Introduction 1.1. WHAT IS THE INTERNET? Internet or internetworking refers to a wide network through which computers are interconnected globally with one another, and capable of sharing resources among themselves. This network is called ‘internet’ (with a lower case i), The ‘Internet’ refers to millions of computers, connected in a gigantic network, which communicate via TCP/IP protocols. This collection of computers store immense quantity of information. Computer networks are very common in businesses and government establishments. But the Internet is different from all others in two aspects. First, it is the biggest network in the world, and second it is freely accessible to the public. 1.2 HISTORY OF THE INTERNET In 1957, when Soviet satellite Sputnik was launched, the United States believed it to be a great threat to its security. In response to this perceived threat, the United States started a major military and academic initiative to promote research in the areas of mathematics, pure sciences, and engineering. This initiative began under the auspices of the Department of Defense, with the formation of an organizational body called Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), later shortened to ARPA. Marshall McLuhan proposed the idea of the global village, where electronic communications would come to function as the nerve system of the planet, replacing the town-square as the gathering place for information. Leonard Kleinrock [1961] of MIT proposed an alternative, called packet-switching. Instead of the traditional streaming of data in wave forms, packet-switching sends data in packets. The data 12 + Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective packets in packet-switching systems are small and in addition to the data, they also carry information on where the data belongs in the original data stream and error checking codes to ensure that the data arrives uncorrupted. This means that if a packet is lost or corrupted, the receiving computer can request that only the missing packet be resent, not the entire data stream. Although originally developed for radio transmission, packet-switching proved to be robust enough to merit its adoption in all forms of electronic data transfer. It would also become vital in the development of such technologies as Ethernet, which is now a standard for local area networks (LANs) The year 1967, Wesley Clark coined the term Interface Message Processor or IMP which is a separate mini-computer that functions as an interface between a computer and the wide area network (WAN). In other words, IMPs allow different types of computers to talk to each other. All of this research would reach its first culmination in 1969 with the commissioning of ARPANET, the first wide area packet- switched network. ARPANET ran under a control program called the Network Control Program (NCP). NCP would be supplanted in the 70s by TCP/IP. ARPANET initially consisted of four computers at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Stanford Research Institute University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) and University of Utah In two years, this network had expanded to fifteen nodes. In twenty years time, the number of nodes on the burgeoning Internet topped 100,000. At the beginning of 2001, the number of nodes on the Internet was more than 100 million In 1972, Bob Kahn proposed the idea of an open architecture for the Internet. The idea was to allow any computer to plug into the Internet and be able to function with no modification to the computer itself. The original form of ARPANET had no error checking for packets lost between networks and could not address a packet beyond the IMP for the receiving network. ‘This was because it was designed to be the only network. This worked fine as long as the people using it were the military and affiliated academic researchers. But as the Internet grew, the need for open architectures as well as new protocols became inevitable. In 1973, Bob Kahn and Vinton Cerf began working on a detailed protocol that addressed Kahn's Internet working standards. What they produced was called TCPAP which stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. This protocol divides the process of transmitting data into two separate steps. 1. TCP handles the transmission of data and correction of in-stream transmission errors, 2. IP handles the bundling of data into packets, addressing them and also functions as the interface between the LAN and the Internet, and handles errors where the data needs to be resent. Along with TCP/IP came the IP address. Each computer on the Internet had a unique IP address, which has four parts, each part being between ) and 255. The number 255 was convenient breakpoint in binary math because it equals 11111111,Cuarrer 1 Introduction * 3 or the highest value presentable in one byte. Each number provided more detail for the address in a hierarchical order. So the first number referred to the geographic region, while the last number referred to a specific computer on a specific network. This system yielded over four billion possible combinations, although the number of usable addresses was significantly smaller than that. With the increase in the number of computers connected to the Internet in the 70s, human-friendly addresses called domain names were implemented and maps to IP addresses, which the router used to send information to the correct recipient. IP addresses were all stored in the same large table, slowing down commu-nications as every packet of data had to be checked against it. Paul Mockapetris solved this problem by developing the Domain Name System (DNS). The DNS is a distributed mechanism for domain name resolution, where different portions of the net handled only parts of the addresses. Since the address is hierarchical, main routers only checked the first level of the address, while local gateways only needed to check the lowest level of the address to determine the specific computer to route the data packet to. By 1986, there were 5000 Internet hosts. By 1989, this umber reached 100,000. One year later in 1990, it was 300,000. The Internet explosion had begun. Now the Internet offers a lot of services which even help the common man to explore. 1.3. INTERNET SERVICES AND ACCESSIBILITY As already discussed, today the Internet offers an extensive range of services many of which were not speculated when the Internet was first launched services. Some of the services offered are as follows © Electronic mai attach files © Electronic mailing sent to the list USENET newsgroups: Electronic bulletin board service A service that helps to send and receive messages and to Everyone subscribed to the list gets a message Real-time communication: Chat, messengers, videoconferencing, white- boards, ete. © File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A service that helps to send and receive files to and from a file server © Telnet, ssh: A remote login to other computers on the Internet, possibly anonymously © Gopher: This is an older menu-driven document system, which is now mostly replaced by the Web © World Wide Web (WWW): Documents and files of various types which are connected using hypertext links to create a Web-like structure and are accessed through the Internet by addresses called Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) The Internet users gain access to these services through Internet Service4 % Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective Providers (ISPs). Usually, home PC is connected to the Internet through the landline telephone connection using a device called modem (short form of modulator— demodulator), which enables a computer to transmit data over telephone lines. There are different types of Internet connections: Dial-Up Connections: The dial-up access to Internet is a very popular method because it is less expensive. To use this access, the computer should have a modem to connect to the phone system and a software that uses the modem. This software instructs the modem to place a telephone call to the number provided by the ISP. At the ISP, another modem answers the call by giving hte connection. Most of the Internet Service Providers supply 56 K connection. The 56 K refer to the speed with which the information from the Internet can travel down the phone line into your computer. The connection is normally established by dialing up to a particular ISP. High Speed Connections: High Speed Connections allow information to travel quickly. With this connection, a lot of Internet services work better at higher speeds. There are four basic types of high speed connections: Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL): With DSL, the computer is always connected to the Internet. This technology sends digital data through the existing phone lines to carry Internet services. Cable: Although the same wires are used, there is no interference to/from the telephone calls. The Internet signal is carried on the TV cable network Satellite: This connection needs a phone line to send information. It receives data at high speed from the satellite Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): ISDN is an international communications standard for sending voice, video and data over digital telephone limes or over normal telephone lines 1.4 USES OF THE INTERNET The easy connectivity and convenient accessibility of Internet services have led to its use in a number of different areas. Some of the services provided by the Internet are: © telecommuting (working from home or anywhere) and online conferencing business, advertising and online shopping (e.g. De! |. com for computers, Amazon.com for books) news, jobs, softwares online courses, virtual classrooms, coachings government services, politics and national defense electronic publishing (magazines, newspapers and news services) entertainment (television, radio, videos, audio MP3s, etc.) teaching and learning (course websites, conferencing, simulation, visuali- zation, etc.) scholarly research (searchable databases of journal articles; individual Web publishing, ete.)Cuarrer 1 Introduction * 5 e General information about a subject, especially which is not easily available from other sources © Correspondence (email, chatting, etc.) 1.5 PROTOCOLS Protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that specifies a common language that computers on a network use for communication with other computers. It also specifies the conditions under which a particular message should be sent or responded and the particular method of doing it. They give the specification on how the computers talk with each other. There are various protocol suites available. Ethernet: This is used to transfer information on a LAN. It specifies a number of wiring and signaling standards for the physical layer, two ways of network access (Media Access Control/Data Link Layer) and a common address format. Internet Protocol (IP): This protocol provides communicable global addresses offto the computers. The computers identify each other by the IP addresses. Transport Control Protocol (TCP): This protocol guarantees reliable, proper delivery of data from the sender to the receiver. It breaks large messages, transports them reliably and reassembles them. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): This is used to connect two computers over the Internet so that the user of one computer can transfer files and perform file commands on the other computer. It exchanges files over any network that supports TCPAP protocol Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP): This protocol is used to retrieve Web pages from a Web server Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): This protocol is used for email transmissions. 1.6 WEB CONCEPTS The World Wide Web is an international hypertext system that links together millions of documents. A hypertext link is a word or a picture, which requests a different file from the Internet when you click on it. Hypertext markup language (HTML) is a collection of tags, which is used to create formatted hypertext documents. A Web page is a document created using HTML. A website is a collection of related pages. Web pages and sites can be stored on the hard drive of a local computer or a Web server on the Internet. A Web browser is a program that displays the Web pages it retrieves. Popular browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla, and Konqueror.6 + Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective 1.6.1 The Client/Server Model of the Web Most Internet. services rely on the client/server model. The Internet user is the elient and has the client software installed on his computer to access various Internet services. When a user wants to connect to a particular information tool, he uses his client software to connect to server programs, which provide the service or the information needed. The client/server model has become one of the central ideas of network computing, and is the basis of the TCP/IP protocol Figure 1.1 shows the client software on a student's computer contacting a server, using a particular protocol (the http protocol will produce a Web page response). The server may return the data retrieved from a database. response ‘\ - \ e i 8 se data query protocol: hetpi APD Server FIGURE 1.1 The client software on a student’s computer connecting a server. ‘The Web browser is an example of the client software needed to access the World Wide Web servers. Most browsers function as client programs for World Wide Web and FTP access. For access to Telnet sites, a Telnet client is needed. 1.6.2 Retrieving Data from the Web We can retrieve data by using the address of the file. This address is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). The Address box of the browser shows the URL of the currently displayed document. We can type a URL into the address box and can get the file we wanted. Structure of URLs: In the same way as each host computer has a unique IP address, every data file or document on the Internet also has a unique address called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The URL consists of three parts: the protocol, the domain name and the path The protocol, as discussed earlier, is the set of rules which the computer follows in order to communicate with other computers. It lets the computer know how to process the information it receives. If the protocol is http: //, for example, the computer knows it will be processing a World Wide Web document,Cuarrer 1 Introduction * 7 The domain name is the Internet address of the computer (server) that is hosting the site and storing the documents. This domain name may be expressed as an IP address. The path is the directory and file specification; it lets the computer know which directory and file to access after connecting to the server. The path is not a required element, but if you know the path, it will take you directly to the desired file or document. The path is also part of the URL which changes frequently. For example, http://www. linceweb. org/eresources.asp hitp://_ is the protocol. ‘This lets you know that you are retrieving a World Wide Web document and lets the computer know how to process the hypertext file it is receiving. www. linecweb.org/ is the domain name, the address of the computer that is hosting the Web page eresources.asp provides the path to the specific page you want; in this case, the name of the file (eres ources. as) that provides links to electronic databases 1.6.3 How the Web Works The model of Web communication conforms to client server communication. The client is the Web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and the server is the Web server where the requested Web pages are residing. The user uses a Web browser and clicks on a document link. The browser reads the URL of the link and recognizes the different parts of the URL. The client (the user's computer) contacts the Web server (through the appropriate port number) and requests the file. The server retrieves the file from its storage device (e.g. a hard disk). If no filename is specified, default page (usually the home page) is retrieved. If the file is a program, the program is run on the server. If the file contains images, those are also retrieved, one by one. The server sends the results of the request to the Web browser, usually in the form of an HTML document. The Web browser reads the HTML codes, formats the document and images, and displays the results for the user to see 1.6.4 Web Browsers: Navigation Features The following points give the overview of the default features available in the browser. The back button returns you to the page you last visited The forward button reverses the action of the back button. The home button takes you back to a page that your browser has chosen as the home page © Your browser’s home page opens when you open the browser. © You can change the home page by opening the Preferences or Internet Options dialog box listed in the browser menu. © Use Current makes the current page the default. Use Blank opens a browser window more quickly.B Wed Pechmatagy: A Developer's Perspective ‘The reload or refresh button redisplay# a page that has boon chan, not display properly, The stop button tope loading oF downloading a nage dj that is taking too long, The history button liste all the pages you have ot ah n visited, and makes it easy to return, Bookmarks or favoritos store Addrongee ent can easily return to thom later. You can organize them into folders, 08 80 yo, 1.6.5 Searching Information on the Web Tf we know a website address you can type it in the address box and th directly. Several tools quickly search multiple sites on the Internet ler e@ A subject guide or directory is a website that organizes ity conte n hierarchically by subject (topics and subtopics). # Assearch engine searches the Web for one or more keywords you type aq displays a list of pages found. e@ A meta-search site submits the search to more than one search thereby by reducing the distance between the client and the target, Using a human search service, we can hire a real person to perform oy search. engine 1.7 INTERNET STANDARDS Internet Standards have made possible the creation, testing and implementation ¢ the Internet. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) develops these standards The standards are then considered by the Internet Engineering Steering Grou, (IESG), with appeal to the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), and circulated by th Internet Society as international standards. The RFC Editor is responsible fo preparing and organizing the standards in their final form. Generally Interne standards define protocols, messages formats, schemas, and languages, which an useful in interoperability of systems on the Internet. The most fundamental of th: standards are the ones defining the Internet Protocol. All Internet standards an given a number in the STD series—The first document in this series, STD ! describes the remaining documents in the series, and have a list of propose standards. Often, documents in the STD series are copies of RFCs or are a few RFC: collected together. Below is given a list of standards. STD 66 (RFC3986) - Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax STD 64 (RFC3550) — RTP: A Transport Protocol for Real-Time Applications STD 62 (RFC3413) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Applications STD 56 (RFC2453) - RIP Version 2 STD 54 (RFC2328) - OSPF Version 2 STD 51 (RFC1661) - The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) STD 38 (RFC0903) - A Reverse Address Resolution Protocol STD 13 (RFC1035) - Domain names—implementation and specification STD 13 (RFC1034) - Domain names—concepts and facilitiesRie Curse 1 Introduction % 9 STD 9 (RFC0959) —" File Transfer Protocol STD § (RFC0854) — Telnet Protocol Specification STD 7 (RFC0793) - Transmission Control Protocol STD 6 (RFC0768) — User Datagram Protocol STD 5 (RFC0792) — Internet Control Message Protocol STD 5 (RFC0791) — Internet Protocol STD 3 (RFC1123) - Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support STD 1 (RFC3700) - Internet Official Protocol Standards oe Spe Pras 10. il. 12. 18. 14, . What is the Internet? . Distinguish the Internet and internet. . Explain the different types of Internet connections. . Write short notes on various services offered by the Internet. The .. . allows computer users to locate and view multimedia based documents over the Internet. ;. Define protocol. . Describe various protocols used for communication over the Internet. . Explain the client/server concepts of Web. ). What is a Web browser? Name any four. . _ is a language to create Web pages. Justify the use of the Internet. How will you retrieve data from the Web? Name the essential features of Web browser. Expand the following acronyms (a) HTTP (be) FTP () URL (@) WWW (e) SMTP . How will you locate information on the Web? What are the components of the Web? What is the communication protocol between them? _ How a Web browser communicates with a Web server? Illustrate the architectural model of WWW and illustrate the steps involved in accessing a Web page.iE a Internet Protocols 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Internet is a collection of end-systems that communicate using the TCP/IP | protocol suite. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet | Protocol. A protocol suite is a set of protocols defining services at a number of layers. The TCP/IP protocol suite includes services at the network and transport layers. The network layer needs some services from data link layer (e.g., Ethernet) to _ provide basic communication between end-systems on the same network. TCP/IP does not include a data link layer (or a physical layer), which means that TCP/IP can run on many different types of networks (many different data link layers). The Internet Protocols (IPs) are very popular open-system protocols, because they are inter- | communicable between different sets of interconnected networks and are friendly to both LAN and WAN. Ethernet—a data link layer Ethernet is a popular data link layer used in many LANs. It provides unique addresses, but it is not globally communicable. Unlike IP, which is concerned with the final destination of data packets, Ethernet is concerned only with the next host in the network. Ethernet is supported by a variety of physical layer implementations. | Although the physical layers may vary, all Ethernet networks have some common mechanisms for transmission of data between computers on the same network, including the ones mentioned below. © =Multi-access (shared medium).12 % Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective © Every Ethernet interface has a unique 48-bit address called as hardware address or physical address. For example: C0:83:44:1 7 © ‘The broadcast address is in all 1s. A broadeast is a me: received by all end age that is ms on a network, Transmission of a frame ‘The source system constructs a chunk of data that includes the Ethernet address of the destination and puts this data on the wire. All end-systems on the network (wire) receive the data and look at the destination address, If the destination address matches the Ethernet address of the end-system, it keeps the data which is other- wise thrown away. Each frame includes a header that includes information such as the destination address. The payload is the data that comes from/to higher level layers, 2.2) INTERNET PROTOCOLS ‘The Internet protocols are popular open-system protocol suites. They are used to communicate across interconnected networks. TCP and IP are well-known communication protocols in that suite, The IP not only houses ‘TCP and IP, but also applications like Email, Telnet, and File Transfer. ‘The protocol suite of ‘TCP/P along with the corresponding ISO/OSI (Inter- national Standard Organization Open System Interconnection) layers is depicted below NFS 5-7 | ) Application Layer Telnet XDR Presentation Layer SMTP RPC Session Layer SNMP ‘TCP/UDP 4 | Transport Layer Routing Protocols, IP, ICMP | 3 | Network Layer Data Link Layer 2 | Data Link Layer Physical Layer 1 | Physieal Layer 2.2.1. Internet Protocol (IP) ‘The network layer of TCPAP is called IP (Internet Protocol. Since this is a network layer, it is responsible for sending data between end-systems on different networks. IP accomplishes this by using a data link layer such as Ethernet to transmit data between systems on the same network, or delivers the data to a router that can forward it to another network. IP networks have the following properties. © Each end-system has a unique address (and IP address). Some systems have multiple network interfaces and therefore multiple IP addressesCuarrer 2 Internet Protocols % 13 © The IP layer in each end-system uses a data link layer to transmit and receive IP packets. Since some systems (routers) must be able to forward IP packets, there must be some mechanism for determining where each packet should go. This is accomplished using network addresses (identifying networks) and host addresses, addressing individual hosts (end-systems) on a network. The combination of network and host address makes up the IP address, IP contains addressing information and control information to send packets. The main features of IP are to provide connectionless delivery of datagrams and provide fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams. IP addresses ch IP address is a pair of network address (net ia) and host address (host id) Network Address | Host Address For example: 137.132.88.16 An IP address is 32 bits Jong, and is usually shown using “dotted decimal notation” in which each byte is shown as the decimal number encoded by the 8 bits. For example, Binary Dotted Decimal 00000001 00000010 90000011 00000100 1.2.3.4 10000000 11010101 00000001 00000001 128.213.1.1 ‘The first part of each IP address specifies the network address, for example, the network address 128.213 is the address for the Computer Science (CS) department ‘The last 2 digits specify the host (end-system) within the CS network, Therefore, netid 128.213 and hostid 1.1 form the IP address 128.213.1.1. When routing data packets, the routers look at the network address. Each router has a table called a routing table that indicates where it should send a packet given the destination network address. An example of a routing table is shown in Table 2.1, Routers also have a “default route” that indicates where it should send packets that have network addresses not in the routing table TABLE 2.1 Routing table Destination Network Address Forward to 177.132 Router at 128.213.7.3 128,113 Router at 128.213.1.4 144,13.7 Router at 128.113.7.2 128.213.7 Network A (128.213.7) 128.113.7 Network B (128.113. 7) 128.213.1 Network © (128.213.1) Anything else Router at 128.213.1.414 % Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective IP address space is currently administered by a hierarchy nominally rooted at IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), but managed by the RIRs (Regional Internet Registry). IANA allocates IP address space to the RIRs, who in turn allocate IP address space to Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These ISPs may allocate IP address space to down stream providers, custom ‘The RIRs may also assign IP address space to organizations who are end entities, ie., organizations who will not be reassigning any of their space to other organizations. Types of Internet addresses Internet addresses are divided into 5 classes A, B,C, D, and Bas shown in Figure 2.1, Address ranges in each class are shown in Figure 2.2 7 bits 24 bits Class A 0 hostid 14 bits 16 bits Class B 1fo netid hostid 21 bits 8 bits Class © a filo hostid 28 bits Class D 1 fifilfo multicast group id 27 bits Class B rfififilfo Reserved for future use FIGURE 2.1 Class of IP addresses. Class Address Range A 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 B 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 c 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 E 240.0.0.0 to 247.255.255.255 Class Lowest Network Identifier Address Highest Network Identifier Address A 1.0.0.0 126.0.0.0 B 128.0.0.0 191.255.0.0 c 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.0 D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 5 240.0.0.0 247.255.255.255 FIGURE 2.2 Address ranges in each class.Cusrrer 2 Internet Protocols % 15 It is still possible for almost anyone to get assignment of a number for a small Class C network in which the first three bytes identify the network and the last byte identifies the individual host computer. Larger organizations can get a C network where the first two bytes identify the network and the last two identify each of up to 64 thousand individual workstations. Certain addresses have special meanings. In particular 0, 127 and 255 are usually reserved for special use. 255 indicates a broadcast address (for example 131.123.2.255), which is understood by all machines on the Net or subnet. The network address with 127 as the first byte is the loopback network, which is fictitious. ‘The address 127.0.0.1 is called localhost and means the current host machine. 224.0.0.1 is the multicast address for all systems in the sub-network Packet format ‘The packet format of an IP packet is given below Version IHL | Type_of-serviee | Total Length Identification Flags | Fragment Offset ‘Time_to_live Protocol Header Checksum Source address Destination address Options (padding) Data variable ‘The details of each field are given below: Version Specifies the version of IP IHL IP header length which is of 32-bit words ‘TOs Define how to handle datagrams ‘Total length Specifies the total length of the IP packet in bytes ID Identification number used to identify the datagram fragments Flags ‘This field consists of 8 bits: Lower order bit—specifies whether datagram is fragmented, Middle bit—specifies whether the datagram fragment is the last one, Higher order bit—not used Fragmentation offset Specifies the relative position of the fragment from the beginning of fragment data TTL A counter that is decremented every time a router receives the datagram and the datagram is discarded if it becomes zero Protocol Indicates which upper layer protocol is present Header checksum Used for ensuring the correctness of datagram packet Source address IP address of source Destination address IP address of destination Options: Specifies various options, like security, to be set Data Contains information16 % Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective 2.2.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) The TCP corresponds to transport layer of OSI reference model. The TCP provides reliable transmission through connection-oriented, end-to-end reliable packet delivery. It receives data from application layer and hand it over to IP layer. ‘The reliability mechanism deals with lost, delayed, duplicate or missed packets ‘Timeout mechanism is used to detect lost packets and requests for retransmission Packet format ‘ource Port Destin: ion port jequence number Acknowledgment number HLEN Reserved Flags Window size Checksum Urgent pointer Option and padding Data (variable) ‘The details of each field are given below: Source and destination port | Specifies the port numbers at source host and destination host Sequence number Number assigned to first byte of data stream if it has been split Acknowledgment number | Specifies acknowledgment from the other end Reserved Reserved for future use HLEN Length of the header in bytes Flag Defines 6 control bits for enabling flow contol, connection establishment, and termination, and the mode of transfer Window size Defines the size of the window Checksum Provided for error detection and correction Urgent pointer Used if the segment contains urgent data Options To include some optional information in the header field 2.2.3 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless transport layer protocol, The UDP. ports identify various applications running on a device. UDP adds no reliability, flow control or error recovery. Each datagram is independent of others, and they may bert lost by the network or arrive out of order. A receiving syatem remain unaware of the sonding of a datagram unless it arrives. It also dooa not know if the received data is just one in a series of datagrams, i.c., it cannot make any assumption about the order received. UDP is used in situations, where reliability is not necessary and it ia very helpful, in multimedia and multicasting applications, ‘The packet format follows: Source port Destination port Length Checksum Source port Port number of source host Destination port. Port number of destination host Length Total length of the user datagram Checksum Used to detect errors for the entire datagram Most applications on the Internet are based on TCP. Both TCP and UDP must provide communication between processes identified by protocol ports. So the destination address of any TCP or UDP data includes an IP address and a protocol port number. Many network services operate on a prescribed port number, for example, HTTP (WWW) servers use port 80 and mail servers (SMTP) use port 25. 2.3 HOST NAMES Users typically do not deal with IP addresses, but deal with the,host names. These names are arranged in a hierarchical structure. The naming hierarchy is based”on—~ the concept of naming domains. Each domain covers some subset of the entire set of names. At the top level there™are domains corresponding to educational institutions (edu), commercial entities (.com), public organizations (org), government entities (gov), ete. There are also top level domains for countries. Figure 2.3 shows such a hierarchy. Each individual organization get IW ts a name at the second level in the name AKA I \/ FIGURE 2.3 Domain hierarchy.oS 18 % Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective jerar For example, Microsoft has microso£t.com It is : aduonal Seen within organizations; and this is typienlly ‘ib to, ‘ons or dopartments within the larger organization, to ith each individual host (end-system) hus 4 UniqUE Ham, : department or sub-organization. The completo rm of hoat includes th lhiy | well as the names of all sub-organization units, the organizational nam tg level domain. For example, a specific computor in the computer aeiengy pt they can be stan.cs.tem.edu and mun.tab.cs.tem.edu / Dg There is a networked service that provides conversion between th names and IP addresses; client process’s automatically access this sory ue ‘a-user enters a host name. This networked service is the Domain Name S8yn Mey is an integral part of the Internet. There are thousands of participating DNg “In 4, each server can provide IP addresses for a specific domain. Nery, When an access to a remote computer is attempted on the Internet upjp name, the client process contacts the DNS server that controls the domain jf 4 the client is found. It asks this server for the IP addross of the remoty gyn "hi Once it gets a reply, the client now uses the IP address to establish commyy with the remote computer. Since it is not likely that the local DNS server nytt” IP address of all hosts on the Internet, it might need to contact another DN¢ yh! (one that handles a larger domain) and ask for help. This process continuo, ine naming tree until it reaches a top-level DNS server, whore the top-level server « forward the request io the DNS server that handles tho top-level domain of remote host (which can also pass the request to lower level domain servers), 5 collection of name servers can grow to accommodate the growth in the namin hierarchy, since the conversion between names and IP addresses is a comm, operation. Therefore, it is important that these requests are handled efficiently, sub-organizati Finally, 2.4 INTERNET APPLICATIONS AND APPLICATION PROTOCOL; All Inteinet applications use TCP/IP to provide communication services, The dat (the payload) delivered by TCP/IP must be formatted according to applicatin protocols—these protocols define the exact nature of the data that is exchange between processes. The development of protocols is typically done by a group calle the Internet Engineering Task Force, with small committees responsible fo development of each individual protocol. For example, there is a committee the developed the SMTP protocol used to deliver email messages, and another tha developed the FTP protocol used for file transfer. Each protocol is made wide) available, so that anyone can develop software that adheres to the protocol. Now! number of Internet Application Protocols are available some of which are liste below: HTTP—Hypertext Transfer Protocol FTP—File Transfer Protocol SMTP—Simple Mail Transfer Protocol TFTP—Trivial File Transfer Protocol RIP—Routing Information Protocol IMAP—Internet Message Access ProtocolGoarree 2 Internat Pratctle % 1G There are’many applicatione/services in wide use on the Internet, called application level protocols that support some of these services. These protocols are defined at the application layer in the OBI reference model (the highest layer) and deal with the actual data exchanged by applications. 2.4.1 Datagram (Message Oriented) vs Stream The TCP/AP supports the following two types of inter-process communication (aa mentioned earlier also); e UDP: provides datagram-oriented communication. Each “chunk” is delivered independent of other chunks. There are hard limits on how large a “chunk” can be (a few Kbytes). TCP: provides an endless stream between two processes, Hach part of the stream arrives in the order in which it was sent. In situations that involve complex requests that cannot be structured to fit within a single datagram, a stream-based protocol will be easier to uae. If requests and replies are small, then a datagram protocol might simplify things and reeult im faster communication (less overhead). 2.4.2 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) ¢) ‘TP is a simple file transfer protocol that is designed for easy implementation. TFTP supports basic file transfer and it does not support user authentication “Aithough this protocol ie not in use now-a-days, a good example of a datagram- ‘oriented prot , and provides an ex: jow one can inbuild reliability to a -based service (UDP does not_provide reliability). TFTP supports two types of requests: Read File and Write File. A read request_me: hat the client is asking the server to send a file, a write request indicates that the client would like to send a file to the server. Since this protocol P to deliver datagrams, cach individual message is delivered unreliably “ses dat tthe sender does not know if the message was received) apd the messages are not necessarily deli r of ‘Targe in the order they were sent. TFTP supports the tran: ‘There are five different message types: Read Request—sent by the client when asking the server to send a file. Write request—sent by the client when asking the server to accept a file. _— Data—the message contains part of a file being transferred. — ACK—acknowledgment of a data message received _- Error—the meesage contains an error code. TFTP messages are not ASCII encoded messages (although some parts of the messages are ASCII strings). Data is sent as raw bytes, Each time a process receives a message (datagram) it must look at the first 2 bytes to determine which kind of message is contained in the datagram. A typical exchange of messages involves an| read request Or & write request, p at is either @ write re ie ll initial messee® fon nen race for ay ent ‘ithe setter: ‘and th i i mple mess nt from the © 8 6, 9.4 shows @ 58) es ar" ived) eh ta messag' e received). although the iat messy data esse must send an Server Client Read Request > Receives Read Request cr Sends Data block #0 Receives Data block #0 pacar Sends ACK block #0 ———__. Receives ACK block #0 Sends DATA block #1 Receives DATA block #1 Sends ACK block #1 (is lost) ‘timeout waiting for ACK! Resends Data block #1 Receives DATA block #1 #1 Sends ACK block #1 —————_,. Roceives ACK block #1 eee Sends Data block #2 (<512 bytes) Receives block #2 Sends ACK block #2 Done —————>» Receives ACK block #2 Done FIGURE 24 Message trace for a read request. 2.4.3 FTP—File Transfer Protocol . FTP is a protocol that supports the transfer of files. This protocol is more compli than TFTP, but provides a richer set of services including authentication. FTP ar most Web browsers. Files can be retrieved from an FTP server | a ae te + expropricta hyperlink (or by entering an FTP URL). Saiitilion In raded. fi nections used to transfer a file using FTP, the init connection is used to ti ef exchange of commands and replies and the st! the dala cone ( aneter a file (FTP supports transfer in either direction). 0" server by cupeljing mais established, the client must authenticate itself with # the server will sovept re ernnite and password. Once the authentication is complet second ‘TCP connection this cory fle transfer. A file transfer includes establishit the cmanecton creates a TCP endpoint wet eg as ee, orate sere Oe in th ott tlt be used hy a clint to transfer files rs the peer, a, new Ber ul servers to eee establishes connections b ee naa cst a oral th ge the ‘desired file. Figure 2.6 seen vote the servers and tell .5 shows the standard FTP connect”VIGURE 2.8 Standant FTP connection model (2 processes), model (2 processos) and Figure 2.6 shown tho IEP alternative connection model {8 processes). ' Control Control

FIGURE 2.6 FTP alternative connection model (3 processes). 24.4 Telnet (a generic TCP client) ‘elnet is available on most Unix systems and is a part of Windows 95/98/2000/NT. “The Telnet. program allows the user to specify the address of a server (as an IP address and port number) and attempts to open a TCP connection to the specified process. Once a connection is established, the user can send a request by typing commands and view anything sent back by the server. Telnet is useful only for services that involve ASCII strings, binary data cannot typically be entered via a | Keyboard or displayed in a window, In ‘Telnet, logging to a remote Unix computer “means simply accessing the default port on the server machine on which the Telnet is connected to. This default port is connected to a remote session server that starts ip a shell so that commands can be typed as if they are typed on the same console. though this is the most common use of Telnet, it is no different than connecting to y other types of network service that is available via TCP. 2.4.5 HTTP (Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol) (TTP is the application level protocol used to transfer hypertext documents on the lorld Wide Web (WWW). The protocol itself is fairly simple, a client (typically aDeveloper's Perspect TP serv the @ p connection 10,0 1 | ‘go formatted aa an ag’ browser) establishes a Tc} -conmectiny. The reply 8 often also formats aa an bsg) of an ASCII string and exp! ‘data formats can be re’ | erver + ne ‘jinary data). Structure of the request is as follows, ! fare sent # ; ii equence of lines of text—each |i, te An HTTP request is. a Coat ta: ne} LF pair. The first line includes tl of methods supported by Hy d: There are a variety CRI 22 % Web Technology: string, althoug example, images HTTP Reques terminated by a CR 1. The request-metho including: cnt he client wants to get 6 vn client wants to get some resource and ui : t by the client that may modify the reque, tha mitting forms). ne nts information about sg, "Th ome resource tells the server tl e Post: tells the server the more information will be sent (used, for example, when sub e HEAD: tells the server that the client wa resource, but not the resource itself. pur: tells the server that the client wants server (not widely supported). Is the server to delete a resource. A resource-identifier: There is a strict format (syntax) for the resoun jdentifier-strings that adhere to this format are called URIs (Univers d of simple alphanumeric nam Resource Identifiers). URIs are compose’ (some punctuation characters are permitted) delimited by the character “| A URI looks like a UNIX file path, for example, the following are vali URIs: @ /~foobar/index @ /cgi-bin/pizza_server @ /£00/bar/£00/bar/fo0/bar/f00/bar/ 3A ae? version identifier: It specifies the version of HTTP that the clier understands. This string starts with the prefix HTTP/ and is followed b version number (for example, HTTP/1.1). xd eG to send a resource to th @ DELETE: tel we Some examples of the first line of an HTTP request are: GET/~foobar/index HTTP/1.1 1 gi-bin/si leds Qnup?name=daveéaddress=amos+eaton+119 HTTP/1- gi-bin/signyy HEAD/HTTP/11 eT) MTTP/1.1 ‘The remaining lines of meee contains additional inform server provide a reg) colon » followed by a fie! “hich are shown below: TTP ee ars called header lines, each includ! onermation about the client or the request that may hé tte pa includes a field name, followed by many predefined header fields, someCuarrn 2 Internet Protoc User-Agent: generic browser From: foobar@cs.man.edu Referrer: http://barfoo.com/easy Accept: */* Cookie: favorite=chocolatecookles ‘The (possibly null) list of header lines is terminated by a blank line Gust a CRLF pair). Once the server secs a blank line, it knows it has the complete request and sends back a reply. Each reply contains a single line statua code, followed by a Tet of header lines terminated with a blank line. If the reply includes some content (typically some HTML) this follows the blank line. Although there are mechanisms that the client can use to make multiple requests using a single TCP connection, in ral, the server closes the connection as soon as it has sent a complete reply. ‘The following is an example session using Telnet to connect to an HTTP server. ‘The request (typed in by the user) is shown in italics and includes no header lines. gene! GET/HTTP/1.0 HTTP/1.0 200 Ok Server: fool Content-Type: text/html Content-Length: 313 Last-Modified: Sat, 02 Sep 2005 14:21:28 GMT

Hi Dear

> 2.4.6 Email Protocols ‘There are a number of protocols in use on the Internet that support electronic mail, and in addition to this, now there are a number of very popular Web-based email systems. The structure of the Internet-based email system is depicted in Figure 2.7. MTA is a Message Transfer Agent (a.k.a. an SMTP server). The MTAs forward and/or store email messages. UA is a User Agent (a mail client). User Agents provide the user interface, and jsometimes also act as an SM'TP client or as a POP client. MIME MIME is an acronym of Multipurpose Internet Mail standard that deals with the format of messages ex‘ Extensions. It is an international changed between different email24 0 Web Technology: A Developer’ File System net email system. FIGURE 2.7 Overview of the Inter systems. This standard is developed mainly to stent ees ae Antereti 9 includ 7 | messages, non-textual mes: a to include non-US-ASCII textual me: OS ASCIT information in message headers, i itipart messages and non ormati ; i te gtondinds one provided by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in following documents. rmat of ARPA Internet text messages RFC-822 Standard for the fo: a RFC-2045 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part One: For of Internet Message Bodies RFC-2046 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Two: Mi Types : © RFC-2047 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Th Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text © RFC-2048 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Fi Registration Procedures © RFC-2049 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part F Conformance Criteria and Examples Need for MIME os standards for basic Internet email were set in 1982 and described in RFC locument. The 1982 standards allow mail messages with the following restriction © messages contain only ASCII characters © messages with only 1000 characters © messages should not exceed certain length ‘To eliminate all the bi ictis a MIME was developed att (re, Testtictions and to include other message ' introduced as the standard in 1992. Features MIME allows mail messages to haveCuanren 2 Internet Pr Multiple objects in a single mossnge Mossage with any number of lincs or unlimited overall length Characters othor than ASCII, allowing non-English messages Multi-font: messages Binary or application specific files Images, audio, video and multipart messages ‘MIME headers 1, w MIME messages are represented by a body part. Each and a body. While defining the header MIME specifies a registered in IANA for public use. The syntax for content ty, MIME-Version header field This header uses a version number, which declares that the message conforms to MIME standard. This field is necessary for processing MIME messages. The header will look like this. MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type header field ‘This field specifies the type and subtype of the data in the message body and encoding format of such data. The following are the different content types. (a) Content-Type value Text Used to represent textual information (b) Content-Type value Multipart Used to combine several body parts may be of different types into a single message. (©) Content-Type value Application Used to transmit application or binary data. (a) Content-Type value Message Used for encapsulating mail message. (e) Content-Type value Image Used for transmitting image. (f) Content-Type value Audio Used for transmitting audio. (g) Content-Type value Video Used for transmitting video or moving data. body part has a header set of values, which are pe header field is type “/” subtype [";” parameter] Content-Typvy perspective Developer's Perspes a Web Technology’ vei 26% Wel ‘abtypes and paramete for each content jp, i The defined content types * given below: Application Application! Indicates uninterpre' lication/Postscript at the JOctet-Stream ‘ ted binary data. Ane postscript document. Indicates th: body contains 4 Audio Audio!Basic / . 1 dicates that audio is encoded by 8-bit ISDN w-law. When this suby is specified the sample rate is 8000 Hz and single channel is assun, Image ImagelJPEG Indicates an image in JPEG format. ImogelGIF Indicates an image in GIF format. Message MessagelRFC822 Indicates that the body contains an encapsulated message. MessagelPartial The partial subtype allows fragments of larger message to transmitted. Three parameters are used along with this subtype: © Id—match the parts together @ = Number—part/fragment number @ = Total—total number of parts or fragments MessagelExternal-Body Indicates that actual body data are not included but only referenced. Mutipart Indic i i ates bs the data consists of multiple body parts, each having its ° pecial string called encapsulation boundary, encapsulates & body part. It is d look like lefined by boundary parameter. Multipart content type " Content-Type: Mult Multipart(Mixed When this subtype i a it} viewed. ype is g ipart/mixed; boundary = xghoTexc ecified, multiple independent body parts #Curve 2 Internet Protocols 27 Multipart/Alternative Bach part ia an alternative vorsion of the same mensnges, Mail reader ean choone boat typo banod on tho aor's environment and preferences, Multipart/Pavallel AML body parte are dinplayod nimultancounly if supported by hardware and software, Multipart/Digest Indicates each body part ia RIC822 mail message. Toxt It is default content type. The character set of the text is specified in charset parameter. Content-Type: text/Plain; charset = US_ASCIT Text!Plain Indicates plain (unformatted) text. Text/Richtext Indicates n portable word processing format defined by MIME standard. Video Specifies that body contain an image. VideoIMPEG Indicates video coded according to MPEG standard. 3, Content~Transfer-Encoding header field Usually content in email will be encoded in 8-bit character or binary data. Such data cannot be transmitted using some protocols like SMTP which requires 7-bit ASCII encoding. a mechanism to re-encode sw header field. ‘The possible val E id ch data through Content- eae Encoding ues for this header fields are: BASEG4 QUOTED-PRINTABLE 8 BIT 7 BIT BINARY X-EncodingName 4, Optional Content-ID header field h If one body part references another, those body parts are labeled witl Content-ID.reloper's Perspective a header field sociate descriP' 28% Web Technology: AB tent Descriptio’ d to as 5. Optional Cor TT i ‘This header field is use 4 7 protocol) ange email messages. $y 2.4.7 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer i hi god by mail servers to exc! iil m f tocol at sina, put does not support extraction Of @ user's ra mjupported by 2 numbEE of other protocola inclugs tions take place over @ TCP. sonnestion and are bag, , one A i ages, tis type of Prot’ own ae on a series of command reply exchanB™ + take place in the proper order, an, dt step” protocol—a number of exchanges mus! F entire sequence of exchanges makes up 2 transaction. SMTP exchanges are based on lines of ASCII text, that of the HTTP protocol. Each line coming from the type and any parameters follow the request type On the sal request types are listed below: 2 ELO—Establish SMTP connection, MATL FROM—Tells the server that the client steps necessary to create an email message. that identifies the receiver of the message. CPT TO—Tells the server from whom the message comes (the email addres of the sender). the content of the message follows (emai paTa—Tells the server that message content can include a number of email headers). 1 d for local email addresses)~ vrry—Verify that an email address is valid (use gis the order in which an email message is exchanged between the SMTP is the protoce”, supports sending function oF © from server—that function * POP and MAP. SMTP conversa! in just the same way wig client starts with a reque, me line. Some of the maj, jdentify the client wants to initiate the sequence y ° This includes the email addres The followin: client (the sender) and the server. © Client establishes TCP connection and sends HELO command with cliex! hostname as parameter. e Server replies to the HELO with status line that indicates whether the HEC was received properly. 4 © Client sends a MAIL FROM: comma: i i nd with email address of sender. e Server responds with status indication. ient sends one or more RCPT TO: commands (one for each receiver) wit . ie email address of the receiver of the mail message. erver responds with status indication. i fe fol co: oe responds with a status indication. ; . ome sani one or more lines of message data (the email messa e- its _ eminated by a line with only a period (no spaces). oe be sponds with.the status of entire transaction a on fade This exchan ge takes place it each stat place in the order shi , each status reponse before proceeding, The only tae and the client should wait onse is during the DATA commends ne 2 Sent Without ea . ® Client sends a DATA command. : ; °asi Cuarrex 2 Internet Protocols IAS POP (Rost Office Protocol, Version 3) POP_which is similar to SMTP, involves com: ‘STP POP is used to retrieve mail fir wig ASS | a database of email mossages crentod raguire authentication in the form of a socrot th server (@ password), POP commands and replies are form: ther “OK” or —ERR™. Some of the J below: mand/reply lockatep protocol. Unlike le user, typically the POP server has by an SMTP server. POP connections at is shared by the user and the POP ‘atted as ASCII lines, and all replies start commands that make up the POP protocol specify username, specify password. fet mailbox status (number of messages in the mailbox). get a list of messages and sizes, one per line, termination line contains just a period. ntrieve a message. mark a message for deletion, remove marked messages and close the (TCP) connection. ids for Internet Message Access Protocol. This protocol is used to access the s in email or electronic bulletin board that are in a mail server. For example, a _email’message Stored in an IMAP server, can be accessed from a desktop uter in home oF i ice ’ was originally developed in 1986 at Stanford niversity. The objectives of IMAP are Compatible with Internet messaging standards, e.g, MIME. . © Allow message access from multiple computers. ¢ Provide support for “online”, “offline”, and “disconnected” access modes ° . Support for concurrent access to shared mailboxes Client software needs no knowledge about the server's file store format, The most distinctive feature of IMAP is the fact that the mail messages remain on the server, instead of being downloaded to a computer. Checking the mail with a client or Web-based environment, using this protocol will allow retaining the messages in a universally-accessible place for access. IMAP supports the use of folders for mail organization, but instead of organizing the messages on the local computer, these folders are kept on the server as well. Another advantage to IMAP is quicker access to mail. If e-mails are accessed from a slower connection, such as modem dial-up, a substantial increase in speed can be noticed. Only the message headers are initially downloaded, so the user can choose to download, open, and read only those messages of interest. One drawback to using IMAP and saving messages on the server is that the user will be restricted by any quota limitation the administrator may set.30% Web Technology: A Developer's Perspective poh cL REL ick ‘The protocol includes operations for croating mailboxes doleting mailboxes renaming mailboxes checking for new messages permanently removing messages otting and clearing flags / ; serve based RFC-2822 and MIME parsing and searching selective fetching of message attributes, texts, and portions for effcieney IMAP vs POP Some of the characteristics are common to both POP and IMAP: -“e Both support offline operation. ; a variety of client platform types. Both can access new mail from , from anywhere in the network. Both can access new mail the Internet RFCs. For both, protocols are open; defined by Both are freely available implementations. Both clients are available for PCs, Macs, and Unix. For both, commercial implementations are available. Both are Internet oriented; no SMTP mail gateways required. Protocols deal with access only; both rely on SMTP to send. Both support persistent message IDs (for disconnected operation). ‘The advantage of POP is that it is a simple protocol which is easier | nt and most client software depend on it. The benefits of IMAP are, it impleme: manipulates persistent message status flags. These include flags such: Seen, Deleted, Answered, as well as user-defined flags. © stores messages as well as fetch them. @ access and manage multiple mailboxes. This includes the ability to naz and access different incoming and archive message folders, but also th ability to list, create, delete, and rename them. These mailboxes can be ¢ the same server or on different servers. © supports concurrent updates and access to shared mailboxes. This capabili is useful when multiple individuals are processing messages coming int? common inbox. Changes in mailbox state can be presented to # concurrently active clients via IMAP. P : ule, for accessing non-email data; e.g., NetNews, documents. congiucie ie omiine paradigm, for minimum connect time and disk use. speed links ie ee ae performance optimization, especially over lot ‘mithout dowulos : include the ability to fetch the structure of a messif ie ioe it, to selectively fetch individual message parts, 2” donee go use the server for searching in order to minimize data tre Petwveen client and server. With multimedia or multipart MIME mess “a ig selected parts of a message can be a huge advantage, as ¥>¢ receiving a short text message with a 10MB video clip “attachCrarra 2 Internet Protocols 31 Efficient i i i be cient processing of MIME messages is a significant advantage of IMAP In short, IMAP offers advantages over POP in the following areas: 17. 18. . Explain briefly how the domain names are translated to II . Write shortnotes on richer functionality in manipulating someone's inbox ability to manage mail folders besides someone's inbox - primitives to allow optimization of online performance, especially when dealing with large MIME messages. REVIEW QUESTIONS . What is a protocol? . Define protocol suite. . Write a short note on Ethernet. What is the functionality of HTTP? Give the functionality and purpose of HTTP. List the notion of transactions and the primary characteristics. Describe the architecture of TCP/IP? How does TCP provides reliable and ordered delivery service? Write short notes on IP addresses. Differentiate Domain name and Domain name system. |. Mention the functionalities of IANA. Write short notes on (a) proxy server (b) firewalls. . Explain briefly the services offered by TCP/IP. "Describe the significance of IP addresses and their types. _ is the authority responsible for providing IP address space. P addresses. () HTTP (b) FTP (© TFIP @ SMTP (e) Telnet @® POP (@) Domain Name System Explain HTTP session with an example. In the original class hierarchy of the Internet, 172.34.3.245 is a: (a) Class A address the IP address of