
then taper evenly from the contact area cessory ridges, grooves or pits. The root Incisal Aspect
to the narrow cervix. The mesio-incisal is slightly narrower than labially. Form this view, the tooth is four sided or
and disto-incisal angles are sharp. The diamond shaped. The incisal edge is
incisal margin is straight and at right Mesial Aspect straight and the mesial and distal halves
angle to the long axis of the tooth. Labial outline of the crown is straight are identical. The cingulum is slightly
above the cervical curvature, sloping shifted towards the distal portion The
The labial surface is convex both mesio- rapidly from the crest of curvature to the
distally and inciso-cervically with defi- crown appeared centered over the root.
incisal edge. The lingual outline shows
nite convexity in the cervical one third smooth convexity at the cingulum then it The incisal ridge is perpendicular to a
where he height of contour is located becomes straight line inclined labially line bisecting the crown labiolingually.
(cervical ridge) and a flattened surface at for a short distance to join a concave line
the incisal third. Mesio-labially and disto at the middle third of the crown. This Pulp Cavity
-labially developmental grooves are very extends upward to join the rounded out- In labio-lingual section the outline of the
12 HUMAN DENTITION

pulp cavity conform to the crown and Table VI. Chronology of Mandibular
root outline. The mesiodistal section is lateral incisor
narrow and has two pulp horns directed
to the mesial and distal angles of the Dental Organ Appearance 5 MIU
incisal edge. Crow section of the root at Start Calcification 3-4 M
the cervical line shows an oval canal
usually constricted nesiodistally and Enamel Completed 4-5 Y
wide labiolingually. Eruption 7-8 Y

Mandibular Root Completed 10 Y

Lateral Incisor curve distally to fit into mandibular arch

because it has to fit inside the maxillary
Fig. 22. Surface character-
istics of lower right lateral
The mandibular lateral incisor has almost arch. The incisal edge follows the curva- incisor. A, labial aspect, B,
the same form as the mandibular central ture of the mandibular dental arch. The lingual aspect, C, mesial
cingulum is shifted distally and the in- aspect, D, Distal aspect
incisor, however, some variations exist. and E, ncisal aspect.
Table IV list the chronological data of cisal ridge follows the curvature of the
mandibular lateral incisor. dental arch.■

The Canines
Labial aspect
The tooth resembles the central incisor
except that it is slightly larger by o.5 mm
in all directions and is fan shaped. The
mesial side is often longer than the distal
side, causing distal sloping of the incisal
T he canines – two maxillary and two mandibular – bear a close resemblance to each
other. They are the longest teeth in the mouth and placed at the corners of the
mouth and therefore referred to as the corners stones of the mouth.
edge. The distoincisal angle is more
The canines are well anchored in the bone by their extremely long roots. The crown is
rounded than its counterpart in the man-
bulkier than that of the incisors, and the middle labial lobe is highly developed incisally
dibular central.
forming a strong well formed cusp and labial ridge.
The distal contact area is more toward
The crowns and roots of the canines are markedly convex on most surfaces. When
the cervical line than the mesial contact
viewed from the proximal aspects they show a triangular shape, however, from labial
area to contact properly with the canine.
and lingual aspects they take pentagonal shape.
The crown is larger than that of the cen-
tral and the root is longer by about 1.5 The position and form of these teeth and their anchorage in the bone, along with a bone
mm. ridge over the labial portion of the root, called “canine eminence”, have a osmotic value
and ensure facial expression. In function the canines support the incisors and premolars
Lingual Aspect in holding and tearing the food material.
Similar to that of the central incisor but
the mesial outline and the mesial mar-
ginal ridge are longer than the distal. Maxillary Canine
The cingulum is deviated distal to the The crown and root of the maxillary canine are narrow mesiodistally than the central
center of the lingual surface. incisor. The cervico-incisal length of the crown is much longer than any other anterior
tooth, with the exception of the maxillary central incisor. Table V list the chronological
data of maxillary canine.
Proximal Aspects (Mesial and
Distal) The mesial half of the crown of the maxillary canine resemble a portion of an incisor
Differ from the center counterpart in the and contact with lateral incisor. The distal half, on the other hand, resembles a portion
following: of a premolar and contact the first premolar. The incisal portion of the crown is thicker
labiolingually then that of the incisors, and the cingulum shows greater development.
 The distal surface of the lateral
incisor is shorter than the mesial
Labial aspect
surface.
It is pentagonal in outline. The mesial outline is convex from the cervix to the center of
 Both cervical line curvatures are the contact area at the junction between the middle and incisal thirds of the crown.
slightly less than that of the central
incisor. The distal outline between the cervical line and the distal contact area which is situated
 The distal contact area is more at the center of the middle third. The mesial contact area is at a lower level than the
cervically located than the mesial distal.
one. The cusp has a mesial and distal slopes. The mesial one is shorter and shows tendency
 Root depressions are seen on both toward concavity, while the distal slope shows tendency toward convexity. The cervical
the mesial and distal surfaces. line is convex root wise. Faint mediolabial and distolabial developmental grooves can
be seen.
Incisal Aspect
The mandibular lateral incisor appears to The labial surface is smooth except for a shallow depression mesially and distally divid-
be rotated over their root axes because ing the crown into its three labial lobes. The middle lobe is more developed than the
the distal developmental lobe is larger other two which result in formation of a ridge on the labial surface , the labial ridge,
and more mesially located than the distal which runs from the cervical line to the tip of the cusp in a curved manner inclined me-
lobe. This is because the tooth has to sially at its center. The areas mesial to the crest of this ridge exhibits convexity while
area distal to it tends toward concavity.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 13

Fig. 23. Surface characteristics

of maxillary left canine (left up-
per) A, labial aspect, B, lingual
aspect, C, Mesial aspect, D,
Distal aspect and E, incisal
aspect. (right upper) character-
istics of lingual and incisal sur-
faces. CL, cervical line, C, cin-
gulum, MMR, mesial marginal
ridge, MLF, mesial lingual fossa,
MCR, Mesial cusp ridge, DCR,
distal cusp ridge, LR, lingual
ridge, DLF, distal lingual fossa,
DMR, distal marginal ridge,
MCR, Mesial cusp ridge.
Mesial aspect
The outline of the crown is wedge shaped with the
greatest measurement at the cervical third. The wedge point at the tip of the cusp. The
labial outline is more convex from the cervical line to the cusp tip than any other maxil-
lary anterior tooth. The lingual outline is convex below the cervical line, representing
the cingulum then continue as a straight line curves toward the cusp.
The relation of the tip of the cusp to the long axis of the root is different from that of
maxillary incisors. A line bisecting the cusp is on long axis of the tooth or labial to it.
The mesial surface of the crown is convex at all points except for small circumscribed
area above the contact area where the surface is concave of flat to the cervical line.
The outline of the root is conical with tapered blunt or pointed apex. The root may curve
labially at apical third. The mesial surface of the root appears broad with a shallow de-
Fig. 24. pulp cavity characteristics of max- velopmental depression for part of the root length which helps to anchor the tooth to the
illary left canine. alveolus and prevent rotation.

Table VII. Chronology of maxillary

Distal aspect
canine This aspect is similar to the mesial aspect except that the cervical line shows less curva-
ture toward the cusp tip. The distal marginal ridge is heavier and more irregular than the
Dental Organ Appearance 6 MIU mesial one and the contact area is more cervically located in the middle third. In addi-
tion, the surface is more concave above the contact area and the developmental groove
Start Calcification 4-5 M
is more pronounced.
Enamel Completed 6-7 Y
Eruption 11-12 Y
Incisal aspect
The labiolingual dimension is greater than the mesiodistal dimension. The cusp tip is
Root Completed 14-15 Y labial and mesial to the center of the crown. The ridge of the meddle labial lobe is very
noticeable from the incisal aspect. It attains its greatest convexity at the cervical third of
the crown, becoming broader and flatter at the middle and incisal thirds.
The root appears slender form the labial
aspect and is conical with blunt apex.
The root may show either mesial or dis- Pulp cavity
tal curvature, mostly distal, near the It consists of the pulp chamber and a single root canal. Labiolingual section shows a
apex. The labial surface of the root is narrow pulp chamber that points incisally. The root canal is wide in the cervical half of
smooth and convex. the root than any other tooth. The canal then narrows to average width on its way to the
apical foramen.
Lingual aspect On mesio-distal section the pulp cavity is much narrower and similar to those of the
The crown and root are narrower lin- incisors. It has much longer and tapered root canal.
gually than labially. The cervical line
from is less convex than on the labial On cervical cross section the pulp cavity appears even narrower and the root canal is
surface. Below the cervical line is a well eleptical rather than round and centered over the root. The canal is wider labiolingually
developed cingulum. The mesial and than mesiodistally.
distal marginal ridges are strongly devel-
oped.
The area incisal to the cingulum is con-
Mandibular canine
cave forming the lingual fossa. Very The mandibular canine resembles the maxillary one in that they have the same wedge
often the lingual fossa show a well de- shaped outline, long crown and a well developed cingulum. They differ fro the maxil-
veloped lingual ridge extending from the lary canine, however, in some aspects. Table VI lists the chronological data of mandibu-
cusp tip to a point near the cingulum lar canine.
dividing the lingual fossa into mesial and
distal. Labial aspect
The crown is narrower mesiodistally by about o.5 mm than the maxillary one. Labiolin-
The root is narrow when viewed from gually the crown and root is slightly less than those of the maxillary canine.
the lingual aspect than the labial and is
smooth and convex. On the other hand, the length of the mandibular canine is similar toe the maxillary ca-
nine, but the crown is longer by 1 mm and the root is shorter by 1 mm. the effect of
14 HUMAN DENTITION

Table VIII. Chronology of Mandibular

canine.

Dental Organ Appearance 6 MIU

Start Calcification 4-5 M
Enamel Completed 6-7 Y
Eruption 9-10 Y
Root Completed 12-13 Y

greater crown length is emphasized by

the narrowness of the crown mesiodis-
tally and the height of the contact area Fig. 25. Surface characteristics of mandibular left canine MCR, mesial cusp ridge, DCR,
above the cervix. distal cusp ridge, LR, lingual ridge, MMR, mesial marginal ridge, MLF, mesial lingual
fossa, C, cingulum, CL, cervical line, DLF, distal lingual fossa, SMR, distal marginal ridge
The mesial outline of the crown is nearly (From left-to-right: labial, liongual, mesial, distal and incisal surfaces)
straight with the mesial outline of the

The
root. The mesial contact area is near the
mesioincisal angle.
The distal outline is convex cerivcoin-
cisaaly with more rounded and obtuse
distoincisal angle. It is shorter than the Premolars
T
mesial outline and the contact area is
he premolars are intermediate teeth
located more cervically than the distal
one but still more incisalo than the max- between molars and canines. They
illary canine. succeed the deciduous molars. The term
“bicuspid” is often used in place of pre-
The cusp tip and ridges of the mandibu- molars, but this is inaccurate since the
lar canine are not as well developed as mandibular second premolar may show
the maxillary canine. The cusp tip is on three cusps. There are eight premolars,
the center of the root and the distal cusp two in each quadrant.
slope is longer than the mesial one and
inclined more cervically. The premolars are developed from four
lobes except the mandibular second pre-
The cervical line is more symmetrically Fig. 26. pulp cavity characteristics of man-
molar, the three cusp form, which devel-
contoured than the maxillary one . dibular left canine.
oped from five lobes, three buccal and
The crown surface is flat mesial and two lingual.
distal to the labial ridge at the incisal times the root is bifurcated at the apical
third. Crown outline is concave distally The buccal cusp of the first premolar is
third. long and sharp assisting the canine in its
and convex mesially
function of tearing. The second premo-
The root is shorter by 1-2 mm than the Distal aspect lars have cusps less sharp which make
maxillary canine and has a more sharply There is little difference between distal them efficient in gridding teeth much
pointed apex that may be directed me- and mesial aspect which are: like molars.
sially of distally.  The distal marginal ridge is more The marginal ridges of the crown are in a
pronounced than the mesial more horizontal plane and are considered
Lingual aspect  The cervical line has less curvature.
The lingual surface of the crown is flat- part of the occlusal surface of the crown
ter, smoother and regular simulating  The distal contact area is more rather than the lingual surface as in case
mandibular incisors. The cingulum and cervical. of anterior teeth. The crown and root of
the ridges as well as the lingual fossa are  More pronounced developmental the premolars are shorter than those of
less pronounced than in maxillary ca- depression on the root. the canines.
nine.
The lingual portion of the root is nar-
rower than that of the maxillary canine, it
Incisal aspect
The outline of the incisal surface is less
curved than in the maxillary canine. The
Maxillary
is about one half or a little more in width
than the labial portion.
cusp tip, mesial cusp ridge and the con-
tact area are inclined lingually, while
those of the maxillary canine extends
Premolars
Mesial aspect
The labial outline of the crown is less
nearly a straight line mesiodistally. The
cingulum is shifted distally.
First Maxillary
curved with the crest of the curvature at
the cervical third. The lingual outline is Pulp cavity
Premolar
also less curved. The cusp tip is centered Pulp cavityiy is similar to that of the This tooth has two cusps, buccal and
over the root or slightly lingually in- upper canine but smaller. The root may lingual, which are sharply defined. The
clined (that of the maxillary canine is show one or two root canals - labial and buccal cusp is about 1 mm longer than
labilly inclined). lingual canal - that join at the apex.or the lingual cusp and the crown is shorter
have separate foramina when the root is than that of the canine by 1.5-2 mm.
The mesial developmental depression on
bifurcated. There are always two canals. table VII lists the chronological data of
the root is more pronounced and some-
■ the maxillary first premolar.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 15

This tooth is the only premolar which normally has two roots (about 80%), a buccal and Table VIX. Chronology of maxillary
a lingual, with two pulp canals, although occasionally there is only one root (20%). It first premolar
resembles the canine from the buccal aspect but the root is shorter, the mesial slope of
the buccal cusp is longer than the distal slope (opposite to the maxillary canine) and the Dental Organ Appearance 7MIU
mesiodistal diameter is less than that of the canine. The first premolar presents some Start Calcification 1.5-1.7 Y
characteristics common to all posterior teeth as differentiated from the anterior teeth.
(Table VIII) Enamel Completed 5-6 Y
Eruption 10-11 Y
Buccal aspect
The crown is roughly trapezoid with the smallest uneven side directed ervically. The Root Completed 12-13 Y
width of the crown mesiodistally is less at the cervix than at the level of contact areas by
2mm.
Table X. Common characteristics of
The mesial outline of the crown is slightly concave from the cervical line to the mesial posterior teeth.
contact area and also to the cusp tip. The mesial cusp slpe is longer than the distal and
the contact area is just cervical to the junction between the occlusal middle one third.  Have occlusal surface instead of in-
The distal outline is more straight below the cervical line and the contact area is broader cisal ridge.
and more occlusally placed than the mesial. The cervical line is curved with the crest of  Larger bucco-lingual than mesio-
the curvature near the center of the root and toward it. distally
 Broader contact area.
The buccal cusp is long with pointed tip located distal to the midline and divide the  Less curvature of cervical line mesially
occlusal border into a long, straight or concave, mesial cusp ridge and a short convex and distal.
distal cusp ridge.  Shorter crown compared with incisors
The buccal surface of the first maxillary premolar is convex, showing strong develop- and canines
ment of the middle lobe with a continuous ridge from the cusp tip to the cervical mar-  Marginal ridges oriented horizontally
gin. This ridge is called the buccal ridge. Two developmental grooves, mesiobuccal and and are part of the occlusal surface.
distobuccal, are located on both sides of the buccal ridge and mark the union of the
developmental lobes.
The distinguishing features of this tooth
The buccal root outline of the maxillary first premolar is similar to that of the canine but from the mesial aspect are:
is shorter by 3-4 mm.
 The presence of “Mesial Develop-
Lingual aspect mental Depression” which extends
The crown converges towards the lingual cusp which is shorter and narrower mesiodis- cervically from the contact area and
tally than the buccal one. The tip of the lingual cusp is pointed and located slightly to- continue to include the cervical line
ward the mesial side. The mesial slope is shorter than the distal. then joins a deep depression be-
tween the root bifurcation, known
The mesial and distal outlines are convex and continuous with the mesial and distal as “Canine Fossa”. The maxillary
slopes of the lingual cusp and become more straight as they join the mesial and distal second premolar do not have this
sides of the lingual root. feature.
The crown as seen from the lingual aspect is smooth spheroid and convex at all points  The presence of a well defined
with no definite lingual ridge and no developmental grooves. The lingual height of con- developmental grooves in the
tour is located at the middle third. Since the lingual cusp is shorter than the buccal one, enamel of the mesial marginal
the tips of both cusps can be seen with their mesial and distal slopes from the lingual ridge. This marginal groove is con-
aspect. tinuous with the central groove of
the occlusal surface of the crown,
The cervical line is similar to that of the buccal aspect. The lingual aspect of the root, or crossing the marginal ridge just
the lingual aspect of the lingual root if two roots are present, is smooth and convex with lingual to the contact area and ter-
blunt apex. minating a short distance cervical
to the mesial marginal ridge. This
Mesial aspect groove is called the “Mesial Mar-
It is trapezoidal in shape, however, the longest of the uneven sides is toward the cervical ginal Developmental Groove”.
portion and the shortest toward the occlusal portion. Another characteristic of all the  The buccal outline of the buccal
maxillary posterior teeth is that the measurement between the tip of the buccal cusp to
root is straight above the cervical
that of the lingual cusp is less than the buccolingual measurement of the root at its cervi-
line with tendency toward lingual
cal portion, i.e. the tips of the cusps are well within the confines of the root trunk.
inclination. The lingual outline is
The cervical line is curved and regular with average curvature of 1 mm. which is similar also straight and may show buccal
to all posterior teeth. The buccal outline of the crown is convex below. The crest of or lingual inclination. The root
curvature is at the junction of the cervical and middle thirds of the crown. It continue as trunk is long making up about half
a line of less convexity to the tip of the buccal cusp. The tip of the buccal cusp is located the length of the root. The bifurca-
directly below the center of the buccal root. tion of the roots begins at a more
occlusal point mesially than dis-
The lingual outline is curved smoothly from the tip of the lingual cusp to the cervical tally.
line. The crest of the curvature is near the center of the middle third. The tip of the lin-
gual cusp is on a line with the lingual border of the lingual root.  The mesial surface of the root trunk
is smoothly convex buccally and
The lingual cusp is always shorter than the buccal cusp by about 1 mm. the mesial mar- lingually with deep developmental
ginal ridge is convex and is located at about the level of the junction of the middle and groove and depression at or below
occlusal thirds. the bifurcation. In case of one
rooted tooth this depression is no-
The mesial contact area is circular in shape and located at the junction of the middle and
ticed for most of the root length.
occlusal thirds and slightly near the buccal.
16 HUMAN DENTITION

Fig. 27. Maxillary right first premolar, mesial and occlusal aspect. BR, buccal root; MDD, mesial developmental depression; BCR, buccal
cervcal ridge; MCA, mesial contact area; BC, buccal cusp; LC, lingual cusp; MMDG, mesial marginal developmental groove; CL, cervical
line; LR, lingual root; DBCR, distobucca; cusp ridge; DMR, distal marginal ridge; DTF, distal triangular fossa; DLCR, distolingual cusp
ridge; MLCR, mesiolingual cusp ridge; CDG, central developmental groove; MTF, mesial triangular fossa; MMR, mesial marginal ridge;
MBCR, mesiobucaal cusp ridge.

Distal aspect
The crown outline is similar to the me-
sial aspect. The crown surface is convex Fig.28. Oc-
at all points. The distal contact area is clusal aspect
wider buccolingually than ocluusocervi- of upper first
cally and slightly near the buccal. It is premolar is
larger and more cervically located than hexagonal in
the mesial contact area. outline.

The height of contour is in the cervical

third buccally and middle third lingually.
The curvature of the cervical line is less
than in the mesial surface. Also there is
no evidence of deep developmental
grove and the root trunk is flattened
above the cervical line. The bifurcation
is more toward the apical third with no
developmental groove leading to it.

Occlusal aspect
The occlusal aspect has a hexagonal
outline. Two equal buccal sides, mesial
side shorter than the distal and mesiolin- Fig. 29. Pulp cavity characteristics of the
gual shorter than distolingual. It is wider upper first premolar. Mesiodistal section
buccally than lingually and buccolin- (upper left) cross section (upper middle);
gually than mesiodistally. The buccal Fig. 28. Maxillary first premolar, occlusal buccolingual section (upper right): varia-
aspect. DBCR, distobuccal cusp ridge; tions of root canals (lower)
margin is convex with a prominent buc- BTR, buccal triangular ridge; DBDG, dis-
cal ridge at the crest of the curvature. tobuccal developmental groove; DTF,
distal triangular fossa; DMR, distal mar-
The mesiolingual and distolingual cusp ginal ridge; DLCR, distolingual cusp ridge; opmental grooves. The junction of the
ridges are continuous with the mesial and CG, central groove; TLC, tip of lingual
cusp; LTR, lingual triangular ridge; MLCR, grooves are pointed and are named the
distal marginal ridges. The crest of the
buccal ridge is some what distal to the mesiolingual cusp ridge; MMR, mesial mesial and distal developmental pit. Just
lingual ridge, while the crest of the distal marginal ridge; MMDG, mesial marginal inside the mesial and distal marginal
developmental groove; MTF, mesial trian- ridges are the mesial and distal triangular
contact area is somewhat buccal to that gular fossa; MBDG, mesiobuccal develop-
of the mesial one. mental groove; MBCR, mesiobuccal cusp fossae.
ridge; TBC, tip of buccal cusp.
The occlusal surface shows two well Pulp cavity
developed cusps, the lingual one is more The primary grooves on the occlusal In the bucco-lingual section the pulp
pointed while the buccal one is larger. aspect are sharp and deep. A well- chamber is broad buccolingually with
Each cusp has four cusp ridges named defined central developmental groove well developed pulp horns. It presents a
according to their location, buccal, lin- divides the tooth mesiodistally. It ex- funnel-like opening leading to the root
gual, distal and mesial ridges. The buccal tends from the distal to the mesial mar- canals. The floor of the pulp chamber is
cusp ridge descends from the cusp tip ginal ridge where it joins the mesial mar- below the level of the cement-enamel
cervically onto the buccal surface. The ginal developmental groove which junction. The lingual root canal is larger
lingual cusp ridge of the buccal cusp and
crosses the mesial marginal ridge and than the buccal and both taper evenly
buccal cusp ridge of the buccal cusp
ends on the mesial surface of the crown. toward the apical foramen.
descends from the cusp tip to the central
area of the occlusal surface. The two Two developmental grooves join the The mesiodistal section is similar to the
triangular ridges of the buccal and lin- central groove just inside the mesial and pulp cavity of the maxillary canine. It is
gual cusps are separated by the central distal triangular fossae. These are called relatively narrow and taper evenly to the
developmental groove. the mesiobuccal and distobuccal devel- apical foramen.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 17

Table XI. Chronology of maxillary sec-

ond premolar

Dental Organ Appearance 8MIU

Start Calcification 2-2.3 Y
Enamel Completed 6-7 Y
Eruption 10-12Y
Root Completed 13-15 Y
Fig. 30. Surface characteristics of
Fig. 31. Pulp cavity characteristics
A transverse section at the cementoe- maxillary left second premolar from
of the upper second premolar.
namel junction shows the the characteris- left-to-right buccal, mesial, distal and
Mesiodistal section (left) cross
tic kidney shaped root trunk and the root lingual aspect, and occlusal aspect
section (middle); buccolingual
is wider buccolingually than mesidis- (lower left).
section (right).
tally.
Pulp cavity
Maxillary Second On buccolingual section the pulp chamber is wide with well defined pulp horns. There

Premolar are two pulp canals, buccal and lingual. The canals are very wide at their junction with
the pulp chamber and then narrow until reaches the mid-root where it constricts rapidly
This tooth supplements the first maxil- to the apical foramen.
lary premolar in function and very simi-
The tooth may show single broad pulp canal divided at mid-root into two canals by
lar to it. The second premolar is single
rooted in 85% of cases and has a less dentin island then the canals join again near the apical foramen. Mesiodistally the pulp
angular and rounded crown from all chamber is similar to that of the first premolar. Cervical cross section display an oval
aspect than that of the first premolar. The root trunk instead of kidney shaped rott trunk of the first premolar.
crown is shorter cervico-occlusally but
the root is little longer than that of the
first premolar. Table IX list the chrono- Mandibular Premolars
logical data of the maxillary second pre- They are four in number, two in each side of the mandible. As a rule the mandibular
molar. first premolars are always smaller than second premolars. The opposite is true for max-
illary premolars.
Buccal aspect
The buccal cusp is shorter and less
pointed than in the first premolar. The
Mandibular First Premolar
mesial slope of the buccal cusp is shorter The mandibular first premolar has many of the characteristics of a small canine. It has
than the distal slope, which is the oppo- one sharp buccal cusp which is the only part occlude with maxillary teeth. The lingual
site for the first premolar. cusp is small and nonfunctioning resembling a well developed cingulum. (Table X) On
the other hand the mandibular second premolar has more of the characteristics of a
Lingual aspect small molar.
Very similar to the first molar with very
little variations. Buccal aspect Table XIII. Characteristics of first man-
The outline is roughly trapezoidal with the dibular premolar resembling canine
Mesial aspect smallest of the uneven sides cervically.
Cusps are shorter than in the first premo-  The buccal cusp is long and sharp and is
lar and are almost of the same length. The mesial outline of the crown is straight the only part occluding
The distance between the cusp tips is or slightly convex till it joins the curvature  The mesiodistal and buccolingual meas-
wider which widens the occlusal surface of the mesial contact area. The outline of ures are similar to the canine
buccolingually. Crown is convex with no the mesial slope of the buccal cusp usually  The occlusal surface slopes sharply lin-
developmental depression and a shallow shows some convexity. gually in a cervical direction
developmental groove is seen on the  The mesiobuccal cusp ridge is shorter then
root. No developmental groove crosses The distal outline of the crown is slightly the distobuccal one.
the mesial marginal ridge. concave above the cervical line to a point
 The outline form of the occlusal aspect
where it is continuous with the curvature resembles the incisal aspect of the canine
Distal aspect of the distal contact area. This curvature
The distal aspect shows very little varia- is broader than that of the mesial contact
tions from that of the first premolar. area. The distal slope of the buccal cusp
shows some concavity.
Occlusal aspect Table XII. Chronology of mandibular
Table XIV. Characteristics of first man-
The occlusal surface outline is more dibular premolar resembling second
first premolar
rounded or oval than angular, as the oc- premolar
clusal outline of the first premolar. The Dental Organ Appearance 7MIU  Crown and root outline from the buccal
distance between the cusp tips is wider,
Start Calcification 1.7-2 Y aspect are similar but the buccal cusp is
the central developmental groove is longer
shorter and more irregular with multiple Enamel Completed 5-6 Y  Contacts areas are at the same level
supplemental grooves radiating from the
central groove. The mesial and distal Eruption 10-11Y  Curvatures of cervical line are similar
triangular fossae are nearer to each other.  Roots are about the same length
Root Completed 12-13 Y
18 HUMAN DENTITION

Fig. 32. mandibular right first premolar,

mesial and occlusal aspect. BC, buccal
cusp, BTR, buccal triangular ridge, LC,
lingual cusp; MLDG, mesiolingual devel- Fig. 33. Surface characteristics of mandibular right first premolar from left-to-right buccal,
opmental groove; CL, cervical line; BCR, mesial, distal, lingual and occlusal aspect.
buccal cervical ridge; MCA, mesial con-
tact area; MMR, mesial marginal ridge;
MBCR, mesiobuccal cusp ridge; CDG, ingly most of the occlusal surface is seen Some of the mesial portion of the occlu-
central developmental groove; DMR, from this aspect. sal surface is seen from this aspect, this
distal marginal ridge. include mesial portion of the buccal cusp
A mesiolingual developmental groove triangular ridge and mesial marginal
separates the mesial marginal ridge from ridge.
The tip of the buccal cusp is pointed and the lingual cusp. The groove fads out at
is located a little mesial to the central of the junction of the middle and cervical The cervical line curves occlusally and
the crown buccally. The cervical line is thirds. the crest of curvature is about 1mm in
curved toward the root. extgent and is centered buccolingually.
The root tapes evenly from the cervix to
The buccal surface of the crown is more a pointed apex. A narrow smooth convex The mesia surface is convex at the me-
convex than the maxillary premolars. ridge is seen through the full length of sial contact area then becomes sharply
The middle buccal lobe of the crown is the root. Often developmental depression concave till the cervical line.
well developed, resulting in a large in the root with developmental grooves
The root outline tapers to a pointed apex
pointed buccal cusp with a buccal ridge mesially and distally are seen.
in line with the tip of the buccal cusp.
continuous from the cervical margin to Deep developmental groove is shown in
the cusp tip. Mesial and distal to the Mesial aspect the center of the root which may end in
ridge a developmental depression may be Crown outline is rhomboidal which is a bifurcation at the apex.
seen separating the three lobes. The me- characteristic of all mandibular posterior
sial cusp ridge is shorter than the distal teeth from mesial and distal aspect.
Distal aspect
one. The surface of the crown presents an In differes from the mesia aspect in the
The contact areas are broad and are al- overhang above the root in a lingual following:
most at the same level being just cervical direction. The tip of the lingual cusp is
 Distal marginal ridge is more oc-
to the junction between the occlusal and on a line with the lingual border of the
clusally located and nearly at line
middle thirds. root (both the buccal and lingual roots of
angle to the axis of the crown and
the maxillary premolars are within the
The root outline resembles that of the root.
confines of the root trunk).
canine but is shorter by about 3-4 mm an  The distal contact area is broader
shows a distal curvature at the apex. The tip of the buccal cusp is nearly cen- than the mesial and is centered
tered or a little buccal to the center of the buccolingually in the middle one
Lingual aspec root. third.
Lingual aspect is much narrower mesio- The buccal outline of the crown is con-  Curvature of cervical line is nearly
distally than buccal since the crown and vex with the crest of curvature near the the same as in the mesial aspect.
root taper markedly toward the lingual cervical one third. This feature is a char-  The root surface is more convex
side. The lingual surface is evenly con- acteristic for buccal surface of all poste- distally.
vex in all directions. rior teeth. The lingual outline is less  A shallow developmental depres-
The mesial and distal outlines are con- convex and the crest of curvature ap- sion is centered on the root but with
cave between the cervical line and the proaches the middle third. no developmental groove
contact areas. The contact areas and The mesial marginal ridge has a sharp
marginal ridges are pronounced and
Occlusal aspect
inclination lingually in a cervical direc- This aspect shows considerable varia-
extend out above the narrow cervical tion (45o), the lingual border of which
portion of the crown. The mesial mar- tions on the outline. It may be diamond-
merges with the developmental depres- shaped, similar to the incisal aspect of
ginal ridge is more cervically located sion mesiolingually. This depression canine, or circular similar to some sec-
than the distal one. harbors the mesiolingual developmental ond premolars. The characteristics com-
The cervical line is slightly convexto- groove. mon to all mandibular first premolars
ward the root. The occlusal surface The contact area is ovoid in shape and is from the occlusal aspect regardless the
slopes greatly toward the lingual surface located to the junction of the occlusal type are listed in table XIII.
down to the short lingual cusp. Accord- and middle thirds and slightly buccally.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 19

Table XV. Characteristics of occlusal The pulp cavity

aspect of first mandibular premolar It resemble that of the canine but smaller
in dimensions.
 The middle buccal lobe makes the major
bulk of the crown. In buccolingual section the pulp chamber
 The lingual marginal ridge is convex and is is wide with clear pulp horn under the
interrupted mesially by the mesiolabial buccal cusp. The pulp horn directed to
developmental groove. the lingual cusp is missing. The root
 The mesiobuccal and distobuccal line canal is broad tapering evenly and is
angles are prominent even though rounded. more constricted at halfway point of root
 The curvature representing the contact length.
areas are broad and the distal is broader.
 The crown converges sharply to the center Mesiodistally the pulp chamber and root
of the lingual surface, which gives the canal are narrow and the canal taper
crown a triangular appearance with the evenly until the constricted apical fora-
base at the buccal cusp and the apex at the men. This is typical for all premolars.
lingual cusp.
 The marginal ridges are well developed. Cervical cross section shows wider pulp
canal bucculingually ehan mesiodistally. Fig. 34. pulp cavity characteristics of
 The lingual cusp is small.
lower right first premolar. Mesiodistal
 The buccal triangular ridge is heavy and The outline form may be oval, rectangu-
section (upper left), buccolingual section
the lingual one form a transverse ridge. lar or triangular. Occalsionally two cnals (upper right) and cervical cross section
 Mesial and distal triangular fossae are two may be seen. (upper middle) and possible variation
irregular depressions containing pits. (lower).
 The mesiolingual developmental groove
constricts the mesial surface of the crown
and create a smaller contact area.
 The mesial triangular fossa of the occlusal These ancient Indians forceps were
surface is more linear in form. used for extraction of teeth and were
named for the resemblance to the head
 The mesiobuccal groove extends bucally
of an animal. The right forceps is called
from mesiotriangular fossa and the mesio-
“Cat” and the left “Jackal”. The forceps
lingual groove extends from it lingually.
were used to extract teeth as well as
 The distal triangular fossa is more circular. foreign bodies such as arrow heads.
 The central developmental groove extends
from the mesial to the distal pits of the
fossae.

Mandibular second premolar Table XVI. Chronology of mandibular

second premolar
The crown of the mandibular second premolar is wider buccolingually by 0.5 mm than
Dental Organ Appearance 8MIU
the mandibular first premolar. Its lingual cusps are more developed, and both marginal
ridges are higher. This produces a more efficient occlusion with the maxillary antago- Start Calcification 21/3-21/2 Y
nist. Therefore, a mandibular second premolar functions more like molar than a canine. Enamel Completed 6-7 Y
There are two common forms which this tooth assumes; Eruption 11-12Y
The three cusp type, which is the most common and appears more angular from Root Completed 13-15 Y
the occlusal aspect.
 The two-cusp type appears more rounded from the occlusal aspect.
The single root of the second premolar is longer (by 0.5 mm) than that of the first pre- The lingual surface of the crown of all
molar with developmental groove buccally in many cases. mandibular second premolars is smooth
and spheroidal, having a bulbous form
above the constricted cervical portion.
Buccal aspect
From the buccal aspect the crown resembles a first premolar in its general shape. It pre- The root is much wider lingually than
sents shorter buccal cusp than the first premolar with the mesiobuccal and distobuccal that of the first premolar. This results in
cusp riges more rounded and less pointed cusp tip which is little mesial to the tooth less convergence towards lingual. It is
center. The mesial and distal contact areas are nearly at the same level but are broader smooth and convex.
and placed higher occlusally. The buccal ridge isles prominent that than that of the man-
dibular first premolar. Mesial aspect
The root is longer and broader mesiodistally than the first premolar and ends in more The second premolar differs from the
blunt apex. The single root may show a developmental groove. first from the mesial aspect in the follow-
ing ways;
Lingual aspect  The crown and root are thicker
The lingual lobes are developed to a greater degree making the cusp or cusps longer. In buccalingually than the first premo-
the three cusp type, there are a mesiolingual and a distolingual cusps. The former is the lar.
wider and longer of the two cusps. The cusps are divided by a lingual groove.  The buccal cusp is shorter and its
In the two cusp type, the single lingual cusp is higher than on a mandibular first premo- tip located more to the buccal side.
lar. There is no groove, but a developmental depression is seen distolingually where the  The lingual lobe or lobes develop-
lingual cusp ridge joins the distal marginal ridge. ment is greater. The tip of the lin-
20 HUMAN DENTITION

Fig. 36. Pulp cavity characteristics of lower left sec-

ond premolar. Mesiodistal section (left), buccolingual
Fig. 35. Surface characteristics of mandibular left second premolar from left-to- section (middle), cervical cross section (next to left)
right buccal, mesial, distal, lingual and occlusal aspect. and mesiodistal section of three cusp type (right).

gual cusp is on line with the lingual border of the root.  The mesiolingual and distolingual
 The marginal ridge is at right angle to the long axis of the tooth. line angles are rounded.
 Less of the occlusal surface may be seen.  There is only one well-developed
lingual cusp located directly oppo-
 There is no mesio-lingual developmental groove on the crown portion.
site to th buccal cusp in a lingual
 The root is longer and in most cases slightly convex on the mesial surface with a direction.
more blunt apex.
 There is no lingual developmental
Distal aspect groove.
More of the occlusal surface can be seen because the distal marginal ridge is at a lower A central developmental groove is seen
level than the mesial marginal ridge. on the occlusal surface traveling in ame-
siodistal direction. This groove may be
As a general rule, the crown of all posterior teeth (maxillary and mandibular) are tipped straight and often crescent-shaped. The
distally to the long acis of the root. So, much of the occlusal surface may be seen from groove pattern can be either a „‟U‟‟ or
the distal aspect. „‟H‟‟ groove pattern, depending on
In the three-cusp type both lingual cusps are seen since the distolingual cusp is shorter whether the central developmental
than the mesiolingual cusp. groove is straight mesiodistally or curves
buccally at its ends. The central groove
The root is conical in shape and may show deeper developmental depression. of the two-cusp from terminates in a
mesial and distal fossae. There is usually
Occlusal aspect no central pit, a mesial or distal pit is
In both the two and three-cusp forms, the buccal cusp is similar, however, the outline of much more likely. Usually the two cusp
each type shows some variations from the occlusal aspect. type shows a transverse ridge.
The occlusal characteristics of the three cusp type:
 It appears square lingual to the buccal cusp ridge. It has three distinct cusps, the T HE TOOTH IS A
buccal cusp is the largest then the mesiolingual cusp. The distolongual cusp is the
NOBLE ORGAN THAT
smallest.
 Each cusp has a well defined triangular ridges separated by deep developmental CAN NOT BE REPLACED
grooves. These grooves converge in a central pit and from a ‘’Y’’ shape on the
occlusal surface. Three pits may be present, a central, a mesial and distal. The pulp cavity
 The central pit is located in the center buccolingually and slightly distal to the In buccolingual section it resembles that
midway point between the mesial and distal marginal ridges. of the mandibular first premolar, but is
 From the central pit, a mesial and distal developmental grooves travel in a me- larger in size, and the roof of the pulp
siobucal and distobuccal directions respectively ending in the mesialand distal chamber is pointed to accommodate
triangular fossae. more than one pulp horn. The lingual
pulp horn is smaller than the buccal pulp
 The lingual developmental groove extends lingually between the two lingual cusps
horn.
and ends on the lilnguall surface of the crown just below the lingual cusps. The
mesiolongualcusp is wider mesiodistally than the distolingual cusp. In mesiodistal section it resembles that
 Supplemental grooves and depressions are often seen radiating from the develop- of the mandibular first premolar except
mental groove. for the added size and length.
 The mesial and distal marginal ridges are confluent with the cusp ridges. The pulp chamber has three pulp horns
The occlusal characteristics of the two-cusp type as compared with the three-cusp type in the three cusp type. The largest is the
are: buccal pulp horn then the mesio lingual
then the distolingual.
 The outline of the crown is rounded.
In cervical cross section the outline of
 The lingual surface of the crown is more convex and tapers toward the lingual side the pulp cavity follows that of the root
(lingual convergence) and most commonly is rectangular.■
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 21

The Molars
Table XVII. Chronology of maxillary
first molar

Dental Organ Appearance 4MIU

General features
Start Calcification At birth
 There are twelve permanent molars three in each quadrant. They are the largest
and strongest teeth in the mouth by their crown bulk size and their root anchorage Enamel Completed 3-4 Y
in the bone.
Eruption 6-7Y
 The molars have No deciduous predeccesors. Generally the lower first molars are
formed from five lobes, but second and some third molars may have only four. Root Completed 9-10 Y
Each cusp of a molar is formed from its own lobe.
 The most developed of the molar is the first molar. The third molar exhibits the
most variable morphology in the mouth.
 Molars are used in grinding food, but most important they support and maintain
the vertical dimension of the face.

Maxillary Molars
They are six in number, three in each side, the first, second, and third molars.

Maxillary First Molar

The normal location of the first permanent molar is at center of the fully developed
adult dental arch antero-posteriorly. Table XV shows the chronology of the first maxil-
lary molar.
It is the largest tooth in maxillary arch. It has four well developed cusps (two buccal and Fig. 37. Maxillary right first molar, buccal
two lingual) and a fifth supplemental nonfunctioning elevation which is called Tubercle aspect. DBR, distobuccal root; LR, lingual
of Carabelli. This fifth cusp serves to identify the maxillary first molar. The crown of root; MBR, mesiobuccal root; CL, cervical
line, DBR distobuccal cusp; MLC, mesio-
this tooth is wider buccolingually than mesiodistally.
lingual cusp; BDG, buccal developmental
There are three wel developed and widely separated roots, two buccal and one palatal groove; MBC, mesiobuccal cusp
(lingua). They give this tooth the maximum anchorage against forces.
There is a deep developmental groove
Buccal aspect buccally on the root trunk which starts at
The crown is roughly trapezoid. The cervical line is the shortest of the uneven sides. the bifurcation and progresses downward
The tips of all cusps are usually visible from this aspect. Part of the distal side is seen to end in a shallow depression at the
due to the obtuse distobuccal line angle. cervical line.
The mesial outline of the crown follows a nearly straight path downward and mesially, All three roots may be seen from the
curving occlusally as it reaches the crest of contour of the mesial surface which is the buccal aspect. The point of bifurcation of
contact area. The contact area is just Cervical to the junction of the occlusal and middle the two buccal roots is located approxi-
thirds. Then, the mesial outline curves occluaslly and distally and becomes correspond- mately 4.mm above the cervical line.
ing with the outline of the mesial slope of the mesiobuccal cusp. The roots are not straight; the buccal
The distol outline is convex, from the cervical line to the contact area is in the center of roots are curved halfway between the
the middle third then it curves occlusally and mesially to outline and distal slope of the point of bifurcation and the apices.
distobuccal cusp. The mesiobuccal root curves distally
The cervical line is slightly curved with the curvature root wise. This line is not so starting at the middle third to the apex.
smooth and regular as found in some other teeth. Its long axis at an acute angle distally
with the cervical line. It has a tendancy
Although the mesiobuccal cusp is broader than the distobuccal cusp, the distobuccal toward curvature mesially at the middle
cusp is usually sharper and longer. The mesial slope of the mesiobuccal cusp meets its third.
distal slope at an obtuse angle. The mesial slope os the distobuccal cusp meets its disal
slope at approximately right angle. Lingual Aspect
Separating the two buccal cusps is the buccal developmental groove. This shallow It is Trapezoid in shape. The crown sur-
groove runs in occluso-apical direction parallel to the long axis of the distobuccal root. face shows more convexity occlusocervi-
It terminates at a point nearly half the distance from its origin as a horizontal groove. cally than the buccal surface. The hight
of contour is located in the middle third
The buccal surface is characterized by buccal ridges on each buccal cusp. They are con- of the surface. The lingual cusps are the
vex areas which extend cervically about half its length. It is also characterized by the only ones to be seen from this aspect.
buccal cervical ridge which extends horizontally from mesial to distal in the entire cer- The mesiolingual cusp is much larger. Its
vical third. mesiodistal width is about 3/5th of the
The molar roots originate as a single root on the base of the crown, and then they divide mesiodistal diameter of the crown, the
into three roots. The common root base is called root trunk. Usually the palatal toot is distolingual cusp making up the remain-
the longest and the two buccal roots are approximately equal in length. The root are ing 2/5th.
about twice as long as the crown and their greatest extremities mesiodistally is less than The mesial outline is straight from the
the calibration of the crown mesiodistally. cervical line to the contact area and
22 HUMAN DENTITION

meets the mesial slope of the mesiolingual cusp at 90o. The two cusp slopes meet at
obtuse angle. The distal outline of the crown is smoothly curved. The cervical line is
slightly convex rootwise in an irregular manner.
The fifth cusp (Tubercle of Carabelli) appears attached to the mesiolinguall surface of
the mesiolingual cusp. The fifth cusp is separated from the mesiolingual cusp by an
irregular developmental groove. This is called the fifty cusp developmental groove.
The distolingual cusp is smooth and spherioidal without angulation on the mesial and
distal slopes. The lingual developmental groove separates the two large lingual cusps
and runs cervically to end at the center of the lingual surface of the crown. From this
point a shallow depression extends cervically and continues in an apical direction on the
lingual root till the middle third.
All three roots are visible from the lingual aspect. The lingual portion of the crown lin-
gually. The lingual root is conical with blunt rounded apex. The apex of the lingual root Fig. 38. maxillary right first molar, mesial
is on line with the lingual groove of the crown. aspect. LR, lingual root; FC, fifth cusp;
MLC, mesiolingual cusp; MMR, mesial
Mesial aspect marginal ridge; MBC, mesiobuccal cusp;
It is trapezoid in shape with the smallest uneven side located occlusally. The buccal MCA, mesial contact area;CRm cervical
outline of the crown starting from the cervical line is curved with the crest of curvature ridge; MBR, mesiobuccal root.
within the cervical third. As it progresses downward, it becomes less convex to circum-
scribe the mesiobuccalcusp. Only the mesiobuccal, mesiolingual and the fifth cusps are
seen. Also only two roots are seen, the mesiobuccal and the palatal roots.
The lingual outline is curved with the crest of curvature located near the middle third. If
the tubercle is well developed, the lingual outline dips inward to illustrate it. If it is un-
developed the lingual outline continues from the crest of curvature as a smooth curved
arc to the tip of the mesiolingual cusp.
The mesial marginal ridge, which is confluent with the mesiobuccal and mesiolingual
cusp ridges, is irregular and curved cervically about one-fifth the crown length. The
cervical line is irregular, curving occlusally not more than 1mm.
The mesial contact area is above the marginal ridge approximately cervical to the junc-
tion of the middle and occlusal thirds of the crown and some what toward the buccal
side. Just above it, a shollow concavity is found which may continue to the mesial sur-
face of the root trunk at its cervical third.
Fig. 39. maxillary right first molar, distal
The mesiobuccal root is broad and flattened on its mesial surface. The width of this root aspect. DBR, distobuccal root; MBR,
at the point of bifurcation is about 2/3rds of the crown width at the cervical line buccalin- mesiobuccal root; BDG, buccal develop-
gually. The buccal outline of this root is curved, but its lingual outline is straight to end mental groove;DBC, distobuccal cusp;
at a blunt apex. DCA, distal contact area; CL, cervical line;
LR, lingual root; DLC, distolingual cusp;
The lingual or (palatal) root is longer than the mesiobuccal root by 1.0mm but it is nar- DMR, distal marginal ridge.
rower from this aspect. Its buccal outline is concave and its lingual outline is convex. At
its middle and apical thirds, it is outside of the confines of the greatest crown projection.
It is banana shaped. Occlusal aspect
The level of the bifurcation is a little closer to the cervical lie than is found between the It is Rhomboidal in outline, the crown is
roots buccally. There is smooth depression extends from the bifurcation to the cervical wider mesialy than distally, and wider
line. lingually than buccally (this the only
molar that is wider lingually than buc-
Distal aspect cally).
The gross outline of this aspect is similar to that of the mesial aspect, but the following
The mesiobuccal and distolinguall angles
variation is noted.
are acute in comparison to the mesiolin-
 The buccolingual measurement of the crown on the distal aspect is less than that of gaul and distobuccal angles which are
the mesial asplect. comparatively obtuse.
 The distal marginal ridge dips sharply in a cervical direction exposing part of the
four cusps. The four major cusps are well developed.
The tubercle of Carabelli on the lingual
 The cervical line is almost straight. surface of the mesiolingual cusp is small
 The distalsurface is generally convex except for a small concave area near the and nonfunctional. It may be indistinct,
distobccal root at the cervical third. This concavity continues over the distobuccal and instead, a developmental line in the
root and end at the bifurcation point. enamel is present.
 The distobuccal root is narrow at its base than either of the others. Its outline fol-
lows a concave path from the cervical line for a short distance than makes a con- The mesiolingual cusp is the largest
vex arc to the blunt apex. The lingual outline of this root is slightly concave from cusp, followed by the rounded mesiobuc-
the apex to the bifurcation. call, the sharp distobuccal, the small
 The bifurcation is more apical. The area from the cervical line to bifurcation is distolingual , and the nonfunctional fifth
5mm or more in extent. cusp (tubercle of Carabelli).
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 23

Fig. 40. Surface characteristics of maxillary right first molar. From left-to-right buccal, me-
sial lingual, distal and occlusal aspects.

The occlusal surface is within the con- From the distal pit the following devel-
fines of the cusp ridges and the marginal opmental grooves radiate:
ridges.
 The distal groove that joins the
There are two major fossae, a central distal triangular and distal fossa.
fossa which is triangular concave area  The distal marginal groove that
mesial to the oblinque ridge, and a distal may extends over te marginal ridge
fossa which is to the distal marginal Fig. 41. Maxillary right first molar, occlusal
into the distal surface.
ridge. aspect (upper) and developmental
 The distolingual groove. grooves (lower).
The central development pit lies in rteh  The distobuccal groove. (Upper) MBCR, mesiobuccal cusp ridge;
central fossa. The buccal developmental The oblique ridge traverses the occlusal CF, central fossa (shaded area); MTF.
groove radiates from this pit buccally surface from the top of the mesiol;ingual Mesial triangular fossa (shaded area);
between the two bucclcusp. The central MMR, mesial marginal ridge; MLCR, me-
cusp to the top of the distobuccal cusp. It
development groove proceeds in a mesial siolingual cusp ridge;DF, distal fossa;
is reduced in height in the center of the DTF, distal triangular fossa (shaded
direction originating in the central pit occlusal surface and is some times area); DMR, distal marginal ridge; DBCR,
and termination at the mesial triangular crossed by the transverse groove of the distobuccal cusp ridge; DLCR, distolin-
fossa. The mesial pit is found in the me- oblique ridge. gual cusp ridge; OR, oblique ridge.
sial triangular groove and crosses the (Lower) BG, buccal groove; BGCF, buccal
mesial marginal ridge. The mesial and distal marginal ridges are
groove of central fossa; CGCF, central
irregular elevations of enamel which are groove of central fossa; FCG, fifth cusp
From the mesial pit the following devel- confluent with the adjacent cusp ridges. groove; LG, lingual groove; DOG, distal
opmental grooves radiate.
oblique groove; TGOR, transverse groove
 The central developmental groove Pulp cavity of oblique ridge;CP, central pit.
to the central fossa. It contains a pulp chamber and
 The mesiobuccal groove. three or four root canals.
 The mesiolingual groove. In buccolingual section yhe chamber is
Another developmental groove may be broad and rectangular in shape and the pulp chamber. The lingual canal is large
seen radiating from the central pit dis- two pulp horns are prominent and extend and accessible, while the mesiobuccal
tally and crosses the oblique ridge to end to the mesiobuccal and mesiolingual canal is small and shorter and it may
at the distal fossa. This is called the cusps. The floor is smooth with canal have supplementary branches and multi-
Transverse groove of the oblique ridge. openings widening out as they enter the ple foraminae, but mostly the mesiobuc-
cal root has two root canals which either
oopen in one or two aical foramina. The
disto buccal root has only one root canal.
In mesiodistal section The pulp chamber
is not wide, and the pulp horns extend to
the mesio-buccal and distobuccal cusps.
The mesiobuccal and distobuccal canals
are narrow and tapering to the apex. The
pulp chamber the two root canals are
centered within the tooth outlines.
In cervical cross section The outline is
rhomboidal in shape with rounded cor-
ners. The canals of this tooth form a
triangular patern. A line drawn between
the mesiobuccal and the palatal canals
makes the base of the triangle.
In midroot cross section The palatal root
Fig. 42. Characteristics of pulp cavity of upper first molar. Buccal, distal, canal is rounded in outline. The disto-
and lingual aspect (upper) and cross section at the cervical line (left) buccal canal is oval and smaller. The
mesiobuccal canal or canals are elon-
gated oval or kidney shaped. ■
24 HUMAN DENTITION

the occlusal surface of the maxillary

second molar which make the surface
more wrinkled.

Pulp cavity
It is similar to the first maxillary molar
both in the mesiodistal and buccolingual
cross sections. It is not common to find
two root canals in the mesiobuccal root.

Maxillary Third
Fig. 43. Surface characteristics of maxillary left second molar. From left-to-right buccal, Molar
mesial lingual, distal and occlusal aspects. The maxillary third molar is the most
variable tooth in the upper arch. It v aries
 There is no developmental groove
Table XVIII. Chronology of maxillary in size, shape, contour and surface de-
on the palatal root.
second molar tails. The most common crown shape is
Mesial aspect the hear-shape, which is generally
Dental Organ Appearance One Year No tubercle of Carabelli. It shows less smaller and more rounded in all dimen-
divergent roots (being within the con- sions than the second molar and also the
Start Calcification 2.5-3 Y crown is shorter and narrower.
fines of buccolingual crown outline). In
Enamel Completed 7-8 Y addition the cervical concavity is not The distolingual cusp is very small and
present. poorly developed or may be absent pre-
Eruption 12-13 Y
senting an occlusal table with three
Root Completed 14-16 Y Distal aspect cusps. The groove pattern is variable and
It is similar to the mesial except that the may show many supplementary grooves
distobuccal cusp is smaller than in the
Maxillary Second first molar. The apex of the lingual root
and the distolingual groove is absent.
The root form and number are extremely
is in line with the distolingualcusp.
Molar variable, but are smaller in all dimen-
sions. The most common is the three root
This tooth assists the maxillary first mo- Occlusal aspect type where they are often fused
lar in function, and it has the same from The crown is more constricted mesiodis-
with some varioations. tally and has no tubercle of Carabelli.
There are two major types of crown Pulp cavity
from: Due to the variation in shape of this
Buccal aspect tooth the pulp cavity also subjected to
The crown is a little shorter cervico- Rhomboidal form which is most frequent great variation in shape and size. How-
occlusally (by about 0.5mm) narrower type resembling the maxillary first molar
mesiodistally (by 1mm), but of the same ever, the pulp cavity roughly follows the
except that: shape of the tooth.
measurement bucco-lingually.
 The rhomboid form is more accen-
The buccal groove is located further tuated.
distally, with a resultant larger and  The acute angle is less acute, and Table XIX. Chronology of maxillary
longer mesiobuccal cusp, and a shorter, the obtuse angles are greater. third molar
smaller and sharper distobuccal cusp.  The distobuccal and distolingual
Dental Organ Appearance 4Y
The buccal roots are about the same cusps are smaller.
length. They are more nearly parallel ad Start Calcification 7-9 Y
Heart shaped form resemble the maxil-
are inclined distally more than those of lary third molar. The distolingaul cusp Enamel Completed 12-16 Y
the maxillary first molar so that the end being poorly developed or sometime
of the distobuccal root is slightly distal to missing. Eruption 17-21 Y
the distal extremity of the crown.
It is common to find supplemental Root Completed 18-25 Y
The apex of the mesiobuccal root is on a grooves as well as grooves and pits on
line with the buccal groove of the crown
instead of the tip of the mesiobuccal cusp
as found on the first molar.

Lingual aspect
 The mesilingaul cusp is smaller and
not well developed as in the first
maxillary molar. No fifth cusp is
present.
 The distolingual cusp is smaller.
 The buccal cusps may be seen be-
tween the lingual cusps.
 The apex of the lingual root is in
line with the distolingual cusp in-
stead of the lingual groove as was Fig. 45. Surface characteristics of maxillary left second molar. From left-to-right buccal,
mesial lingual, distal and occlusal aspects.
found on the first molar.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 25

Mandibular Molars Table XX. Chronology of mandibular

first molar
They are six in number, three on each side of the mandible. (The are larger than any Dental Organ Appearance 4 MIU
mandibular teeth. The crowns are quadrilateral being some what longer mediodistally
than buccolingually). The crowns of the mandibular molars are shorter cervico- Start Calcification At birth
occlusally than the other mandibular teeth. The posses two roots, one mesial and one Enamel Completed 2.5-3 Y
distal.
Eruption 6-7 Y

Mandibular First Molar Root Completed 9-10 Y

It is the largest tooth in the mandibular arch. It has five well-developed cusps, two buc-
cal two lingual and distal cusp, so it is formed of five lobes. Occasionally four cuspid It shows two pointed lingual cusps with
first molar is formed with the distobuccal and distal cusp0s fused with little or no disto- high cusp ridges as well as the lingual
buccal developmental groove. part of the distal cusp. The mesiolingual
cusp is the widest mesiodistally and its
It has two well developed roots, one mesial and one distal which are very buccolin- cusp tip is higher than the distolingual
gually. The roots are widely separated at the aspices. The most abnormal finding is to cusp. The mesiolingual and distolingual
see a thin slender long root originated lingual and adjacent to the mesial root. cusp ridges form obtuse angles at the
cups tips. The tow lingual cusps are
Buccal aspect separated by the lingual developmental
The outline is trapezoid with the long side occlusally. It is wider mesiodistally than groove which extends downward on the
occlusocervically. The five cusps ar in view from this aspect (the two buccal cusps, the lingual surface of the crown for a short
buccal portion of the distal cusp and the tips of the two lingual cusps). The develop- distance to the junction of the occlusal
mental grooves appear on the crown. and middle thirds. The distal cusp is at a
The mesiobuccal developmental groove which demarcates the mesiobuccal cusp from lower level than the mesiolingual and
the distobuccal cusp is situated a little mesial to the root bifurcation. It originates from distolingual cusps.
the occlusal and extends onto the buccal surface of the crown ending with a pit. The cervical line is irregular and is
This distobuccal development groove is longer than the other and separates the the dis- sharply pointed toward the bifurcation of
tobuccal cusp from the distal cusp from the distal cusp. It has its terminus near the cer- the root.
vical third of the crown. The roots are longer by 1mm lingually
The cervical ridge is a heavy mesiodistal ridge along thte cercival thir of the surface. It than buccally. The root trunk is also
is more prominent in its mesila portion. The cervical line is regular in outline and 1mm longer, the root bifurcation starts at
about 4 mm. It shows deep developmen-
curved root wise.
tal depression form the point of bifurca-
The mesial outline of the crown is convex in the occlusal third to the contact area and tion progresses cercially and fades out
becomes concave to the cervical line. The mesial contact area is located at the junction entirely immediately below the cervical
of the occlusal and middle thirds. line. The bifurcation groove of the
crown.
The distal ouline is more convex in the occlusal portion than the mesial outline, and
straight from the cervical line to the distal contact area which is near the crown centre
cervico-occlusallu.
Mesial aspect
It is rhomboidal, wider at the cervical
The buccal cusps are flat with less curved ridge (which is characteristic for madnibular margin than at the occlusal margin.
moral) . The mesiobuccal cusp is the widest mesiodistally and the distobuccal cusp, is From this aspect the mesiobycccal and
less wide. mesiolinguals cusps together with the
mesial root are seen. The entire crown
The mesial root curves mesially from a point shortly below the cervical line to the mid- has a lingual tilte in relation to the root
dle third, then curves distally to tapered apex which is located below the mesiobuccal axis (the maxillary posterior teeth have
cusp. The distal outline of the mesial root is concave from the bifurcation of the trunk the centre of the occlusal surgaces be-
to the apex. tween the cusps in line with the root
The distal root is less curved than mesial. The apex is more pointed and is located be- axis).
low or distal to the distal contact area of the crown. The buccal outline is convex immedi-
Both roots are wider misiodistally at the buccal surgace than they are lingually. Develp- ately above the cervical line which out-
mental deprssions are present on ht emesial and distal sides. The point of bifurcation of lines the buccal cervical ridge. Above
the two roots is located approximately 3mm below the cervical line. There is a deep the cervical rideg, the buccal contour
developmental depression on the root trunk from the bifurcation ending immediately becomes flat till the contour of the me-
above the cervical line. siobuccal cusp. The mesiobuccal cusp is
located directly above the buccal third of
Lingual aspect the mesial root.
It is trapezoid and is smaller than the buccal aspect due to the convergence of the me- The lingual outline is straight from the
sial and distal surfaces. The mesial outline of the crown is convex from the cervical line cervical line to join the curvature at the
to the marginal ridge with the crest of curvature at the contact area. middle third then becomes curved till tip
The distal outline is straight or slightly concave above the cervical line to the distal of the mesiolingual cusp. The crest of
contact area and becomes convex to the occlusal margin. The contact area is lower than curvature is locted at the centre of the
on the mesial side located in the middle third. middle third of the crown. The mesiolin-
gual cusp tip is located directly above the
26 HUMAN DENTITION

Fig. 45. Surface characteristics of mandibular right first molar. From left-to-right buccal,
mesial lingual, distal and occlusal aspects.

lingual third of the mesial root.

The mesial marginal ridge is continous with the mesial ridges of the mesiolingual and
mesiobuccal cusps, but is below the cusp tip by 1 mm.
The surface of the crown is covex and smooth over the cusps. A slightly concave areas
exists at the cervical line immediately above the centre of the mesial root. Above this
area is the contact area which is rounded to slightly ovoid in shape and located at the
junction of the middle and occlusal thirds almost centred buccolingully.
The root outline is almost straight buccally and lingually and then becomes convex on
both sides to taper to a blunt apex which is located directly below the mesiobuccal
cusps. The mesial surface of the root is convex with broad concavity in the centgre for
the full length of the rootl. The apex is usually bifid at the apical third.

Distal aspect Fig. 46.Mandibular right first molar, mesial

The gross outline is similar to the mesial aspect, but the crown is shorter distally, and aspect (upper) and distal aspect (Lower).
MMR, mesial marginal ridge; MLC, mesio-
the buccal and lingual surfaces converge distally. From this aspect part of the occlusal
lingual cusp; MCA mesial contact area;
surface and part of each of the five cusps are seen due to the distal inclination of the CL, cervical line; DD, developmental de-
crown to the long axis. pression; CR, cervical ridge; MBC, me-
siobuccal cusp. (upper)
The distal, distobuccal and distolingual cusps are clearly seen. The distolingual cusp is
MMR, mesial marginal ridge; MBC, me-
the largest of the three cusps, and the distal is the smallest. siobuccal cusp; DBDG, distobuccal devel-
The distal marginal ridge is short and dips sharply in a cervical direction and develop- opmental groove, DCA, distal contact
area,; CL, cervical line; DMR, distal mar-
mental groove or depression is found corssing it at this point. ginal ridge; DCL, distolingual cusp; MLC,
The end of the distobuyccal developmental groove is located on the distal surface, form- mesiolingual cusp (lower)
ing a convavity at the cervical portion of the distobuccal line angle of the crown.
two has its two terminals in each fossae.
The distal contact area is located below the distal cusp and is centered over the distal
root near the crown center cervico-occlusally. It is larger than the mesial contact area. From the central fossa at the central pit
amny developmental grooves radiate.
The distal surface of the crown is convex except above the cervical line whre is be-
The are, the central developmental
comes flat and joins the flattendd surface of the root trunk distally.
groove which in a zigzag manner runs it
The distal root is narrow buccalingually than the mesial root.l The distal and mesial ends on either side in the triangular fos-
surfaces of the root are smooth and flat with a shallow developmental depression on the sae. Sometimes it crosses the distal mar-
distal surface. The apical third of the root is more rounded and tapers to a sharper apex ginal ridge and continues as a shollow
than is found in the mesial root. The lingual border of the mesial root may be seen from groove for a small distance on the distal
the distal aspect. surface. A short distance from the cen-
tral pit, the central groove joins the me-
Occlusal aspect siobuccal developmental groove which
The crown is hexagonal from the occlusal aspect. It is 1 mm greater mesiodistally tan separates the mesiobuccal and distobuc-
buccolingually (which is the opposite for the maxillary molars). It has five cusps, the cal cusps.
mesiobuccal cusp is slightly larger than the lingual cusps which are nearly equals, than The developmental groove of the surface
followed by the distobuccal cusp. The distal cusp is the smallest of all. Some times the is irregular coursing in a lingual direction
first molar has four cusps when the distobuccal and distal cusps fuse. The crown con- to the junction of the lingual cusp ridges.
verges lingually and distally.
The distobuccal developmental groove
The occlusal surface has a major central fossa and two mino fossae. The central fossa is extends from the central fossa to pass
concave and circular. It is centerally placed on the occlusal surface between the buccla between the distobuccal and distal
and lingual cusp ridges. The two minor fossae are the the mesial triangular fossa and cusps.Supplemental grooves,and devel-
the distal triangular fossa just distal and mesial to the marginal ridge respectively. The opmental pits may also found on the
distal fossa is smaller and shallower than the mesial fossa. The central groove has its occlusal surface.Buccal and lingual sup-
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 27

Fig. 48. characteristics of pulp cavity of lower first molar.

Fig. 47. Mandibular right first molar, occlu-

sal aspect.
DBCR, distobuccal cusp ridge; DBDG,
distobuccal developmental groove; DCR,
distal cusp ridge; DTF, distal triangular
fossa (shaded area), DLCR, distolingual
cusp ridge; LDG, lingual developmental
groove; MLCR, mesiolingual cusp ridge; Fig. 49. Surface characteristics of mandibular left second molar. From left-to-right buccal,
MTF, mesial triangular ridge (shaded mesial lingual, distal and occlusal aspects.
area); SG, supplemental groove; MBCR,
mesiobuccal cusp ridge, MBDG, me-
siobuccal developmental groove (upper)
Central fossa (shaded area); CP, central
Mandibular Second Table XXI. Chronology of maxillary
second molar
pit; DMR, distal marginal ridge; DP, distal
pit; CDG, central developmental groove; Molar Dental Organ Appearance 1Y
MP, mesial pit; MMR, mesial marginal The Second molar supplements the first Start Calcification 2.5-3 Y
ridge, (lower) molar in function and its anatomy differs
in the following details. Enamel Completed 7-8 Y
plimantal grooves join the terminal of the Eruption 11-13 Y
central groove in the mesial and distal  The second molar is slightly
triangular fossae. smaller than the first molar in all Root Completed 14-15 Y
dimensions, although a second
molar with larger crown or longer
Pulp cavity root may be found.  The roots may be shorter and
In buccolingual section the pulp chamber closer together and their axes are
 The crown has four well developed
is wide with prominent pulp horns.Some cusps, two buccal and two lingual parallel. They are inclined distally
times the pulp chamber is quite deep of nearly equal development. The in relation to the occlusal plane of
with the floor extending well down.The distobuccal cusp is larger than the the crown than is found on the first
mesil root may show broad root canal same one of the first molar. molar. The roots may be used for
(but very thin mesiodistally) which be- all or part of their length.
 The tooth has two well developed
comes narrow at the apical end of the roots,one mesial and distal. They ■ Lingual aspect.
root to a pointed apical foramen.Mor are less wide buccalingually than  The crown and root of the second
likely this root present two separate ca- the roots of the first molar and they molar converge far less lingually
nals which join in a common apical are not so widely separated. than the first molar.
opening,or the two canels open in two The differences between the second  The two lingual cusps, mesiolin-
separated apical foramina. and first molars are as follow:- gual and distolingual are nearly the
In mesiodiscatl section the pulp cham- same size.
■ Buccal aspect
ber is wide and accommodate pulp  The lingual developmental groove
 The crown is some what shorter crosses from the occlisal surface
horns.The mesial root show considerable cervico-occlussally and narrower
curvature which contains the most con- onto the ligual durface and fades
mesiodistally than the first molar. out near the junction of the middle
stricted canal mesiodistally. The distal
 The buccal cervical ridge is less and occlusal thirds,between the
root presents shorter, rounder and more prominent. lingual cups.
open root canal.
 There is one development groove,  The curvatures of the contact area
In cross section at the cervical the buccal developmental groove are more noticeable from the lin-
part of the pulp chamber is rec- between the mesiobuccal and dis- gual aspect. They are at slight
tobuccal cusps. lower level specially the distal
tangular in shape.
28 HUMAN DENTITION

L
B
Mandibular Third
D
M Molar
The mandibular third molars are ex-
L
tremely variable in size and shape of
B both crown and root portions.
There are two basic forms:
 Type I resembles the permanent
second molar 50%. It has four
cusps and the same general occlu-
sal pattern and contour. Ordinarily
the size is the same, but range from
Fig. 50. Characteristics of pulp cavity of lower second molar. From left-to-right buccal , very small larger than any other
mesial, mesial variation and distal sections molar.
 Type II resembles the permanent
first molar (40%) with five cusps
and a similar occlusal pattern and
contact area than those of the first disto-occlusal surface in compari- contours. In 10% of cases it has
molar. son with a square outline mesially. more than five or less than four
 The cervical line is irregular me-  The occlusal surface shows four
cusps.
siodistally. cusps. The distobuccal cusp is less The roots are extremely variable in
■ Mesial aspect pronounced than the mesiobuccal size,number and curvature.Single fused
 It is Rhomboidal in shape with lin- cusp. There is no distobuccal de- roots are common.Most often,root length
gual tilt. velopmental groove buccally or is less than other mandibular molars
occlusally.The distal cusp is absent. regardless of the crown size. The most
 The buccal cervical ridge is less common root torm reveals two short
pronounced. The lingual cusps are equal.
 The buccal and lingual development
curved roots.
 The occlusal surface is more con-
stricted buccolingally. grooves meet the central groove at
right angles at the central pit,so Pulp cavity.
 The mesial root is less broad and If it is well developed and is comparable
forming a cross dividing the crown
some what pointed apically. into four nearly equal parts. This to the second molar in shape the pulp
■ Distal aspect groove is known as crossi form cavity will resemble the second mo-
 There is no distal cusp and disto- fissure. lar.However,if it differs,it follows the
buccal groove.  There are major central fossa and general outline of the tooth.
 The distal root is less broad. two minor fossae ( the mesial and
 The contact area is therefore cen- distal triangular fossae). Three pits
tered on the distal surface buc- are present, a mesial a distal, and a
coligually as well as cervico- central.
occlussaly.  There are more secondary grooves
■ Occlusal aspect than on the first molar so the occlu-
 The occlusal aspect of the second sal surface is wrinkled.
molae differs considerably from the  Pulp cavity.
first molar. The outline form of the  As for the mandibular firs molar,
occlusal surface is rectangular wider except that the root canals ap-
mesiodistally than buccolingually. peared shorter, straighter with less
 The second molar exhibit more spread.
curvature of the outline of the  The cervical cross section is not as
crown distally than mesially show- square as the first molar as the
ing a semicircular outline of the crown tapers distally in the second
molar.

POLYPHYODENT
A polyphyodEnt is an animal whose
teeth are continuously replaced. Most
toothed fishes are polyphyodonts.
Sharks replace teeth throughout their
life. They have teeth arranged in rows.
When a tooth is lost it is replaced by
the one next to it. Sharks may have
35000 to 50000 tooth in lifetime.
Fig. 51. Surface characteristics of mandibular right third molar. From left-to-right buccal, Reptiles and most other vertebrates are
mesial lingual, distal and occlusal aspects. also polyphyodonts, but very fewmam-
mals are polyphydent.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 29

DESCRIPTION OF THE
DECIDUOUS DENTITION
T he deciduous teeth or primary,milk,baby and temporary teeth are twenty in num-
ber,10 in each jaw ( 4 incisors, 2 canines and 4 molars).
They start to erupt at the age of six monthe by the apperarence of the first deciduous
mandibular incisors in the oral cavity.At about 2 years old,the last deciduous tooth
which is the second molar,starts to apperare.At three year of age all the deciduos teeth
are erupt and are in function.
As the term “deciduous” implies, teeth are shed in order to make way for their perma-
nent successors.The process of exfoliation takes place between the sixth and twelfth
years.One to two years after complete root formation resorption begins at the root apex
of the deciduous teeth and continues cervical until resorption of the entire root has taken
place and the crown is lost from lack of support.
The anterior deciduous teeth are replaced by the anterior permanent teeth, while the
deciduous molars are replaced by the permanent premolars.
The life span of all the deciduous teeth in the oral cavity are from 6 months to 12 years
of age, therefore, from 6 months to 6 years the oral cavity contains only deciduous teeth.
From 6-12 years, the oral cavity contains mixed dentition (deciduous and permanent).
From 12 years on, the oral cavity contains only permanent teeth.

Deciduous Anterior Teeth

Maxillary central incisor
The deciduous central incisor closely resembles its permanent successor except for the
following:-
 It is smaller than the permanent.
 Its crown shows greater mesiodistal width than the cervico incisal length which is the
opposite for the permanent. The labiolingual dimension at the cervical third is only
1mm. less than cervicoincisally.
 The lingual surface shows well developed marginal ridges and cingulum.
 The cervical ridges of enamel are pronounced on the cervical third of the crown both
labially and lingually.
 From the proximal aspect, the crown appears thick in relation to its total length.
 From the incisal aspect, the crown appears much wider mesiodistally than labiolin-
gually.
 The root length is greater in comparison with the crown length than that of the perma-
nent. A lingual ridge is evident on the full length of the root. On the mesal and distal
surfaces of the root, there are central development depression for about the whole
length of the root.

Maxillary lateral incisor

It is similar to the central incisor with some variation.
 The crown is smaller in all dimention.
 The cervico –incisal length of the crown is greater than its mesiodistal width.
 The root is similar in shape to the central incisor but it is much longer in proportion to
its crown.

Mandibular central incisor

They are similar to their successors except that:
 They are much smaller.
 The crown is wide in proportion to its length in comparison with the permanent.
 The mesial and distal sides of the crown taper evenly from the contact areas.
 From the mesial aspect, the incisal ridge is centered over the root. The labial and lin- Fig. 52. Surface characteristics of primary
gaual cervical contours are quite convex, much more than those of the permanent maxillary and mandibular anterior teeth.
mandibular incisors. Lingual aspect (upper), lingual aspect
 The root is almost twice the crown length and evenly tapered down to a pointed apex. (middle) and mesial aspect lower.
It is very narrow and conical in shape.
30 HUMAN DENTITION

 From the incisal aspect the incisal ridge bisects the crown labiolingually unlke perma-
nent mandibular central incisors.
Mandibular lateral incisor
The fundamental outlines of the deciduous mandibular lateral incisors and similar to
thoseoyu of the deciduous mandibular central except for:-
 It is somewhat larger in all measurements except labiolingually where the two teeth
are identical in measurement.
 The cingulum,marginal ridges and lingual fossa are more developed.
 The incisal ridge slopes downwards distally, and its distal margin is more rounded.

Maxillary canine Fig. 53. Surface characteristics of primary

anterior teeth, incisal aspect.
It is similar to the permanent maxillary canine except for:-
Mesial aspect
 It is small in size.  The buccolongual dimestion of the
 The crown is more constricted at the cervix in relation to its mesiodistal width and crown at the cervical third is greather
more conves on its mesial distal surfaces. than the same dimention at the occlusal
 The contact areas placed at about the same level nearly at the center of the crown third.This characteristic is true of all
 cervico – incisally. molar teeth,but it is more evident on
 The cusp of the deciduous canine is much longer and shaper than the permanent. The the deciduous teeth (the crown is con-
mesial slope of the cusp is longer than the distal slope which is the opposite for the stricted at the occlusal third).
permanent.  The pronounced convexity of the buc-
 The tip of the cusp is more distal in relation to a line bisecting the crown mesiodis- cal cervical ridge is a outstanding char-
tally. acteristic of this tooth.
 The root is about twice as long as the crown and more slender than that of its perma-  The mesiolingual cusp is shaper and
nent successor. longer in size than the mesiobuccal
Mandibular canine cusp.
 The cervical line is curved slightly
It is similar to the permanent mandibular canine except for; toward the occlusal surface.
 It is smaller.  The mesiobuccal and lingual roots are
 The mesial slope of the cusp is shorter than the distal slope. This is true for both the only visible from this aspect.The
the permanent canines and premolars except the maxillary first premolar. root is long,slender and extends lin-
 It differs from the deciduous maxillary canine in the following: gually to a marked degree then curves
sharply in a buccal direction above the
 It is thicker at the neck of the tooth.
meddle third.
 The cervical ridge labially and the cingulum lingually are not quite pro-
nounced. Distal aspect
 The mesial cusp slope is shorter than the distal cusp slope.  The crown appears narrower distally

Deciduous Posterior Teeth than mesially.

 The distobuccal cusp is long and sharp,
while the diatolingual cusp is poorly
Maxillary first molar developed.
This tooth presents four cusps mostly and three roots.The mesiolingual cusp is the larg-  The buccal cervical ridge seen from the
est and the distolingual cusp is the smallest which may be even absent resulting in a mesial aspect does not continue dis-
three cusped molar.The first molar is much smaller thatn the deciduous maxillary sec- tally.
ond molar.  The cervical line may curve occlusally
or may run straight.
Buccal aspect  The distobuccal and lingual roots are
 It present narrow cervical portion of crown and root than that of the same portion seen this aspect as well as the apical
of the permanent molars. part of the mesiobuccal root.
 At the contact areas mesially and distally, the crown shows its widest measure-
ments. The measurement at the cervix is less than that at the contact areas mesio- Occlusal aspect
distally by about 2mm.  It is nearly rectangukar in shape with
 The occlusal margin is slight scalloped, but with no definite cusp form. the shortest sides representing the
 The buccal surface is smooth with a slight evidence of developmental grooves. proximal sides.(mesxial and distal)
 The furcation of the roots begins almost immediately at the site of cervical line.  The crown outline converges lingual
This characteristic is not possessed by the permanent molars. and distally.
 The roots are slender and long and spread widely. All three roots are seen from  The occlusal surface shows a sulcus
this aspect. The mesial root is longer than the distal one.Each of the three roots with its central groove connecting a
has a single root canal. central fossa and a mesial triangular
 The buccal cervical ridge is very developed particularly mesially. fossa.
 A distal development grove connects
Lingual aspect the central fossa and the distal triangu-
 The crown converges considerably in a lingual direction. lar fossa.
 The outline lingually is similar to the buccal aspect.  The mesial and distal triangular fossae
 The mesiolingual cusp is the longest and sharpest, while the distolingual cusp is are just inside the meaisl and distal
poorly defind or even absent. The distobuccal cusp may be seen from this aspect. marginal ridges with a mesial and distal
 All three roots are in view and the lingual one is the longest. pit in them.
 TOOTH MORPHOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY 31

Fig. 54. Surface characteristics of primary molars, buccal aspect (left), lingual aspect

 Supplimantal grooves radiate from the  All three roots are visible from this
mesial and distal pits, one to abuccal, aspect; the ligual root is larger and
and one to a lingual directions.A third thicker than the two buccal roots.
supplemental groove extends from the
pit toward the marginal ridge and may Mesial aspect
 The outline resembles that of the per- Fig. 55. Maxillary primary molars, charac-
extend over it. teristics of occlusal surface, first molar
manent molars.
 This tooth may show an oblique ridge (upper) and second molar (lower|). MPC,
connecting the mesiolingual and disto-  The crown appears short because of its
mesiobuccal cusp; MTF, mesial triangular
buccal cusps. This ridge may be ill thickness buccolingually in comparison fossa; MP, mesial pit; CP, central pit;
defined and the central developmental with its length. MLC, mesiolingual cusp; DLC, distolin-
groove extends from the mesila pit to  The mesiolingual is cusp larger than gual cusp; DTF, distal triangular fossa;
the distal developmental groove. the mesiobuccal cusp. DDG, distal developmental groove; BDG,
 The distal margine ridge is thin and  The lingual root extends lingually be- buccal developmental groove; DBC, disto-
yond the crown outline.The point of buccal cusp; CDG, central developmental
poorly developed in comparison with
bifurcation between the mesiobuccal groove; FC, fifth cusp; LDG, lingual devel-
the mesial marginal ridge. opmental groove; OR, oblique ridge
 There is a well defined buccal develop- and lingual roots is 2-3mm. Apical to
mental groove dividing the mesio buc- the cervical line.
 The mesial outline of the crown is
cal and distobuccal cusp occlusally.  The curvature at the cervical portion is
straight from the convex contact area to
pronounced lingually,but it resembles
Maxillary second that of the permanent maxillary first
the cervix constricting the crown very
little at the cevix.
molar buccally.In this,it differs entirely
molar from the prominent curvature found on  The distal outline converges toward the
contact are extend distally to a marked
It resembles the masillary first perma- the deciduous maxillary first molar at
the cervical third buccally. degree.
nent moloar that it is smaller in size.
 The distal portion of the crown is
Distal aspect shorter than the mesial portion because
Buccal aspect It resembles that of the permanent maxil- of dipping of the cervical line apically
 This is toothe shows well defined buc- lary first molar. over the mesial root.
cal cusp separated by a buccal develop-
 There is a cervical enamel buccally
mental groove. Occlusal aspect (buccal cervical ridge) which is over
 The crown is narrower at the cervic in  It is somewhat rhomboidal and development mesially. This makes the
comparison with its mesiodistal meas- resembles the permanent maxillary cervical line dips downward in order to
urement at the contact areas. first molar except that the buccal outline this ridge.
 The roots appear slender and much surface is rather flat.  The two roots are long, slender and
longer and heavier relatively than those  The developmental grooves be- they spread greatly at the apical third
of the permanent maxillary first molar. tween the cusps are less marked beyond the outline of the crown.The
 The bifurcation of the roots is close to than that found on the permanent distal root is shorter than the mesial
the cervical line. molar. one and their bifurcation is very close
Lingual aspect Mandibular first to the cervical line.
 There is lingual convergence of the Lingual aspect
crown and root. molar  The crown and root converge lingually
 It shows two well developed cusps,the It varies much from all the teeth and to a marked degree on the mesial sur-
mesiolingual and the distolingual cusps appears strange and primitive. It pos- face, while the opposite is true distally.
are separated by a short lingual devel- sesses four cusps and two roots.  The mesiolingual cusp is long and
opment groove. sharp,while the distolingual cusp is
 A supplemental poorly developed to Buccal aspect rounded with alingual developmental
the large mesiolingual cusps and is  It shows two cusps separated by devel- groove separating them.
outlined by developmental groove lin- opmental depression instead of  The mesial marginal ridge is well de-
gually. groove.The mesiobuccal cusp is larger veloped to the extent that it might al-
 The cervical line is nearly straight. than the distobuccal cusp. most considered as another small cusp
lingually.
32 HUMAN DENTITION

 The crown length mesially and distally

is nearly equal. Mandibular secons
 The cervical line is nearly straight.
molar
Mesial Aspect It resembles the permanent mandibular
 It is rhomboidal in outline. first molar except for the following.
 The buccal outline shows prominent
conxity representing the cervical ridge,  It is smaller insize.
then it flattens to the cusp tip.  The deciduous molar present narrow
 The buccal cusp is placed over the root mesiodistal clibration at the cervix than
base while the lingual outline of the does the permanent molar.
crown extends out lingually beyond the  The mesiobuccal and distobuccal de-
confines of the root base.This design velopmental grooves divide the buccal
places the cusps in a favourable posi- surface of the crown occlusally into
tion for proper occlusion with the upper three cuspal protions almost equal in
molars. size (mesiobuccal and distobuccal and
 The mesiobuccal cusp and the mesio- distal cusps)
lingual cusp as well as the well devel-  The mesial portion of the crown seems
oped mesial marginal ridge are seen. to be little higher than the distal portion
 The cervical line extends upward in a of the crown lingually which gives the
buccolingual direction. impression of being tipped distally.
 The buccal and lingual outlines of the  There is a prominent buccal cervical
root drop straight down from the crown ridge,then the buccal surface flattened
approximately parallel each other for occlusal to the ridge. Fig. 56. Mandibular primary molars, char-
over half the root length them taper at  Proximally, the crown is rhomboidal in acteristics of occlusal surface, first molar
outline. (upper) and second molar (lower). MBC,
the apical third to a square end.
mesiobuccal cusp; CDG, central develop-
 A developmental depression in usually  The mesial marginal ridge is high,while mental groove; DBC, distobuccal cusp,
extends almost through the full length the distal marginal ridge dips down BDG, buccal developmental groove, CP,
of the root. more sharply and is shorter buccolin- central pit;; DLC, distolingual cusp; LDg,
gually than the mesial marginal ridge. lingual developmental groove; MLC, mesi-
Distal aspect  The grown is norrower buccolingually olingual cusp; MP, mesial pit; MBC, me-
 The crown has an equal length buccally in comparison with its mesiodistal siobuccal cusp; DBDG, distobuccal devel-
and lingually and the cervical line is measurement than is the permanent opmental groove; DP, distal pit; MBDG,
straight. tooth. mesiobuccal developmental groove; DC
 The distal cusps are shorter and less distal cusp.
 The root flares out greatly mesiodis-
sharper than the mesial cusps. tally at the middle and apical
 The distal marginal ridge is less devel- thirds.They are twice as long as the surfaces. This results in a much nar-
oped than the mesial marginal ridge. crown.Ther bifurcation starts at a point
rower occlusal table of the occlusal
 There is less curvature at the cervical immediately below the cervical line.
surface buccolingually.
third (no prominent buccal cervical  The roots are more slender than those
 The buccal cervical ridge of enamel is
ridge). of the permanent molars.
quite prominent on the facial aspect of
 The distal root is rounder, shorter and  The occlusal surface shows a rectangu-
the deciduous anteriors and molar teeth
taper more apically. lar outline that converges lingually and
distally. (especially on the first molars).
Occlusal aspect.  The roots of the deciduous anterior
The major differences between the de-
 It is rhomboidal in outline. ciduous and permanent teeth teeth are narrower and longer in com-
 All four cusps are seen, the mesiolin- parison with crown length, as well as
gual cusp is the largest.  The crowns of the deciduous teeth are tooth length and width, than are the
lighter in color than are the permanent permanent teeth roots.
 The prominence mesiobuccally (C.R)
teeth.  The roots of the deciduous molars are
is noticeable from this aspect.
 The deciduous teeth are smaller in size relatively longer and more slender than
 From a central pit, the following
than the permanent. the roots of the permanent teeth. They
grooves are seen,
 The crowns of the deciduous teeth are are more divergent and flare more ex-
 A buccal developmental groove
extends buccally separating the more bulbous. tending out beyond projected outlines
two buccal cusps. It does not ex-  The crowns of the deciduous anterior of the crown. The roots thin out rapidly
tend on the buccal surface. teeth are wider mesiodistally in com- as the apices are approached.
 A central developmental groove parison with their crown length than  In cross section, the deciduous teeth
extends mesially ending in mesial are the permanent. shows the following differences:
pit in the mesial triangular fossa  The crown widths of the deciduous
and extends distally ending in a  The enamel is relatively thin and has a
molars are larger in all directions in
distal pit in the distal triangular consistent depth.
comparison with the root trunks and
fossa. cervices. The crown and roots are  The dentin thickness between the pulp
 A lingual developmental groove lender at thr “neck” mesiodiswtally chamber and the enamel is much less
extends lingually separating the than are those of permanent molars. than in the permanent teeth.
two lingual cusps. It does not
 The buccal and lingual surfaces of  The pulp chambers are relatively large,
extend to the lingual surface.
 There are supplemental grooves deciduous molars taper occlusally and the pulp horns are high occlusally
radiating from the mesial and dis- above the cervical curvature much placing them much closer to enamel
tal pits buccally and lingually. more than do the permanent molar than the permanent teeth.