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MODULE 1

Sociology

Definition

• Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behaviour, patterns of
social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life.
• Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of
human behaviour.
• Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of
societies such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups.
Sociology also studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as
well as societal disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.

Characteristics of sociology

1. It is an Independent Science

Sociology is a specific science having its own branches of knowledge. It does not come under the
umbrella of other social or physical sciences. It has its own code of study and a separate line from
other sciences.

2. It Social Science Not Physical

Sociology belongs to the family of social sciences and is considered as the mother of all social
sciences. Other social sciences are under the jurisdiction of sociology from one of other point of
view. For this purpose, it study the behaviour, action and social activities of a man.

3. It is a Categorical Science

Sociology is not concern to study the moral or immoral, right or wrong, good and evil problems. It
studies the general phenomena of social life for this it is a categorical science separate from the
judgment of any type of value.
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4. Pure Science

Sociology has its theoretical knowledge which is indispensable for sociologists, scientists and social
worker as well as for anthropologists. Its study does not interest in any law making or public policies
and their implementation but study examine only the social aspect of society that what is happening
in the social situation. This study is important for scientists.

5. Sociology is Generalizing not Particular

There is no specification or limitation in the study of social system. It tries to find general law and
principles about human interaction and association.

6. General Science Not Special

The field of sociology is generalized. Other social sciences study a specific aspect of its study like
economics, political science, which is confined to a central point but the discipline of sociology is
generalized.

7. Empirical Science

Rational and empirical are the two main approaches in scientific study. Sociology applies both the
approaches on its stud. Rationalization is the collection of facts while empirical is the arrangement
and coordination of these facts. Facts and theories are interrelated to each other’s. Theories without
facts are empty and facts without theories are blind.

Some other characteristics,

1. Sociology: A Generalising Science:

Sociology is a generalising science and not a particularising science. It aims to establish general laws
of principles about interactions and associations. It seeks to find general principles about the nature,
form, content and structure of human groups and societies.
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2. Sociology: A Generalised Science:

Sociology is a general science. It is not a specialised science like history, political science and
economics. These social sciences have specialised subject matters and these are all parts of one
general subject matter:

3. Sociology: a Social Science:

Sociology is a social science, a humanistic science. It is a social science like economics, political
science and psychology etc. It is not a physical science. Sociology deals with social universe and not
with the physical universe. Sociology, deals with social facts, social phenomena, man’s social
relationships and behaviour.

4. Sociology: a Special Kind of Abstraction:

Society

According to sociologists, a society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and
culture. Social groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one another
Evolution

Evolutionary theory

Sociologists in the 19th century applied Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) work in biological evolution
to theories of social change. According to evolutionary theory, society moves in specific directions.
Therefore, early social evolutionists saw society as progressing to higher and higher levels.

Therefore, early social evolutionists saw society as progressing to higher and higher
levels. As a result, they concluded that their own cultural attitudes and behaviours were more
advanced than those of earlier societies.

Contemporary social evolutionists like Gerhard Lenski, Jr., however, view social change as
multilinear rather than unilinear. Multilinear evolutionary theory holds that change can occur in
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several ways and does not inevitably lead in the same direction. Multilinear theorists observe that
human societies have evolved along differing lines.

Social evolution is the area of evolutionary biology that studies how social interactions,
especially between individuals of the same species, arise, change and are maintained. A
particular focus is on how cooperative behaviour can be beneficial despite the intuitive
advantages of being selfish.

Society is constantly evolving and will undoubtedly make significant shifts in future, whether for
good for bad. Ultimately, these changes are based on the inherent need to adapt to changing social
conditions. With the advent of communications technology, the world is becoming more connected
and cultures are absorbing external factors; therefore, society must change to reflect this increased
level of cultural diffusion. In five years, our society is likely to become more diverse in terms of
regular social practices, and the influence of foreign cultures will continue to increase as
globalization occurs. In ten years, our society’s likely to have a different view of many aspects of
life, due to the expanding influence of technology as well as the role of the media in changing public
perspectives. In twenty-five years, societal values may be radically different: as technology
advances, new innovations are made, and a variety of global issues are presented, society must
change its moral standards to comply with these conditions. Essay on Social Evolution

The term ‘evolution ‘comes from the Latin word ‘evolver’ which means ‘to develop’ or to
‘unfold’. It closely corresponds to the Sanskrit word ‘Vikas’. Evolution literally means gradually
‘unfolding’ or ‘unrolling’.

It indicates changes from ‘within’ and not from without’; it is spontaneous, but not automatic. It
must take place on its own accord. It implies continuous change that takes place especially in some
structure. The concept of evolution applies more precisely to the internal growth of an organism.

Meaning of Social Evolution: The term ‘evolution’ is borrowed from biological science to
sociology. The term ‘organic evolution’ is replaced by ‘Social Evolution’ in sociology. Whereas
the term ‘organic evolution’ is used to denote the evolution of organism, the expression ‘social
evolution’ is used to explain the evolution of human society.
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Here the term implies the evolution of man’s social relations. It was hoped that the theory of social
evaluation would explain the origin and development of man. Anthropologists and sociologists
wanted to find a satisfactory and significant explanation of how our society evolved.

They wanted an explanation in this regard rather than a description. They were impressed by the idea
of organic evolution which could convincingly explain how one species evolves into another, and
wanted to apply the same to the social world. Hence the concept of social evolution is quite popular
in sociological discussion. The Concept of Social Evolution:

Our explanation of the concept of social evolution revolves round two questions: (i) How does
society evolve? (ii) How did our civilisation come to be what it is today?

The common assumption is that society evolved because of man, who made society evolved.
Accordingly, men who had not evolved too far would have a crude culture while men who are more
evolved would have an advanced society.

Society is understood here in terms of social behaviour, and behaviour is a function of biological
structure. Men with superior and mote evolved biological structure, thus, could give rise to a more
complex society.

When we consider the factors that explain social evolution we are confronted with another question,
i.e., “what is that evolving in the social world?”. The answer is usually ‘society’. As far as society is
concerned, something other than the biological element in it is undergoing the change. To the
anthropologists like R.H. Lowie and A. Kroeber and others that element is ‘culture’.

Social evolution then becomes ‘cultural evolution’ and evolution of groups from times immemorial
becomes a part of the evolution of culture. “What then are the factors that have caused the great
evolution of our culture from crude and simple beginnings to the magnificence, it has now attained?”
The answer lies in four factors: accumulation, invention, diffusion, and adjustment. Use of This
Concept to Understand Social Change

The concept of social evolution is highly useful in explaining the changes in and growth of society
for the following reasons:
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1. The nature of any system can be better understood if we look at it as it “unfolds” itself.
Evolution is a principle of internal growth. It shows not merely what happens to a thing but
also what happens within it. What is latent becomes manifest in it, and what is potential is
made actual. The concept thus helps us to know what actually happens within the society in
its structure, that is, in the social roles, positions and relations of people.
2. The evolutionary clue helps us to arrange a multitude of facts in a significant order that is; in
accordance with time succession giving them the coherence of successive stages.
3. The evolutionary principle provides a simple means of classifying and characterising the
most diverse social systems. Societies could be classified on the basis of their degree and
mode of differentiation as revealed by customs, creeds, techniques devices, thoughts, etc.
4. Finally, the evolutionary clue helps us to know the direction of change. The direction of
change is always the result of some persistent forces that are at work. If the forces at work
are known through them, the direction can be ascertained.

Society

• The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’, which means companionship or
friendship.
• The important aspect of society is the system of relationships, the pattern of norms of
interaction by which the members of the society maintain themselves.

Definitions

• “Society is a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid, of many groupings
and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and of liberties”. (Maclever and Page)
• “Society is a web of social relationships”. (Maclever)
• “A society may be defined as a group of people who have lived enough to become organized
and to consider themselves and be considered as a unit more or less distinct from other
human units”. (John F Cuber)

Evolution of society

1. The Divine Origin Theory

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It makes the society the creation of god. Just as God created all animals and inanimate objects of this
world, so he created the society as well.

2. The Divine Right Theory

The Divine Origin Theory took the form of Divine Right Theory in 16th and 17th centuries.

3. The Force Theory

It makes the society the result of superior physical force. According to this theory, the society
originated in the subjugation of the weaker by the stronger.

4. The Patriarchal Theory

Sir Henry Maine defines this theory as ‘the theory of origin of society in separate families, held
together by the authority and protection of the eldest male descendent.

5. The Matriarchal theory

6. Social Contract theory

Characteristics of Society

1. Society consists of people.

2. Mutual interaction and mutual awareness
3. Society means likeness.
4. Society also implies difference.
5. Society also implies Interdependence 6. Cooperation and Division of labour 7. Society is
dynamic.
8. Social control
9. Culture
10. Gregarious nature of man. Types of society

1. Tribal society
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• The tribe is a group of persons having a common definite territory, common dialect,
common name, common religion and a common culture.
• The chief characteristics
1) Common territory
2) Sense of unity
3) Common language
4) Endogamous
5) Blood relationship
6) Political organization
7) Importance of religion
8) Common name
2. Agrarian society
• The dominant type of economic activity is agricultural.
Features and structure

i. Occupational structure – Domestication of plants and animals

ii. Forms of land ownership
iii. Village community system
iv. Minimal division of labour
v. Important Role of family as an economic unit
vi. Informal social control
vii. Simplicity and uniformity
3. Industrial society

The dominant type of economic activity is factory production

Features

i. Emergence of modern family

ii. Economic institutions
iii. Occupational subcultures
iv. Segmentalized roles
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v. Impersonality of relationship
vi. Status to contract
vii. Social mobility
viii. Position of women

Characteristics of Society

A society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and culture. Social groups consist
of two or more people who interact and identify with one another.

Following are the characteristics of society.

1. Society is a largest human group.

2. It satisfies the needs of its members.
3. One of the characteristics of society is having sense of belonging and cooperation. It
is more or less permanent association
4. It is abstract (Because social relationships can be felt and imagined and cannot be
seen).
5. Everyone in society is dependent upon every other member.
6. It should be organized i.e. will be having division of labour.
7. It will be having likeness and differences. Due to these differences, variety in human
behaviour and division of labour and specialization of roles is there.
8. “There is consciousness of kind.” Among the members of society.
9. It is always changing.
10. It has its own means to survive.
11. It is a self-sufficient social system.
12. It lasts for a longer period of time than groups and communities.
13. It will form a social structure through social institutions i.e. family, education
economic, political and religious institutions. These basic five institutions are found
in all societies of the world.
14. One of the characteristics of society has its own culture.
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TYPES

Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.

1. Pre-industrial

In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and
animal labour, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their
level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and
gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and feudal.

2. Hunting and gathering

The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the
hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result,
they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts, and usually only form
small groups such as bands and tribes. However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with
abundant resources (such as the Tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical
social structures such as chiefdoms. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies.
They generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. There are no political offices
containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal
consolidations for collective action are not governmental. The family forms the main social unit,
with most societal members being related by birth or marriage. This type of organization requires the
family to carry out most social functions, including production and education.

3. Pastoral

Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily
basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs.
Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Because their food
supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food
surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labour (the
specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes
more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and
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jewelry. The production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some
families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased
wealth. The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and
power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form of government in pastoral
societies.

4. Horticultural

Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide
the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and
complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to
raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists
use human labour and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land
becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state.
They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By As with
pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labour. Specialized roles in
horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role
specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus
food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems, developed
because of the settled nature of horticultural life.

5. Agrarian

Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area.
Sociologists use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that
occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Increases
in food supplies then led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater
surplus, which resulted in towns that became centres of trade supporting various rulers, educators,
craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating
nourishment.
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Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women
previously had higher social status because they shared labour more equally with men. In hunting
and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores
improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became
subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other
communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection
against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility
organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract
goods from “lesser” members of society.

6. Feudal

Feudalism was a form of society based on ownership of land. Unlike today’s farmers, vassals under
feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord’s land. In exchange for military protection, the lords
exploited the peasants into providing food, crops, crafts, homage, and other services to the
landowner. The estates of the realm system of feudalism was often multigenerational; the families of
peasants may have cultivated their lord’s land for generations.

7. Industrial

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to replace
feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of
production are privately owned. Europe’s exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the
development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great
commercial activity in European societies.

Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods. This
produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of production of the
industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now the surplus was not just
agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger surplus caused all of the changes
discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.

8. Post-industrial
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Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information, services, and high technology more
than the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase
in service sectors over manufacturing and production. The U.S. is the first country to have over half
of its work force employed in service industries. Service industries include government, research,
education, health, sales, law, banking, and so on. It is still too early to identify and understand all the
ramifications this new kind of society will have for social life. In fact, even the phrase “post-
industrial” belies the fact that we don’t yet quite know what will follow industrial societies or the
forms they will take.

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SOCIETIES

Ten thousand years is an enormous amount of time for the perspective of a single human life span,
but it is a very short time by evolutionary standards. What has caused such rapid and far reaching
change?

THE GREAT PARADOX

Despite the changes that have occurred in human life during the last 10,000 years, the majority of
societies changed very little during their entire existence. Rapid social and cultural change has been
the exception rather than the rule until recently. In most societies, life changed very little from one
generation to the next, or even from one century to the next (53).

The parts that fail to change, however, are eliminated from the system. A process of selection has
been at work in the world system of societies, favouring larger, more powerful societies at the
expense of small, less powerful ones.

CONTINUITY & CHANGE IN INDIVIDUAL SOCIETIES

Human societies are essentially adaptive mechanisms the means of which human populations strive
to satisfy their varied needs and desires. Sometimes this is accomplished by preserving traditional
ways of doing things, and sometimes by adopting new and innovative ways. In human societies we
find ample evidence of both continuity and change.
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Social & Cultural Continuity

Change in a society is largely a cumulative process. This is why sociocultural systems have grown
so much more complex over the course of history. There are a number of reasons for the persistence
of social and cultural elements in society.

UNIT- 3 CULTURE AND SOCIALIZATION

CULTURE

• Culture includes all that man has acquired in his individual and social life.
• It is the entire social heritage, which the individual receives from the group.
• “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and our thinking, intercourse,
in our literature, in religion, in recreation and enjoyment.” (MacIever)
• “Culture consists in the instruments constituted by men to assist him in satisfying his wants.”
(North) Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is learnt.
• It is not inherited biologically, but learnt socially by man.
2. Culture is social.
• It does not exist in isolation.
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• It originates and develops through social interactions.

3. Culture is shared.
• It is not something that an individual alone can possess.
4. Culture is transmissive.
• It is capable of being transmitted from one generation to the next.
5. Culture is continuous and cumulative.
• It exists as a continuous process.
• In its historical growth it tends to become cumulative.
6. Culture is consistent and integrated.
• In its development, it has a tendency to be consistent.
• At the same time different parts of culture are interconnected.
7. Culture is dynamic and adaptive.
• It is subject to slow but constant changes.
• It is responsive to the changing conditions of the physical world.
8. Culture is gratifying.
• It provides proper opportunities and prescribes means for the satisfaction of our needs and
desires.
9. Culture varies from society to society.
• Every society has a culture of its own.

10.Culture is ideational & super organic.

• Every society considers its culture as an ideal.

Functions of Culture

a. For the individual

1. Culture makes man a human being.
2. Culture provides solutions for complicated situations.
3. Culture provides traditional interpretations.

b. For the group

1. Culture keeps social relationships intact.
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2. Culture broadens the vision of the individual.

3. Culture creates new needs.

Structure / Parts / Components of Culture

1. Cultural traits
• The single elements or the smallest units of a culture.
• Eg. Shaking hands, touching the feet, giving seats to ladies first, etc.
• It is this trait, which distinguish one culture from another.
• A trait found in one culture may have no significance in other culture.
2. Culture complex
• They are larger clusters of traits organized about some nuclear point of reference.
• The culture traits are customarily associated with other related traits to form culture
complex.
• Eg. Kneeling before the idol, sprinkling sacred water over it, folding hands, taking
‘Prashad’ from the priest, etc. form a religious complex.
3. Culture pattern
• A culture pattern is formed when traits and complexes become related to each other in
functional roles.
• The culture pattern of a society consists of a number of culture complexes.
• Eg. The Indian cultural pattern consists of Gandhism, joint family, caste system,
ruralism, and spiritualism.

SUB-CULTURE

• “A sub culture is generally taken to mean a section of a national culture.” (Duncan

Mitchell)

The main sub cultures are

1. Regional subculture
2. Ethic or nationally subcultures
3. Urban and rural subcultures
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4. Class subculture 5. Occupational subculture

6. Religious subculture.

CONTRA CULTURE

Designates those groups, which do not only differ from the prevailing patterns, but also sharply
challenge them. Eg . The Hippie Culture

CULTURAL CHANGE

• “The cultural change embraces all changes occurring in any branch of culture including art,
science, technology, philosophy, etc., as well as changes in the forms and rules of social
organization.”(Kingsley Davis)
Any change that takes place in the culture can be called cultural change.
• Cultural eclecticism – When members of a society confront by customs that differ from
those which have learn to accept, they adopt some of the new customs, reject others, and
follow modified versions of still others.
• Crisis tends to produce or accelerate cultural change.

Features & Characteristics of Culture

Some of the important characteristics of culture has been cited below.

1. Culture is learned

Culture is not inherited biologically but it is leant socially by man in a society. It is not an inborn
tendency but acquired by man from the association of others, e.g. drinking, eating, dressing,
walking, behaving, reading are all learnt by man.

2. Culture is social

It is not an individual phenomenon but it is the product of society. It develops in the society through
social interaction. It is shared by the man of society No man can acquire it without the association of
others. Man is man only among men. It helps to develop qualities of human beings in a social
environment. Deprivation of a man from his company is the deprivation of human qualities.

3. Culture is shared
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Culture is something shared. It is nothing that an individual can passes but shared by common
people of a territory. For example, customs, traditions, values, beliefs are all shared by man in a
social situation. These beliefs and practices are adopted by all equally.

4. Culture is transmitted

Culture is capable of transmitted from one generation to the next. Parents papas cultural traits to
their children and in return they pass to their children and son on. It is not transmitted through genes
but through language. Language is means to communication which passes cultural traits from one
generation to another.

5. Culture is continuous

It is continuous process. It is like a stream which is flowing from one generation to another through
centuries. “Culture is the memory of human race.”

6. Culture is accumulative

Culture is not a matter of month or a year. It is the continuous process and adding new cultural traits.
Many cultural traits are borrowed from outside and these absorbed in that culture which adopt it, as
culture is accumulative and combines the suitable cultural traits.

7. Culture is integrated

All the cultural aspects are inter-connected with each other. The development of culture is the
integration of its various parts. For example, values system is interlinked with morality, customs,
beliefs and religion.
Culture is changing

It remains changing but not static. Cultural process undergoes changes. But with different speeds
from society to society and generation to generation.

8. Culture varies from society to society

Every society has its own culture and ways of behaving. It is not uniform every where but occurs
differently in various societies. Every culture is unique in itself is a specific society. For example,
values, customs, traditions, ideologies, religion, belief, practices are not similar but different in every
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society. However, the ways of eating, drinking, speaking, greeting, dressing etc are differs from one
social situation to another in the same time.

9. Culture is responsive

Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of a physical world. It intervenes in the natural
environment and helps man from all dangers and natural calamities e.g. our houses are responsible to
give us shelter and safety from storm and heavy rains.

10. Culture is gratifying

It is gratifying and provide all the opportunities for needs and desires satisfaction. These needs may
be biological or social but It is responsible to satisfy it. Our needs are food, shelter, clothing and
desires are status, fame, money, sex etc are all the examples which are fulfilled according to the
cultural ways. In fact it is defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their need.

11. Linked with society

Last but not the least one of the characteristics of culture that culture and society are one and the
same. But if we say that these turn two are twin sister, it would not be wrong. Society is a composite
of people and they interact each other through it. It is to bind the people within the society.

Functions of Culture

1. Culture is the treasury of knowledge

2. Culture defines situation
3. Culture defines attitudes, values and goals
4. Culture decides our career
5. Culture provides behaviour patterns 6. Culture moulds personality.

Subculture and Contra-culture

Sub Culture
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• In a broad sense-it represents human life and portrays human achievement.

• Limited sense- mean a national culture- to refer to the culture of a nation.
• “a subculture is generally taken to mean a section of a national culture” Duncan Mitchell.
A nation consists of a number of groups and sub groups. Each sub groups may have a way of
life of its own. Or each of them has a culture of its own. It is known as sub culture.

COUNTERCULTURES

• Sociologists distinguish subcultures from countercultures, which are a type of subculture that
rejects some of the larger culture’s norms and values. In contrast to subcultures, which
operate relatively smoothly within the larger society, countercultures might actively defy
larger society by developing their own set of rules and norms to live by, sometimes even
creating communities that operate outside of greater society.

Cultural changes and cultural lag

Cultural lag refers to the phenomenon that occurs when changes in material culture occur
before or at a faster rate than the changes in non-material culture. In other words, cultural lag is
when technological change, or something similar like tools, develops faster than society can process
those changes.

SOCIALIZATION

The process of learning group norms, habits and ideals.

Definitions:

1. “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to the norms of the
group”. (Ogburn)
2. “Socialization is the development of the we feeling in associates and their growth in capacity
and will to act together”. (Ross)
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3. “Socialization is a learning that enables the learner to perform social roles”. (Lundberg)
Factors of The Process Of Socialization:
1. Imitation
• Imitation is the copying by an individual of the actions of the other.
• It is the main factor in the socialization process of the child.
• Language and pronunciation are acquired by the child only through imitation.
2. Suggestion
• It is process of communicating information.
• It may be conveyed through language, pictures or some other similar medium.
3. Identification 4. Language
• It is the medium of social intercourse.
• It is the means of cultural transmission.
• Language moulds the personality of the individual from infancy.

Types Of Socialization

Ian Robertson has mentioned four types.

1. Primary socialization

• The most essential and basic type of socialization

• It takes place in the early years of life of the newborn individual.
• It concentrates on the teaching of language and cognitive skills, the internalization of
cultural norms and values, establishment of emotional ties, and appreciation of other
roles and perspectives.
2. Anticipatory socialization
• The process whereby men socialize themselves into the culture of a group with the
anticipation of joining that group
• It takes place at different times and places throughout life.
3. Developmental socialization
• It is based on the achievement of primary socialization.
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• New learning is added to and blended with old in a relatively smooth and continuous
process of development.
4. Re-socialization
• The stripping away of learned patterns and substitution of new ones
• It takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed.

Agencies Of Socialization:

1. The family
• The parents are the first to socialize the child.
• Of the parents, it is the mother who first begins the process of socialization.
• The family is rightly called the Cradle Of Social Virtues.
• From the parents, a child learns speech, language, societal morality, civic virtues, respect for
elders, etc.
• The child gets his first lessons in cooperation, tolerance, self-sacrifice, love and affection in
the family.
2. The school
• The second agency for socialization.
• In the school, the child gets his education, which moulds his ideas and beliefs.
• A well-planned system of education can produce socialized persons.
• The playmates or friends
• The relation between the child and playmates is based on cooperation and mutual
understanding.
• From them, the child acquires something that he cannot acquire from his parents.
• He acquires cooperative morality, some of the informal aspects of culture like fashions, fads,
crazes, modes of gratification and forbidden knowledge.
3. The church
• Religion has been an important factor in society.
• It helps to mould our beliefs and ways of life.
4. The state
• State is an authoritarian agency.
 23

• It makes laws for the people and lays down the modes of conduct expected of them.

Theories of Socialization

COOLEY’S THEORY
His concept of self-development has been termed “Looking-glass self” concept.
• Man develops the concept of self with the help of others. • The 3 principal elements of
Looking-glass concept are
• Our perception of how we look to others.
• Our perception of their judgment of how we look
• Our feelings about this judgment

MEAD’S THEORY
• The self develops out of the child’s communicative contact with others.
• An essential characteristic of the self is its reflective character; it can be both subject and
object to itself.
• The self is something that develops out of social interaction and is constantly changing and
adjusting as new situations and conflicts arise.

FREUD’S THEORY
• Self and society are not identical.
• He has the process of socialization in the terms of his concepts Id, Ego and Superego, which
constitutes the three systems of mind.
• He has compares the Id with the horse and the Ego with the rider.

Importance of socialization

1. It converts man, the biological being into man, the social being.
2. It contributes to the development of personality.
3. Helps to become disciplined.
4. Helps to enact different roles.
5. Provides the knowledge of skills.
6. Helps to develop right aspiration in life.
 24

7. Contributes to the stability of the social order.

8. Helps to reduce social distance.
9. Provides scope for building the right future.
10. Helps the transmission of culture.

NORMS

• Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving. Norms are
often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms.
• Formal norms, also called mores and laws, refer to the standards of behaviour
considered the most important in any society.
• Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behaviour that
are considered less important but still influence how we behave.

VALUES

• Values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are
deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s beliefs.

MORES

• Mores are the customs, norms, and behaviour that are acceptable to a society or social group

FOLKWAYS

• Folkway, the learned behaviour, shared by a social group, that provides a traditional mode of
conduct.

UNIT-4

SOCIAL CHANGE
Meaning
 25

• Social change involves alteration of the social order of a society. It may include changes in
social institutions, social behaviours or social relations.
• Social change, in sociology, the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure,
characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behaviour, social organizations, or
value systems.

Definition

• Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and relationships that
transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur over time and often have
profound and long-term consequences for society.
• According to MacIver and Page, social change is a change in social relationship. It is a
process responsive to many types of changes, to changes in man-made conditions of living,
to changes in attitudes and beliefs of men and to changes that go beyond human control to
the biological and physical nature of things.

Characteristics:

(1) Change is Social:

Social change means a change in the system of social relationship. Social relationship is
understood in terms of social process, social interactions and social organizations. So in any
variation of social process, social interactions and social organizations social change-takes place.

(2) Universal:

Social change is universal. Because it is present in all societies and at all times. No society remains
completely static. The society may be primitive or modern, rural or urban, simple or complex,
agrarian or industrial, it is constantly undergoing change. The rate or the degree of change may vary
from society to society from time to time but every society keeps on changing. A changeless society
is an unreality.

(3) Continuous:
 26

Social change is a continuous process but not an intermittent process. Because the changes
are neither stopped nor the societies are kept in museum to save them from change. It is an
ongoing process without any break. In the process of change every society grows and decays,
where it finds renewal and accommodates itself to various changing conditions. The sources,
direction, rate and forms of change may vary time to time but it is always continuous.

(4) Inevitable:

Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that desires change and also it is his tendency to
bring change and to oppose or accept change. Human wants are unlimited which always keep
on changing. To satisfy these wants social change has become a necessity not only to him but
also to the society.

(5) Temporal:

Social change is temporal. Change in anything or any object or in a situation takes place
through time. Time is the most important factor and social change denotes time-sequence.
According to Maclver, “It is a becoming, not a being; a process, not a product”. Innovation of
new things, modification and renovations of the existing behaviour take time.

(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform:

Though social change is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or what we call the
speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and even in the same society from time to
time. Sometimes the degree of change is high and sometimes low depending upon the nature of
society like open and close, rural and urban and traditional and modern etc. For example, in the
rural social structure the rate of change is slower because the rate of change is not governed by
any universal law, whereas it is quick in the urban societies.

(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned:

Social change takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes without planning. Social
change which occurs in the natural course is called the unplanned change. The unplanned
changes are spontaneous, accidental or the product of sudden decision. Usually the change
 27

resulting from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic eruption, etc. are the
instances of unplanned changes.

(8) Social change is multi-causal:

A single factor may cause a particular change but it is always associated with a number of
factors. The physical, biological, demographical, cultural, technological and many other factors
interact to generate change. This is due to mutual interdependence of social phenomenon.

(9) Social change creates chain-reactions:

Social change produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the parts of the society are
inter-related and interdependent. For example, the economic independence of women has
brought changes not only in their status but also a series of changes in home, family relationship
and marriages etc.

(10) Prediction is uncertain:

Factors of social change

1. Physical Environment:

Certain geographic changes sometimes produce great social change. Climate, storms, social
erosion, earthquakes, floods, droughts etc., definitely affect social life and induce social change.
Human life is closely bound up with the geographical conditions of the earth

2. Demographic (biological) Factor:

Broadly speaking, demography is concerned with the size and structure of human population.
The social structure of a society is closely related with the changes in the size, composition
and distribution of population. The size of the population is based mainly upon three factors
— birth rate, death rate and migration (immigration and emigration). Changes in
demographic structure, which may be caused by changes in mortality rates, will produce
changes in the ratio of breadwinners to dependents.

Such a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other
institutions. The size of population affects each of us quite personally. Whether we are born
 28

into a growing or a shrinking population has a bearing on our education, the age at which we
marry, our ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other factors.

3. Cultural Factor:
It is an established fact that there is an intimate connection between our beliefs and social
institutions, our values and social relationships. Values, beliefs, ideas, institutions are the
basic elements of a culture. Certainly, all cultural changes involve social change.
4. Economic Factor:

Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of industrialization. It has

revolutionised the whole way of life, institutions, organisations and community life. In
traditional production systems, levels of production were fairly static since they were geared
to habitual, customary needs. Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant revision of
the technology of production, a process into which science is increasingly drawn.

5. Political Factor:

State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social relationships. It has the
power to legislate new laws, repeal old ones to bring social change in the society. Laws
regarding child marriage, widow remarriage, divorce, inheritance and succession, untouch-
ability are some of the examples which have brought many changes in the social structure of
Indian society.

The type of political leadership and individuals in power also influences the rate and
direction of social change.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

1. EVOLUTION THEORY
• Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from
simple beginnings into even more complex forms.
• According to them social change meant progress toward something better. They saw
change as positive and beneficial. To them the evolutionary process implied that
societies would necessarily reach new and higher levels of civilization.
 29

• Evolutionary theories assume that there is a consistent direction of social change

carrying all societies through a similar sequence of stages from the original to the final
stage of development.
• Also, the evolutionary theories imply that when the final stage is reached, evolutionary
theories will end.
Types of Evolutionary theories
• UNILINEAR EVOLUTIONARY THEORY: This theory was proposed by HERBRT
SPENCER. The theory contents that all societies pass through the same successive
stages of evolution and reach the same end.
• MULTI LINEAR THEORY: This theory was propounded by contemporary social
evolutionist Gerhard Lenski. This theory holds that change can occur in several ways and
does not inevitably lead in the same direction.

2. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY
• Functionalist theory emphasises what maintains society, not what changes it. Talcott
Parsons who is one of the main functionalists saw society in its natural state as being
stable and balanced.
• This theory mainly focuses on what maintains a system, not what changes it.
• EQUILIBRIUM THEORY: Through this theory Talcott tries to say that changes occur in
one part of society, there must be adjustments in other parts. If this does not happen,
strains will occur and the society’s equilibrium will be threatened.

CYCLICAL THEORY
• This theory focusses on the rise and fall of civilizations attempting to discover and
account for these patterns of growth and decay.
• Toynbee and Sorokin can be regarded as the champions of this theory.
• This theory posits that every society undergoes a phenomenon of cyclical change.
• Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a similar life-cycle, birth,
maturity, old-age and death. After making a study of eight major civilizations including
the west he said that the modern western society is in the last stage i.e. old age.
 30

4.CONFLICT THEORY

• Conflict theorists emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order.
This perspective is derived from the works of KARL MARX
• This theory holds that change has crucial significance, since it is needed to correct social
injustices and in equalities.
• Every society experiences at every moment social conflict, hence social conflict is
ubiquitous. Every element in society contributes to change and so conflicts in society
also leads societies to bring changes or to be changed.
 31

MODULE-2

SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

UNIT-5

SOCIAL GROUPS

• In the social sciences, a social group can be defined as two or more people who interact
with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.
• Social group, any set of human beings who either are, recently have been, or anticipate
being in some kind of interrelation.
• According to Harry M. Johnson says that “A social group is a system of social
interaction.”
• According to Marshal Jones is of the opinion that a social group is “two or more people
between whom there is an established pattern of interaction.”
• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff offered their view saying, “Whenever two or more
individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a
social group.”
• According to Edward Sapin opined, “A social group is constituted by the fact that there
is some interest which holds its members together.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL GROUPS

• Mutual Awareness:
• One or more Common Interests:
• Sense of Unity:
• We-feeling:
• Similarity of Behaviour:
• Group Norms:
• Closeness or Physical Proximity:
• Smallness:
 32

CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL GROUPS

1. Primary Group
2. Secondary Group
3. Peer Group
4. Reference Group Primary Group
• A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal,
enduring relationships in which one exchanges implicit items, such as love, caring,
concern, support, etc. These groups are often long-lasting and marked by members’
concern for one another, where the goal is actually the relationship themselves rather
than achieving another purpose.
• Primary group” refers to those personal relations that are direct, face-to-face, relatively
permanent, and intimate, such as the relations in a family, a group of close friends, and
the like.

Characteristics of Primary Group

• Physical Proximity: The members of a group share close relationship and they have
intimate contact with each other.
• Small in size
• Stability in nature: Stability promotes closeness.
• Continuity in relationship: By meeting frequently and by exchanging thoughts, intimacy
increases.
• Common commitments among members group members: Family members control over
• Maximum control over family affairs. Importance of Primary Group
• To develop the personality
• The efficiency of members increases and persons of the group get help, inspiration and
cooperation from one another.
• Satisfaction of total needs of the individuals: Primary groups help fulfilling physical,
emotional, psychological, social and spiritual of the individual.
 33

• Group members provide love, security, belongingness and companionship to one

individual
• Socialization process initiates within the primary group. Secondary Group
• A secondary group is a relatively larger group composed of impersonal and goal-oriented
relationships, which are often temporary.[
• An impersonal group that is task oriented and interactions are typically formal, based on
roles and statuses.
• C.H. Cooley defines: “Secondary groups are wholly lacking in intimacy of association
and usually in most of the other primary and quasi-primary characteristics”. .
• Ogburn and Nimkoff define: “The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy
are called secondary groups”.

Characteristics of Secondary Group

• Position of a member depends upon their role and status.

• Individuality develops in the persons because their relations are based on self-interest.
• Self-dependence among members.
• It is large in size.
• No physical closeness.
• Formed for some purpose after attaining that it may dismantle.
• Group cannot exercise control to that extent due to large Size.
• Lacks stability and personal relationships • Has limited acquaintance and responsibility.
• Members play active and passive roles
• Possibility of development in individualism
• It is formed with definite objective,
• its function is not Spontaneously

Importance of Secondary Groups

• The needs are satisfied in the group with the advance of technology and associated with
social change.
• This group satisfies the changing needs of society and individual.
 34

• Rules formed by the group, will increase the efficiency of the work.
• Delegation of the authority, coordination and planning of the activities will be
implemented.
• Secondary groups accommodate large number of members/localities which widens the
outlook of groups.

Peer Group

• A peer group is a social group whose members have interests, social positions, and age in
common.
• In sociology, a peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have
similar interests (homophily), age, background, or social status. The members of this
group are likely to influence the person’s beliefs and behaviour. During adolescence,
peer groups tend to face dramatic changes
• : A society comprises of different people belonging to different age group, interest,
family background, and nature. Peer Group can be seen as the small subset of this
universal set of society in which people of same interest, age groups and needs are put
together.

Characteristics of peer group

• Serve as a source of information:

Peer groups have a significant influence on psychological and social adjustments for
Dr individuals. Peer groups provide perspective outside of individual’s viewpoints.
Members inside peer groups also learn to develop relationships with others in the
social system.
• Teaches gender roles:
Peer groups can also serve as a venue for teaching members gender roles. Through
gender-role socialization group members learn about sex differences, social and
cultural expectations. While boys and girls differ greatly there is not a one to one link
between sex and gender role with males always being masculine and females always
being feminine.
 35

• Serves as a practicing venue to adulthood:

Adolescent Peer groups provide support for children and teens as they assimilate into
the adult society decreasing dependence on parents, and increasing feeling of
selfsufficiency and connecting with a much larger social network.
• Teachers Unity & Collective Behaviour:
Peer Groups provide an influential social setting in which group norms are developed
and enforced through socialization processes that promote within-group similarity.
Peer groups cohesion is determined, and maintained by such factors as group
Communication, Group consensus, and Group conformity concerning attitude and
behaviour.

Importance of peer group

• The peer group provides emotional or instrumental support, fosters friendships and
facilitates social interaction and development.
• Peer groups can help adolescents gain sex education and accept the ensuing changes in
their physical development.
• It provides opportunities for self-expression and stimulates them to think for themselves,
assume responsibility, new experiences and new adventures which maintain their
development
• Peer groupism also leads to herd mentality where negative effects like smoking, drugs,
etc. cause a bad influence.
• It promotes awareness about socio-economic inequality, racial understanding, religious
tolerance and national integration.
• It develops social attitudes, group values and the ability to go beyond one’s ego-centric
interest into concern for the group activity.
• Teachers can take advantage of peer groups for giving group work and developing a
sense of teamwork and team spirit.

REFERENCE GROUP
 36

• A reference group is a collection of people that we use as a standard of comparison for

ourselves regardless of whether we are part of that group. We rely on reference groups to
understand social norms, which then shape our values, ideas, behaviour, and appearance.
• A reference group includes individuals or groups that influence our opinions, beliefs,
attitudes and behaviour.
• Reference group is any group that people use as a point of comparison to form their own
attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviour Characteristics of reference group

(i) The individual or group compares himself or itself with the other individual or
group.
(ii) In Reference Group Behaviour the individual or group desires to rise higher in
the social scale and as such the group or individual comes to feel it’s or his
defects or weaknesses.
(iii) The feeling of relative weaknesses or defects leads to the feeling of relative
deprivation in the individual or group.
(iv) The feeling of relative weaknesses or defects leads to the feeling of relative
deprivation in the individual or group.

UNIT- 6

SOCIAL INTERACTION & SOCIAL PROCESS

Meaning of Social Interaction: Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which not only
Influence the interacting individuals but also the quality of relationships.

• Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is thus the general process whereby two or
more Persons are in meaningful contact-as a result of which their behaviour is modified,
however, slightly”. The mere placing of individuals in physical proximity, although it
usually results in at Least a medium of interaction, does not weld them into a social unit
or group.
• Social interaction may then be defined as that dynamic interplay of forces in which
contact Between persons and groups result in modifications of the attitudes and
behaviour of the Participants.
 37

Social process

• Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur repeatedly. By social
processes we mean those ways in which individuals and groups interact and establish
social relationships. There are various of forms of social interaction such as cooperation,
conflict, competition and accommodation etc.
• According to Maclver, “Social process is the manner in which the relations of the
members of a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character”.
• As Ginsberg says, “Social processes mean the various modes of interaction between
individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and
integration, development, arrest and decay”.
• According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers to the repetitive form of
behaviour which are commonly found in social life”.

Types of social process

Associative process

• Cooperation

• Accommodation

• Assimilation

Dissociative process

• Competition

• Conflict

• differentiation Cooperation
• Which is when two or more people have a common goal that they work together to
accomplish.
• In the words of Merrill and Eldredge, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction
wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end.”
 38

Types of Cooperation

We can classify cooperation into five categories, viz.

i) Direct cooperation
ii) Indirect cooperation
iii) Primary cooperation
iv) Secondary cooperation
and
v) Tertiary cooperation

Direct cooperation: The essential characteristics of this kind of cooperationAre that people
do in company the thing which can also do separately. In thisCategory cooperating
individuals do things of common interest together andPerform identical functions. Playing
together, worshiping together are the Examples of direct co-operation.

Indirect cooperation: In this type of cooperation individual work towards aCommon end each
has his own specialised functions. Thus, we can say thatIndirect cooperation is obtained when
people perform dissimilar tasks towardsA common end, i.e., each has its specialised role to play.
In the modern societyIt is the indirect cooperation which is more in play than the direct
cooperationBecause technological changes require specialisation of skills and functions.

Primary cooperation: There is an identity of interest between the individualAnd the group. It is
the cooperation which is found in primary groups such as Family. Not only family but also peer
groups is also called primary cooperationWhere people have to choose face-to-face relations. We
can also say that interest Of the individual merge with the interest of the primary group.

Secondary cooperation: This type of cooperation is generally found in the Secondary group,
viz., government, industry, church and trade union etc.

Tertiary cooperation: This is the interaction between various big and small Group to meet a
particular situation. Here the individual or group who wants To compete with one another, come
together and cooperate with each other For a specific purpose. In such type of cooperation the
attitudes of the Cooperating parties are purely opportunistic.
 39

ACCOMMODATION

• According to MacIver, “the term accommodation refers particularly to the process on

which Man attains a sense of harmony with his environments. Besides this, as a
process, Accommodation is the sequence of steps by which persons are reconciled to
Changed conditions of life through the formation of the changed conditions
Themselves
• Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of
hostile individuals or groups. Accommodation is the process by the individuals and
groups make the necessary internal adjustments to situation which have been created
by competition and conflict

ASSIMILATION

• Assimilation, in anthropology and sociology, the process whereby individuals or

groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society.
• Assimilation describes the process of social, cultural, and political integration of a
minority into a dominant culture and society.
• Assimilation is the process whereby persons and groups acquire the culture of other
group in which they come to live, by adopting its attitudes and values, its patterns of
thinking and behaving—in short, its way of life.

COMPETITION

Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle.

• According to Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell “Competition is an impersonal,

unconscious, continuous struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction
which, because of their limited supply, all may not have.”
• In the words of Biesanz “competition is the striving of two or more persons for the
same goal which is limited so that all cannot share it.”

CONFLICT
 40

• According to Gillin and Gillin, “Conflict is the social process in which individuals or
groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence.”
• According to J.H. Fitcher, “Conflict is the social process in which individual or
groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence”. As K. Davis defines, “Conflict is u codified form of struggle”.

ISOLATION

• isolation describes the absence of social contact and can lead to loneliness. It is a state
of being cut off from normal social networks, which can be triggered by factors such
as loss of mobility, unemployment, or health issues. Isolation can involve staying at
home for lengthy periods of time, having no access to services or community
involvement, and little or no communication with friends, family, and acquaintances.

UNIT- 7

STRATIFICATION

Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into groups based on
socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation,
social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the relative
social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit.

• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups
are ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”.
• According to Melvin M Tumin:“Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any
social group or society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to
power, property, social evaluation and psychic gratification”.

Characteristics of Social Stratification:

 41

1. Social-Economic classification or categorization: A stratified society is one with

distinct social classes. Most of the social stratification types are based on the social-
economic classification.
2. Universal: Social divisions are found in almost all societies and cultures (developing
countries to developed countries), sometimes deliberately and in other circumstances
subconsciously in various forms.
3. Hierarchical: Startas are arranged in hierarchical order For example Indian Caste System
4. Preserves the status quo: Categorization of people into different social classes is meant
to ensure that the status quo is preserved.
5. Inequality in income, wealth distribution and social status: This means if a person has
a high capital income he/she falls in the upper class. Those with lower-income fall in the
lower class and so on!
6. Unequal control over natural resources such as land:. For example, the high-class or
the rich class people can own more land or other resources. On the other hand, the poor or
the low-class people own fewer resources.
7. Is in diverse forms: Diverse in nature & remains same with only differences in the name.
Caste social stratification, slavery stratification, high-class, middle class, etc., are few
such examples.
8. It has consequences: such as racial and class discrimination, unjust application of the
law, and increasing income gap between the rich and the poor. It also leads to resentment
between social classes.
9. It is purely social: It does not focus on natural abilities of an individual other than
inequalities that have been caused by the society.
10. Inequality of opportunity: Some strata of society will usually have more opportunities
for work, education and so on than others.
11. Stereotyping: Sometimes, people will stereotype the members of different social strata,
cementing a particular image of them in the public’s mind.
12. Dissatisfaction: The inequalities described above can lead to dissatisfaction, and even
unrest, among the populace in a stratified society.
 42

CASTE
Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a
style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social
interaction and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and pollution.
Changes in the Caste System
• Sanskritization: it is a process by which any person of lower caste could adapt to
behaviour pattern, style of life and culture of high caste and claim the membership of the
caste. This process of Sanskritization was not applicable to the untouchables, but only to
the middle class. The lengthy process of Sanskritization re- quires the lower caste to have
a touchable status, better economic conditions, should make a claim to the membership
to the higher caste by propagating a myth or story. This is a lengthy, group process which
leads to posi- tional, not structural change.
• Westernisation: indicates adapting to western style of living, language, pattern of life,
dress- ing and behaviour. The higher castes were the first to westernize followed by the
lower caste. Now this is a feature of urban areas. • The features of westernisation are
• Rational outlook
• Interest in material progress
• Reliance on modern communication and mass media English medium education
• High social mobility
• Modernisation: this is a process which primar- ily relies on scientific outlook, rational
atti- tudes, high social mobility, mass mobilisation, empathy, and belief in liberty,
equality and fra- ternity, high level of motivation to do everything in perfection,
specialisation and su- per specialisation in work, active participation and dealing with
complex organisations. This requires changes in institutional, structural, at- titudinal and
organisational aspects at the so- cial, cultural and personal level. Modernisation has
resulted in the flexibility of caste system. Our caste system has gradually been adapted to
modernisation by providing education to the people and living with a modern outlook.
• Dominant Caste: this concept of dominant caste emerged in the 20 th century. This means
that some castes are economically and politically superior to some and virtually rules the
others. The features of dominant caste are.
 43

• Large land holdings in the area with good economic condition

• Politically dominant and is a vote bank
• Have large population High ritual status English medium education Having a tradition on
agriculture
• Having a tradition of violenc
Industrialisation & Urbanisation: large scale industrialisation resulted in the migration of
people to the industrial urban areas n large level. And it was difficult to practice the caste system
among such population. There are more public spaces where it was difficult to maintain the caste
system.
Hence this was made more flexible. • Democratic Decentralisation: through the introduction of
Panchayati raj, local self-govern- ments have been implemented at the villages with seat
reservation for the lower caste. This empowers the lower caste people more. •
Caste & Politics: these two are related from the time of their origin. Now caste has become vote
banks and can control the political aspects of a region. This has been both a boon and curse to
the people. If the lower caste stands high in the population, they will be like more politically
empowered and be more influential. In the same way, if the higher castes are more on
population, their influence became higher always. Better education, mass awareness campaign
and good employment opportunities would en- sure smooth passage towards a progressive
society.

SOCIAL MOBILITY
• Social mobility, movement of individuals, families, or groups through a system of social
hierarchy or stratification. • Social mobility refers to the shift in an individual’s social status
from one status to another. The shift can either be higher, lower, inter-generational, or intra-
generational, and it cannot necessarily be determined if the change is for good or bad.
UNIT- 8
Social institution
Malinowski defines institution as “a group of people united by common interest, endowed
by material equipment, following rules of their tradition or agreement
(charter) and contributing to the work of culture as a whole.”
 44

• A social institution is a group of individuals who have a common purpose, goals, and
set of norms.
Characteristics of Social Institutions:
1. Sis is a group of people come together for common purpose
2. It has a set of social norms organised safeguarding of a basic societal values
3. Govern the behaviour and expectations of set of individuals within a given community
4. Has tasks, roles and responsibilities that contributes for overall functioning and stability of
society
5. Each SI possess distinctive practices and differ from each other

Types of social institution

Major Social Institutions
• The Family • Education • Religion • Economic Institutions • Government as a
Social Institution . The Family
• The smallest social institution with the unique function or producing and rearing the
young.
• It is the basic unit of Philippine society and the educational system where the child begins
to learn his ABC.
• The basic agent of socialization because it is here where the individual develops values,
behaviour, and ways of life through interaction with members of the family (Vega, 2004).
Functions of the Family
1. Reproduction of the race and rearing of the young.
2. Cultural transmission or enculturation.
3. Socialization of the child.
4. Providing affection and a sense of security.
5. Providing the environment for personality development and the growth of self-concept in
relation to others. 6. Providing social status.
. School
• A school is considered to be a miniature society. •
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• An important social institution.

• The child spends a significant part of his life in this social institution. The formative
years of a child is spent in this social institution School lays the foundation for lifelong
learning Functions of School
• Providing learning space and appropriate teaching environment to the pupils. Prepares
the child to be effective members of the society.
• Kothari Commission (1964 – 66) quoted “The destiny of India is shaped in her
classrooms” . This statement clearly explains the significance of school as a social
institution Helping children learn moral values, punctual- ity, respecting diversity,
adopting social roles etc.

Religion
• Religion is a social institution because it includes beliefs and practices that serve the needs
of society. Religion is also an example of a cultural universal because it is found in all
societies in one form or another.
Economic institutions
• The economy is the social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and
consumption of a society’s goods and services. It consists of three sectors: the primary
sector, the secondary sector, and the tertiary sector. The two major economic systems in
modern societies are capitalism and socialism.
Government
• Governments are an essential social institution. They are responsible for setting rules and
enforcing them to define how individuals integrate into society. Legal institutions help us
by regulating society and preventing crime as they enforce law and policy.
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MODULE- 3
UNIT- 9
SOCIAL ISSUES

Social issues (also social problem, social evil and social conflict) refers to any undesirable
condition that is opposed either by the whole society or by a section of the society.
India is facing a large number of social issues such as caste system, child labour, illiteracy,
gender inequality, superstitions, religious conflicts, and many more. It is very necessary to get rid
of these social evils.
 47

GENDER ISSUES SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment is defined as any unwelcomed sexual comments advances, or requests for
sexual favors that humiliate, threaten or embarrass the victim. Social harassment is a continuous
pattern of harassment ranging from un invited touching, sexist remarks and/or jokes and ‘verbal,
visual or physical conduct of a sexual nature”. Sexual harassment is a violation of women’s
human rights and prohibited form of violence against women in many countries. Sexual
harassment can be physical or verbal. It includes;

• Hostile environment: a hostile environment occurs when another person makes you
uncomfortable with staring, whistling, shouting, trued jokes, suggestive touching,
stalking, tons of e-mails or phone calls or any unwanted contact.
• Quid pro quo: This is a Latin phrase that means “something for something”. it refers to a
situation in which somebody in a position of power over you threatens to give you a bad
grade , kick you off a team or not let you play, or get you in trouble if you don’t agree to
the sexual act. It may also refers to a boss who bribes you with a better job or more pay in
exchange for sexual favors. The person is incorrectly using his or her higher status above
you, and it is illegal.
As define by the US equal unemployment opportunity commission [EEOC], it is
unlawful to harass a person because of that person’s sex.

Where laws surrounding sexual harassment exist. In the workplace,harassment may be

considered illegal when it is so frequent or severe that it create a hostile or offensive
work environment when it result in an adverse employment decision ( such as the victim
being fired demoted or when the victim decides to quiet the job)

HARASSMENT SITUATION

Sexual harassment may occur in a variety of circumstances. Often, but not always, the
harasser is in a position of power or authority over the victim (due to differences in age,
or social, political, educational or employment relationships) or expecting to receive such
power or authority in the form of promotion. Forms of harassment relationship include:
 48

• The harasser can be anyone, such as a client, co-worker, a parent or legal guardian,
relative, a teacher or professor, a student, a friend or a stranger.
• The place of harassment occurrence in a vary from school, university, workplace and
other. • The harasser does not have to be of the opposite sex
• Adverse effects on the target are common in the form of stress and social withdrawal,
sleep and eating difficulties, over health impairment etc…
EFFECT OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT ON THE VICTIM

The effects of sexual harassment vary from person to person, and are contingent on the
severity, and duration of the harassment. However, sexual harassment is a type of sexual
assault and victim of severe or chronic sexual harassment can suffer the same
psychological effect as rape victims. Depending upon the situation, a sexual harassment
victim can experience traumatic situation.
PREVENTION

• Sexual harassment should be affirmatively discussed at workers meeting, employer

employee meetings etc.
• Guideline should be prominently displayed to create awareness about the rights of female
employees.
• The employee should assist persons affected in case of sexual harassment by outsiders.
• Central and state governments must adopt measures including legislations, to ensure that
private employers also observe the guidelines.
• Names and contact no. of members of the complaints committee must be prominently
displayed.

Acts

Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace) Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act,

2013
 49

GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Gender refers to the social difference and relations between man and women which are learned
very widely among society, culture and changes over times. The term gender does not replace the
term sex which refers exclusively to biological difference between man and women. The term
gender is used to analyses the roles, responsibilities constraints, opportunities and needs of
women and men in all areas, in given social context. Gender roles are affected by age, class,
face, ethnicity and religion and by the geographical economic and political environment.

Sexism or gender discrimination is prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender.

Sexism can affect any gender, but it is particularly documented as affecting women and girls. It
has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles and may include the belief that one sex or gender
is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment rape and other
forms of sexual violence.

Discrimination

From womb to death females are facing lots of discrimination against them. Some of them are
given below
1. Female feticide: the act of killing of female fetus outside of the legal channels or
abortion.
this is usually done under the familial pressure from the husband or the –in laws or even
the women’s parents
2. Not giving enough and nutritious food
3. Early marriage: child marriage is a formal marriage or informal union entered into by an
individual before reaching the age of 18 causes of child marriage i) Dowry and bride
price ii) Persecution, force migration and slavery
iii) Fear, poverty social pressures and sense of protection
iv) Religion and civil law
v) Political and financial relationship
4. Low wages and less employment opportunities.
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5. Eve teasing rape and sexual harassments.

6. Dowry
7. Divorce, destitution even for silly reason.
Cause of gender discrimination

Gender inequality or discrimination are root causes of violence against women, influence by the
historical and structural power imbalance between women and men which exist in varying
degrees across all communities of the world.

Violence against women and girls are related to power and control, as well as to the social norms
that prescribed men and women’s roles in society and condone abuse. Inequality between men
and women cut across public and private sphere of life, and across social economic, cultural and
political rights and are manifested in restriction and imitations of women’s freedom, choices and
opportunities. These equalities can increase women’s and girls’ risk of abuse, violent relationship
and exploitations.
These discriminations can cause a wide range of problems in any type of business or
organization. It’s a problem that can destroy health and profitable organization.

Major causes of gender discriminations

1. Educational backwardness
2. Caste and religious beliefs
3. Culture
4. On the name of family history
5. Customs superstitions and beliefs of the community
6. Dowry and other forms of bride price
7. Law income
8. Unemployment
9. Society
10. Family situations
11. Attitudes
 51

12. Illiteracy
13. Lack of awareness

Solutions for gender discriminations

Various movements, programs are being carried out by the government, voluntary organization
and by lots of social activists for women’s development and against the gender discrimination.
To solve the gender discrimination problems the E4SD factor would be very useful. The E4Sd
factors are:-
1. Education: Education develops the skills, imparts knowledge, change the attitude and
improves the self-confidence. It provides employment opportunities and increase income.
Hence education of women is the prime factor to combat gender discriminate and for the
upliftment of women. Not only the female, the society must be educated, to give equal
rights for female.
2. Employment: employment gives the income and improves the economic position of the
women. Employed women are given importance by the family members. Employment
gives the economic independence for the women.
3. Economic independence: in India, mostly women in the young age depends her father, in
the middle age, she depends on her husband and in the older age, depends on her son.
Women always depends on somebody for her livelihoods hence, independence in
economic aspects are imperative for women’s development. Economic development will
free the women from the slavery position and boost the self-confidence. Economic
independence of women also helps in the national economic development
4. Empowerment: empowering women with the help of laws, education and employment
will make the society to accept the women as an equal gender like male, female also has
all the potential and empowering women will help to use her full capability and mitigate
the economic dependency of women.
5. Self –confidence: due to prolonged suppression, Indian women, especially an individual
and employment women hasn’t had self-confidence. Women needs self-confidence to
fight against all the atrocities against her and to live self-esteemed life.
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6. Decision making: even in the family as well as in the societies the decision-making
power of women is denied. Mostly males make the important decision in the family and
in the society. This makes women as voice less and destroys herself confidence and she
feel less importance in the family as well as in the society. So to end gender
discrimination women must empower with decision making power.

Acts

Abolition of titles (Article 18)

Abolition of untouchability (Article 17)

Right to equality

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence is the wellful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual assault and/or
other abusive behaviour or part of a systematic pattern of power and control perpetrated by one
intimate partner against another .it includes physical violence, sexual violence, psychological
violence and emotional abuse. The frequency and severity of domestic violence can vary
dramatically, however, the one partner’s consistent effort to maintain power and control over the
other.

Domestic violence is an epidemic affecting individual in every community regardless of age,

economic status, sexual orientation, gender, race, religion, or nationality. It is often accompanied
by emotionally abusive and controlling behaviour that is only a fraction of a systematic pattern
of dominance and control. Domestic violence can result in physical injury, psychological trauma,
and in severe cases, even death. The devastating physical emotional and psychological
consequences of domestic violence can cross generations and last a lifetime.

It is always easy to determine in the early stages of a relationship of one person will become
abusive. Domestic violence intensifies over time. Abusers may often seem wonderful and perfect
initially but gradually become more aggressive and controlling as the relationship continues
 53

Forms of domestic violence

Domestic violence can take many forms including physical aggression or assault (hitting, biting,
shoving throwing objects battery) or threats thereof, sexual abuse, controlling or domineering,
intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (e.g. neglect) and economic deprivation .it can also
mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful, imprisonment, trespassing and
harassment.

Physical

Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause pain, injury, or other physical
suffering or bodily harm. It includes hitting, slapping, punching, chocking, pushing, throwing
objects, burning and other types of contact that result in physical injury to the victim.

Acid attacks

Also seen in Domestic violence, occurs when acid is thrown in anger or vengeance at the
victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and
sometimes dissolving the bones. This can result in long term blindness and permanent scarring of
the face and body.

Bride burning or dowry killing

It is a form of domestic violence in which newly married woman is killed at home by her
husband’s family due to their dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. Dowry
violence is most common in south Asia, especially in India. In 2011, the National Crime
Recorder Bureau reported 8618 dowry death in India.

Emotional

Emotional abuse (also called psychological abuse or mental abuse) can include verbal abuse and
is defined as any behaviour that threaten, intimidates, undermines the victim’s self Worth or
selfesteem, or controls the victim’s freedom. Emotional abuse can include threatening the victim
with injury or harm, telling the victim that they will be killed if they ever leave the relationship,
isolating them from others, and public humiliation
 54

Verbal

Verbal abuse is a form of emotionally abusive behaviour involving the use of language, which
can involve threats, name calling, blaming, ridicule, disrespect and criticism. Less obviously
aggressive forms of verbal abuse include statements that may seem begin on the surface that are
thinly veiled attempts to humiliate, falsely accuse or manipulate others feel unwanted and
unloved, threaten other economically, or isolate victims from support systems.

Economic

Economic abuse is a form of abuse when the intimate partner has control over the other partner’s
access to economic resources. Economic abuse may involve preventing a spouse from acquiring
resources is to diminish to victim’s capacity to support his/herself, thus forcing him/her to
depend on the, which includes preventing the victim from obtaining education, finding
employment, maintaining or advancing their careers, and acquiring assets. Forcing or preserving
a family member to sign documents, to sell things, or to change a will are forms of economic
abuse.

CAUSES

Domestic violence Against Women

This form of Domestic violence is most common of all. One of these reasons for it being so
prevalent is the orthodox and idiotic mindset of the society that woman is physically and
emotionally weaker than the males. The reports of violence against women are much larger in
number than against men. According to United Nation Population on Fund Report, around two
third of married Indian women are victims of domestic violence and as many as 70 percent of
married woman in India between the age of 15 and 49 are victims of beating, rape or forced sex.

The most common causes for woman stalking and battering include dissatisfaction

• Dissatisfaction with the dowry and exploiting woman for more of it.
• Arguing with the partner
• Refusing to have sex with him
• Neglecting children
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• Going out of home without telling the partner

• Not cooking properly or on time

• Indulging in extra marital affairs.

Physical abuse against woman includes slapping, punching, grabbing, burdening them with
drudgery, public humiliation and the neglect of their health problems.

CONSEQUENCES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

There are varied consequences of domestic violence depending on the victim, the age group, the
intensity of the violence and frequency of the torment they are subjected to. Living under a
constant fear, threat and humiliation are some of the feelings developed in the minds of the
victims as a consequence of an atrocious violence.

Battered woman have tendency to remain quiet, agonized and emotionally disturbed after the
occurrence of the torment. A psychological set back and trauma because of domestic violence
affects women’s productivity in all forms of life. The suicide case of such victimized woman is
also a deadly consequence and the number of such cases is increasing.

The consequence against violence against men in India is largely emotional and psychological in
nature. The physical harassment resulting from domestic violence, also affects their lives and
productivity but it is still more inclined towards the emotional problems which men face in
india.it is largely because many such cases go unreported, as compared to cases of physical
assault of woman.

REMEDIES FOR DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Fighting the Domestic Violence Evil

A recent study has concluded that violence against woman is the fastest growing crime in India.
According to latest report prepared by India’s national Aims Records Bureau (NCRB), a crime
has been recorded against woman in every three minutes in India. There are several
organizations all over the world-government and non-government actively working to fight the
problems generated by domestic violence to the human community.
 56

Need for Stringent Laws

In 1983, domestic violence was recognized as a specific criminal offense by the introduction of
section 498-A into the Indian penal code. The Main Legislative measures at the national level for
the children who become a victim of child labour include The Child Labour Prohibition and
Regulation Act 1986 and the Factories Act-1948.The government of India passed a Domestic
Violence Bill 2001.Ther is an urgent need for such a law in the country.

Role Of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

The role Of Non-Governmental Organizations in controlling the domestic violence. Sakshi a

violence intervention agency for women and children in Delhi. There are at present only few
NGOs for welfare of men like social welfare association for men (SWAM) in Chennai. The
NGOs are encouraging more and more people to report any case of Domestic violence so that
proper action may be taken against the culprits

Police and Health care

Police plays a major role in tackling the domestic violence cases as seriously as many other
crime .special training to handle domestic violence cases should be police force.

Protection of Women from Domestic violence Act 2005

UNIT- 10

ADOLESCENT ISSUES CHILD LABOUR

Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their
childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically,
socially or morally dangerous and harmful. This practice is considered exploitative by many
international organizations. Legislations across the world prohibit child labour.

CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR

Primary causes

International Labour Organisation (ILO) suggests poverty is the greatest single cause behind
child labour. For impoverished households, income from a child's work is usually crucial for his
 57

or her own survival or for that of the household. Income from working children, even if small,
may be between 25 to 40% of the household income.

Lack of meaningful alternatives, such as affordable schools and quality education, according to
ILO, is another major factor driving children to harmful labour. Children work because they have
nothing better to do. Many communities, particularly rural areas where between 60–70% of child
labour is prevalent, do not possess adequate school facilities. Even when schools are sometimes
available, they are too far away, difficult to reach, unaffordable or the quality of education is so
poor that parents wonder if going to school is really worth it.

Cultural causes

In European history when child labour was common, as well as in contemporary child labour of
modern world, certain cultural beliefs have rationalized child labour and thereby encouraged it.
Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill development of children. In
many cultures, particular where informal economy and small household businesses thrive, the
cultural tradition is that children follow in their parents' footsteps; child labour then is a means to
learn and practice that trade from a very early age. Similarly, in many cultures the education of
girls is less valued or girls are simply not expected to need formal schooling, and these girls
pushed into child labour such as providing domestic services.

Macroeconomic causes

Biggeri and Mehrotra have studied the macroeconomic factors that encourage child labour. They
focus their study on five Asian nations including India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand and
Philippines. They suggest that child labour is a serious problem in all five, but it is not a new
problem. Macroeconomic causes encouraged widespread child labour across the world, over
most of human history. They suggest that the causes for child labour include both the demand
and the supply side. While poverty and unavailability of good schools explain the child labour
supply side, they suggest that the growth of low paying informal economy rather than higher
paying formal economy is amongst the causes of the demand side. Other scholars too suggest
that inflexible labour market, sise of informal economy, inability of industries to scale up and
lack of modern manufacturing technologies are major macroeconomic factors affecting demand
and acceptability of child labour.
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Consequences of child labour

Children who work fail to get necessary education.

They do not get the opportunity to develop physically, intellectually, emotionally and
psychologically. In terms of the physical condition of children, children are not ready for
long monotones work because they become exhausted more quickly than adults. This
reduces their physical conditions and makes the children more vulnerable to disease.
Children in hazardous working conditions are even in worse condition.
Children who work, instead of going to school, will remain illiterate which limits their
ability to contribute to their own well-being as well as to community they live in.

Child labour undoubtedly results in a trade-off with human capital accumulation.

Child labour in India is employed with the majority (70%) in agriculture some in low-skilled
labour-intensive sectors such as sari weaving or as domestic helpers, which require neither
formal education nor training, but some in heavy industry such as coal mining.

According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), there are tremendous economic
benefits for developing nations by sending children to school instead of work Without education,
children do not gain the necessary skills such as English literacy and technical aptitude that will
increase their productivity to enable them to secure higher-skilled jobs in future with higher
wages that will lift them out of poverty.

PROHIBITION OF CHILD LABOUR

According to Article 24, no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any
factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.

This Article is intimately related to a Directive Principle of State Policy which calls upon the
State to enforce universal compulsory and free Primary Education to all children in the country
up to the age of 14 years. This comes of the realisation that children should prepare during this
period for the task of the future as useful and responsible citizens.
 59

Employment of children is an uncivilised and even inhuman practice. It is exploitation. It stunts

their growth, corrupts their morals and often drives them to delinquency. Naturally, it must be
prohibited and incentives to divert them from employment should be provided.

In spite of the existence of several laws which seek to provide protection of the right against
exploitation, there still remain in many parts of the country many forms of exploitation that come
within the scope of this right. The efforts so far made by the State in this direction are marked by
timidity rather than determination.

There is an under-current of indifference even in the law-enforcing officials with respect to these
rights. Many of them think, for instance, that attempts to close down brothels altogether are
foredoomed to failure. Society must awaken to the full realisation that beggar and immoral
traffic are the products of poverty and neglect.

A Committee appointed some years ago by the Central Social Welfare Board to go into all
aspects of immoral traffic reported that the question of exploitation of women and girls generally,
is so closely linked up with prostitution that it is not possible to suggest measures to wipe out the
one without taking into consideration the other.

SOLUTIONS TO CHILD LABOUR

The solution to the problem of Child Labour is:

o The Child labour laws need to be strictly enforced by the Government.

o The general public needs to be made aware of the severe consequences of Child labour.
o An increase in employment opportunity for adults would help in overcoming the problem of
poverty.
o Government should ensure that every child gets the opportunity to go to school.
o The owners of factories and mines should take the pledge of not engaging child in their place
of business.
o Child Labour Prohibition and regulation Amendment Act 2016
 60

SEXUAL EXPLOITATION

Sexual Exploitation is defined by various legal documents that define who qualifies as a “youth”
and how youth are treated differently than adults when involving in the sexual trade. The legal
age to give consent to engage in sexual activity is 14 years. The age of consent for anal sex is 18
years. However, when a youth is under 18 years of age, it is a crime for an individual to
exchange money or anything else of consideration for sexual acts with that youth, as outlined in
section 212(4) of the criminal code of Canada. Bill C-2 is an act for the protection of children
and other vulnerable witnesses. This new law will significantly increase penalties for those who
abuse children and encourage the use of special accommodations for children and other
vulnerable witnesses in giving their testimony.

In daily life, women are routinely defined by sex, and even if all men are not potential
kidnappers, rapists, batterers and murderers of women but all women are potential victims.

At home, they are often worse off, reduced to slavish drudges and maltreated in a hundred
different ways. Constantly decided and mocked at, frequently bullied, sometimes associated and
occasionally burnt to death, they remain victims in every vole Indian woman; thus, can be
described as the underdogs of a society. Where through in theory, the law of equality is practiced
and women are considered to beat par with their male counterparts, in reality, the men remain
powerful and thrive at the expense of the women. Whereas in Western Countries, the women’s
question is mostly one of the identity, job equality and sexual roles. In India, the question is
simply one of stark survival.

CAUSES

The Sexual Exploitation of women and girls has dire, lifelong, consequences on their health.
Some of these health risks include subjection of physical abuse and violence, poor reproductive
health and health issues related to substance abuse (drugs are often used as a coping
mechanism).Death arising from unsafe, illegal abortions and physical abuse and violence, have
also become commonplace in this industry. In terms of reproductive health children face worse
become they often lack the skill and ability to negotiate condom use and, thus transmitted
 61

diseases like HIV/AIDs and Gonorrhea (a common STD among child prostitutes in the
Philippines).

EFFECTS

The constant Sexual Exploitation and degradation these women and girls face many leads to
various type of psychiatric morbidity and an impaired ability to form attachments and successful
interpersonal relationship. The proliferation of child prostitution has a direct negative impact on
the education level of the children. The large scale international events like world fairs and
sporting events such as the Olympics or World cup, a short term increase in the demand for the
sexual trade and other types of exploitation in the host city and surrounding area.

PREVENTION

Preventing Sexual Exploitation is an important goal through education and action. Knowledge
about specific risk factors and how they interact in the lives of youth com help with designing
programs for youth and their families. Prevention programs are needed to educate youth and
communities about how sexual exploitation happens. It is also needed to address all of the
factors that contribute to sexual exploitation, including poverty, violence, drug and alcohol use,
and our societal norms and values. The reduction of unemployment and poverty helpful to
reduce these and the strict rule against sexual exploitation is implementation and punishment will
reduce this type of cruel, injustice exploitation

UNIT- 11

Ageing

In almost every country, the proportion of people aged over 60 years is growing faster than any
other age group, as a result of both longer life expectancy and declining fertility rates.

This population ageing can be seen as a success story for public health policies and for
socioeconomic development, but it also challenges society to adapt, in order to maximize the
health and functional capacity of older people as well as their social participation and security.
 62

Active Ageing

Active ageing is the process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and security
in order to enhance quality of life as people age. It applies to both individuals and population
groups.
Active ageing allows people to realize their potential for physical, social, and mental well-
being throughout the life course and to participate in society, while providing them with
adequate protection, security and care when they need.
The word “active” refers to continuing participation in social, economic, cultural, spiritual and
civic affairs, not just the ability to be physically active or to participate in the labour force.
Older people who retire from work, ill or live with disabilities can remain active contributors
to their families, peers, communities and nations. Active ageing aims to extend healthy life
expectancy and quality of life for all people as they age.
“Health” refers to physical, mental and social well-being as expressed in the WHO definition
of health. Maintaining autonomy and independence for the older people is a key goal in the
policy framework for active ageing.
Ageing takes place within the context of friends, work associates, neighbours and family
members. This is why interdependence as well as intergenerational solidarity are important
tenets of active ageing. Problems of the Elder People

➢ Physical problems
➢ Psychological problems
➢ Social problems
➢ Economic problems Physical problems:

• Visual/ hearing impairments

• Neurological complaints (Dementia, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease) •
Cardiovascular health issues
Psychological problems:

• Anxiety
• Physical discomfort
 63

• Adaptations to a new life style

• Sleep disturbances
• Lack of interest
• Guilt feelings
• Concentration problems
• Suicidality
Social problems

• Abuse (physical, Psychological, Emotional, Financial, Sexual, neglect etc)

• Dependency (physical, financial, functional)
• Insecurity (being abandoned by their children)
• Rehabilitation

Economic problems
• No or adequate source of income
• Total economic dependency on children for their daily needs Developmental tasks for the
older adult

• Adjusting to decreasing health and physical strength

• Adjusting to retirement, reduced or fixed income
• Adjusting to death of a spouse
• Accepting elf as an ageing person
• Maintaining satisfactory living arrangements
• Redefining relationship with adult children
• Finding ways to maintain quality of life
Preventive care in old age

• To help individual towards a satisfactory adjustment to old age

• To disseminate knowledge about understanding of ageing and its problems to the
community and people approaching old age
• To recognize early preventable and treatable conditions
 64

• To prevent further deterioration in health or social functioning of the elderly individual

identified as at risk
ALCOHOLISM AND DRUG ADDICTION

Alcoholism, also known as Alcohol Use Disorder [AUD] and alcohol dependence syndrome, is a
broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. In medical context alcoholism is
said to exist when two or more of the following is present: a person drinks large amounts over a
long time period, has difficult cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal
of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not filling responsibilities usage results in
risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use.

Alcohol use can affect all part of the body but particularly affect the brain, heart, liver, pancreas
and immune system. This can result in mental illness, Wernickekorsakoff syndrome, an irregular
heartbeat, liver failure and an increase the risk of cancer, among other disease. Drinking during
pregnancy can cause damage to the body resulting in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Generally
women are more sensitive to alcohols harmful physical and mental effect than men.

Risk Factors for Alcoholism

Although the exact cause of alcoholism is unknown, there are certain factors that may increase
your risk for developing this disease.

Known risk factors for alcoholism include having:

• more than 15 drinks per week if you’re male

• more than 12 drinks per week if you’re female
• more than five drinks per day at least once a week (binge drinking)
• a parent with alcoholism
• a mental health problem, such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia

Symptoms of Alcoholism

People with alcohol use disorder may engage in the following behaviour:
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• drinking alone
• drinking more to feel the effects of alcohol (having a high tolerance)
• becoming violent or angry when asked about their drinking habits
• not eating or eating poorly
• neglecting personal hygiene
• missing work or school because of drinking
• being unable to control alcohol intake
• making excuses to drink
• continuing to drink even when legal, social, or economic problems develop
• giving up important social, occupational, or recreational activities because of alcohol use People
with alcoholism may also experience the following physical symptoms:

• alcohol cravings
• withdrawal symptoms when not drinking, including shaking, nausea, and vomiting
• tremors (involuntary shaking) the morning after drinking
• lapses in memory (blacking out) after a night of drinking
• illnesses, such as alcoholic ketoacidosis (includes dehydration-type symptoms) or cirrhosis
(scarring) of the liver
Treatment for alcoholism varies, but each method is meant to help you stop drinking altogether
(abstinence). Treatment may occur in stages and can include the following:

• detoxification or withdrawal to rid your body of alcohol

• rehabilitation to learn new coping skills and behaviour
• counseling to address emotional problems that may cause you to drink
• support groups, including 12-step programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
• medical treatment for health problems associated with alcoholism
• medications to help control addiction
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PREVENTION

Prevention of alcoholism is possible by regulating and limiting the scale of thee alcohol, taxing
alcohol to increase its cost, and providing inexpensive treatment. Treatment may take several
steps. Because of the medical problems that can occur during withdrawal, alcohol detoxification
should be carefully controlled. One common method involves the use of benzodiazepine
medications, such as diazepam. This can be either given well admitted to health care intuitions or
occasionally while a person remains in the community with close supervision. Other addictions
or mental illness may complicate treatment. After detoxification support such as group therapy
or support groups are used to help keep a person from returning to drinking. One commonly used
from of support is the group alcoholics anonymous. The medications acamprosate, disulfiram,or
naltrexone may also be used to help prevent further drinking.

DRUG ADDICTION

Addiction is a chronic often relapsing bran disease that cause compulsive drug seeking and use,
despite harmful consequences to the addicted individual and to take drugs is voluntary him or
her. Although the initial decision to take drugs is voluntary for most people, the brain changes
that occur over time challenge on addicted person’s self-control and hamper his or her ability to
resist intense impulses to take drugs.

Drugs contain chemicals that tap into the brain’s communication system and disrupt the
way nerve cells normally send, receive and process information. There are at least two ways that
drug cause this disruption:

(1) By imitating the brain’s natural chemical messengers and (2) by over stimulating the
“reward circuit” of the brain.

Some drugs (e.g., marijuana and heroin) have a similar structure to chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters, which are naturally produced by the brain. This similarity allows the drugs to
“fool” the brain’s receptors and activate nerve cells to send abnormal messages.

Other drugs, such as cocaine or methamphetamine, can cause the name cells to release
abnormally large amounts of natural neurotransmitters (mainly dopamine) or to prevent the
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normal recycling of these brain chemicals, which is needed to shut off the signalling between
neurons. The result is a brain awash in dopamine, a neurotransmitter presents in brain regions
that control movement, emotion, motivation and feelings of pleasure. The overstimulation of this
reward system, which normally responds to natural behaviour linked to survival (eating,
spending time with loved one, etc.). Produces euphoric effects in response to psychoactive drugs.
This reaction sets in motion a reinforcing pattern that “teaches” people to repeat the rewarding
behaviour of abusing drugs.

In many cases criminal or anti-social behaviour occurs when the person is under the influence of
a drug, and long-term personality changes in individuals may occur as well. In addition to
possible physical, social and psychological harm, use of some drugs may also lead to criminal
personalities, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.

RISK FACTORS

• Chaotic home environment

• Ineffective parenting
• Little mutual attachment and nurturing
• Inappropriate shy or aggressive classroom behaviour
• Academic failure
• Low academic aspirations
• Poor social coping skills
• Affiliations with deviant peers
• Perceiving external approval of drug use peer family community
• Parental substance abuse or mental illness

PROTECTVE FACTORS

• Strong family bonds

• Parental engagement in child’s life
• Clear parental expectations and consequences
• Academic success
• Strong bonds with pro-social intuitions (school community church)
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• Conventional norms about drugs and alcohol

Substance abuse

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a drug in which the user
consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or
others, and is a form of substance-related disorder.

Substance abuse refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including
alcohol and illicit drugs.

Substance Abuse Causes

Use and abuse of substances such as cigarettes, alcohol, and illegal drugs may begin in
childhood or the teen years. Certain risk factors may increase someone’s likelihood to abuse
substances.

• Factors within a family that influence a child’s early development have been
shown to be related to increased risk of drug abuse.
• Chaotic home environment
• Genetic risks (drug or alcohol abuse sometimes can run in families)
• Lack of nurturing and parental attachment
• Factors related to a child’s socialization outside the family may also increase risk
of drug abuse.
• Inappropriately aggressive or shy behaviour in the classroom
• Poor social coping skills
• Poor school performance
• Association with a deviant peer group
• Perception of approval of drug use behaviour

Substance Abuse Symptoms

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Friends and family may be among the first to recognize the signs of substance abuse. Early
recognition increases chances for successful treatment. Signs to watch for include the
following:

• Giving up past activities such as sports, homework, or hanging out with new
friends
• Declining grades
• Aggressiveness and irritability
• Forgetfulness
• Disappearing money or valuables
• Feeling rundown, hopeless, depressed, or even suicidal
• Sounding selfish and not caring about others
• Use of room deodorizers and incense
• Paraphernalia such as baggies, small boxes, pipes, and rolling paper
• Getting drunk or high on drugs on a regular basis
• Lying, particularly about how much alcohol or other drugs he or she is using
• Avoiding friends or family in order to get drunk or high
• Planning drinking in advance, hiding alcohol, drinking or using other drugs alone
• Having to drink more to get the same high
• Believing that in order to have fun you need to drink or use other drugs
• Frequent hangovers
• Pressuring others to drink or use other drugs
• Taking risks, including sexual risks
• Having “blackouts”-forgetting what he or she did the night before
• Constantly talking about drinking or using other drugs
• Getting in trouble with the law
• Drinking and driving
• Suspension from school or work for an alcohol or drug-related incident When to
Seek Medical Care
• Thoughts of harming yourself or others
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• Chest pain, rapid heartbeat, difficulty breathing, or light-headedness

• Severe abdominal pain
• Confusion or ongoing hallucinations
• Severe tremors(A tremor is an involuntary, somewhat rhythmic, muscle
contraction and relaxation involving oscillations or twitching movements of one
or more body parts.)or recurrent seizures(A seizure is a sudden surge of electrical
activity in the brain)
• Difficulty speaking, numbness, weakness, severe headache, visual changes, or
trouble keeping balance
• Severe pain at an injection site (may be accompanied by redness, swelling,
discharge, and fever)
• Any suspicion that you were sexually assaulted while under the influence After
effects
• Crime: More than half the economic cost of alcohol and drugs is due to crime. A
substance abuser is 18 times more likely to be involved in criminal activity than
someone in the general population. Many violent crimes have been linked to the
mind-altering effects of drugs. Substance abusers often commit thefts to support
their drug habits. Drugs and alcohol have been linked to domestic violence and
sexual assault. At colleges, 75% of date rapes are alcohol-related. Among jailed
sex offenders, 43% say they were under the influence of drugs or alcohol at the
time of their crime.
• Disease: Most abused substances have harmful health effects. For some
substances, such as tobacco, effects are caused by long-term use. For other drugs,
a single use can cause significant disease.
• Behaviour: In addition to their direct effects on health, drugs produce other
indirect effects. Many drugs lessen inhibitions and increase the likelihood that a
person will participate in risky behaviour. Studies show that the use of alcohol and
drugs among teenagers increases chances for teen pregnancy and contracting
HIV/AIDS or other sexually transmitted diseases. Any injected drug is associated
with contracting HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B and C.
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• Trauma: Up to 75% of injured people treated at emergency departments test

positive for illicit or prescription drugs. Alcohol is strongly associated with both
intentional and unintentional injury. Drug use also puts people at risk of violence.
Nearly half of assault victims are cocaine users.

PLANS ON PREVENTING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

• FAMILY BASED PREVENTTION PROGRAMS

“Prevention programs can strengthen protective factors among young children by
teaching parent’s better family communication skills, appropriate discipline styles, from
and consistent rule enforcement, and other family management approaches. Research
confirms the benefits of parents providing consistent rules and discipline, talking to
children about drugs, monitoring their activities, getting to know their friends,
understanding their problems and concerns, and being involved in their learning. The
importance of the parent child relationship continuous through adolescence and beyond

• SCHOOL BASED PREVENTION PROGRAMS

There are a number of community-based prevention programs and classes that aim to
educate children and families about the harms of substance abuse. Schools began
introducing substance abuse oriented classes for their students in grades as low as
preschool. Teaching youth and adolescents skills that increase resistance skills in social
situations may increase protective factors in that population.
• COMMUNITY BASED PROGRAMS
Prevention programs work at the community level with civic. Religious, law enforcement, and
other government organizations to enhance anti-drug norms and pro-social behaviour. Many
programs help with prevention efforts across setting to help send messages through school, work,
religious institutions, and the media. Research has shown that programs also influence
community norms. Community based programs also typically include development of policies or
enforcement of regulations, mass media efforts, and community wide awareness programs.
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SUICIDE

Suicide is the act of deliberately killing oneself. Suicide is often carried out as a result of despair,
the cause of which is frequently attributed to a mental disorder such as depression bipolar
disorder, alcoholism or drug abuse as well as stress factors such as financial difficulties troubles
with interpersonal relationships and bullying. The act or an instance of taking one’s own life
voluntarily and intentionally especially by a person of year of discretion and of sound mind.

Many people die by suicide because depression is triggered by several negative life experiences,
and the person does not receive treatment, or does not receive effective treatment for the
depression.
Some of the negative life experiences that may cause depression, and some other causes for
depression,

• The death of a loved one

• A divorce, separation, or a breakup of a relationship
• Intense emotional pain
• Loss hope
• Being victimized (domestic violence)
• A horrible disappointment
• Unresolved abuse (of any kind) from the past
• Inability to deal with a perceived failure
• A feeling of not being accepted by family, friends, or society

SUICIDE- SIGNS AND PREVENTIONS

The number of people who commit suicide each year is rapidly increasing, especially among
teenagers. To help prevent this number from growing. It is important for us to know some of the
warning signs of suicide, some myths and actual facts. Many people who commit suicide often
send out a lot of warning signals that are usually left undetected until it is too late. This is why it
is extremely important to know what some of these signals are when preventing a person from
committing suicide.
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 Many people who may commit suicide start off with the signs of depression, such as
feeling lonely, and like no one understands them or even cares about them. A person may
even feel like they are not worth anything.
 One major sign a person could be planning to attempt suicide is a sudden change in
personality, a normally social person all of a sudden becomes anti-social, or a normally
shy person becomes extremely social. This could also include them losing interest in
things that they normally used to enjoy doing, or suddenly become extremely active.
 Also, even though a person that was recently seriously depressed may look happy, they
may not be, but instead happy because they are decided to kill himself. If some has just
gone through a major life change, where they suffered a lot, such as death of someone
close to them or a divorce, they are more likely to kill himself.

METHODS OF SUCIDE

The most commonly used methods or suicide are firearms, hanging, poisoning. Males tend to use
more violent and irreversible methods; females more often will often will overdose on drugs or
slit their wrists.

The suicide rate among children under the age of 10 is very low, but rises in adolescence.
Elementary school children do indeed have suicidal thoughts and feelings , but several factors
protect them from acting on these feelings. Young children:

• Have low rates of depression

• Have an immature cognitive understanding of the concept of death.
• Usually have strong relationships with their parents and teachers and receive
emotional support
• Are limited in their ability to plan the suicidal act and to make decisions regarding
the method to be used

Adolescence for many is a stressful time, and ages to 13 and 14 are peak periods for suicide
attempts. Teenagers tend to communicate less with their parents and have less opportunity to
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develop supportive relationships with particular teachers. Thoughts of hopeless, often

characteristic of depression are common in adolescent’s contemplating suicide.

Suicide is the result of the interaction among seemingly disparate factors. It often occurs when an
individual with a long-term predisposition experiences a stressful event. The act of suicide
requires both a stressor as well as an underlying vulnerability towards acting on suicidal
thoughts. A recent distressing event may set off a long-lasting vulnerability. The interaction of a
psychiatric disorder, substance abuse, a recent stress, inadequate support, and feelings of
hopeless may lead to suicide for some teenagers.

Studies show that following stresses occurred in the lives of teenagers who committed suicide:

o School failure o Relationship problem- breakup with a girl or boyfriend;

rejection by a friend o Disciplinary crisis- suspension from school, appearance
in juvenile court o Lack of family ties

PREVENTION

There are many things that can be done to prevent suicide free suicide prevention program is
being used by schools throughout the world .it is easy to implement, and it does not cost
anything.

The National strategy for suicide prevention , a public –private undertaking launched on May
2,2001 by the U.S surgeon General David Satcher,lays the foundation of a national strategy to
confront the serious public health problem. The goals are to :

• Promote awareness that suicide is a public health problem that is preventable.

• Promote efforts to reduce access to lethal means and methods of self-harm.
• Develop and implement community-based suicide prevention programs that build
life skills and connection to family and community support.
• Identify and refer at risk teenagers. A screening program to identify those who
have made previous attempts or who are currently suicidal should be
implemented.
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• Promote and support research on suicide and suicide prevention.

Depression and suicidal feelings are treatable mental disorders, with support from family and
community resource and the professional treatment, teenagers and young adults who show
suicidal behaviour can be helped, tragic actions prevented and healthier behaviour established

HIV/AIDS

AIDS is a life threatening disease caused by the Human Immune Deficiency Virus or HIV.
Scientists identified a type of chimpanzee in West Africa as the source of HIV infection in
humans.
They believe that the chimpanzee version of the immunodeficiency virus (called Simian
Immunodeficiency Virus, or SIV) most likely was transmitted to humans and mutated into HIV
when humans hunted these chimpanzees for meat and came into contact with their infected
blood. Thirty years ago, the average person knows nothing about HIV/AIDS; today, the vast
majority of people around the globe have heard of it and most, if not all fear even the mention of
it.

Although we often hear the terms “HIV” and “AIDS” used interchangeably, HIV and AIDS is
not same thing. The HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV is the virus that
causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. AIDS develops in the last stage of HIV
infection.

HIV affects specific cells of the immune system, called CD4 cells, or T cells. Over time, HIV can
destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off infections and disease. When this
happens, HIV infection leads to AIDS.

A person who has been infected with HIV is referred to as being HIV positive (HIV+). An HIV+
person may be asymptomatic – may not have any symptoms of being infected. Meanwhile, with
proper medical care, HIV can be controlled. Treatment for HIV is often called Antiretroviral
Therapy or ART. It can dramatically prolong the lives of many people infected with HIV and
lower their chance of infecting others.
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1. STAGES OF HIV

HIV disease has a well-documented progression if untreated. Treatment can slow or prevent
progression from one stage to the next. HIV transmission is possible at any stage of HIV
infection even if an HIV-infected person has no symptoms of HIV. A person can transmit HIV to
others during any of these stages:

1. Acute Infection
2. Clinical Latency (inactivity or dormancy
3. AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
• Acute Infection

Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, you may feel sick with flu-like symptoms. This is
called Acute Retroviral Syndrome (ARS) or primary HIV infection, and it’s the body’s natural
response to the HIV infection. Not everyone develops ARS, and some people may have no
symptoms.

During this period of infection, large amounts of HIV are being produced in your body. The virus
uses important immune system cells called CD4 cells to make copies of it and destroys these
cells in the process. Because of this, the CD4 count can fall quickly. Your ability to spread HIV is
highest during this stage because the amount of virus in the blood is very high.

• Clinical Latency

This period is sometimes called Asymptomatic HIV Infection or Chronic HIV Infection. During
this phase, HIV is still active, but reproduces at very low levels. You may not have any
symptoms or get sick during this time. People who are on antiretroviral therapy (ART) may live
with clinical latency for several decades. For people who are not on ART, this period can last up
to a decade, but some may progress through this phase faster.
It is important to remember that you are still able to transmit HIV to others during this phase
even if you are treated with ART, although ART greatly reduces the risk. Toward the middle and
end of this period, your viral load begins to rise and your CD4 cell count begins to drop. As this
happens, you may begin to have symptoms of HIV infection as your immune system becomes
too weak to protect you.
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• AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

This is the stage of infection that occurs when your immune system is badly damaged and you
become vulnerable to infections and infection-related cancers called opportunistic illnesses.
When the number of your CD4 cells falls below 200 cells per cubic millimetre of blood (200
cells/mm3), you are considered to have progressed to AIDS. (Normal CD4 counts are between
500 and 1,600 cells/mm3.) You can also be diagnosed with AIDS if you develop one or more
opportunistic illnesses, regardless of your CD4 count. Without treatment, people who are
diagnosed with AIDS typically survive about 3 years. People with AIDS need medical treatment
to prevent death.

SYMPTOMS OF HIV/AIDS

The symptoms of HIV vary from person to person. Most of the people do not notice if they get
HIV. Soon after infection with HIV, some people have flu-like symptoms.

Fever

Headache

Rash

Weight loss

Sore throat

More severe symptoms of HIV infection, such as chronic diarrhea, rapid weight loss, and other
signs of opportunistic infections, generally don’t appear for many years. However, you should
not assume you have HIV if you have any of these symptoms. Each of these symptoms can be
caused by other illnesses. Again, the only way to determine whether you are infected is to be
tested for HIV infector

HIV/AIDS DIAGNOSIS

The only way to know if you are infected with HIV is to be tested. You cannot rely on symptoms
to know whether you have HIV. The screening test for HIV checks for HIV antibodies in the
blood. The test cannot be positive if done earlier than 6 weeks after an injection.
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If an HIV test is positive, it is repeated. Again, it shows positive; there is another test that checks
for HIV proteins in the blood. If it’s also positive then the person is diagnosed with HIV. Two
types of home testing kits are available:
- One involves pricking your finger for a blood sample, sending the sample to a
laboratory, and then phoning in for results.
- The other involves getting a swab of fluid from your mouth, using the kit to test it,
and reading the results in 20 minutes.
HIV/AIDS TREATMENT

Currently there is no cure for AIDS. There are treatments available to slow its progression and
improve the quality of life. The treatment focuses on suppressing the growth of the virus. The
use of HIV medicines to treat HIV infection is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART involves
taking a combination of HIV medicines, usually a combination of 3 or more drugs (called an
HIV regimen) every day.

HIV medicines are often called Antiretroviral. ART prevents HIV from multiplying and reduces
the level of HIV in the body.

HIV/AIDS PREVENTION

HIV is spread through contact with certain body fluids from a person infected with HIV. These
body fluids include blood, breast milk etc. And HIV is not transmitted through saliva, sweat,
tears, air or insects. Some prevention measures follow:

1. Do not share needles or syringes – Regardless of what they are used for-
injecting drugs, steroids and also do not share equipment used to prepare
drugs for injection.
2. Do not have unprotected sex – A surefire way to avoid getting sexually
transmitted diseases is to be in a long term, monogamous relationship with
a healthy partner and use of condoms.
3. Do not share razors or tooth brushes – Sharing either of these creates the
possibility of contact with blood.
4. Avoid contact with other people’s blood
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If in a pregnancy, talk to the doctor about being tested for HIV. So that it can help to reduce the
chances of passing HIV to the newborn.

Sexual Exploitation is the sexual abuse of children and youth through the exchange of sex or
sexual act for drugs, food, shelter, protection, other basics of life, and/or money sexual
exploitation includes involving children and youth in creating pornography and sexually explicit
websites. Other terms that are used to talk about sexual exploitation are “child prostitution” and
“youth sex trade”. We use the term sexual exploitation or” commercial sexual exploitation “to
acknowledge that the use of children and youth for sexual act is abuse and is inherently
exploitative.

Sexual Harassment is defined as unwelcome sexual advance, request for sexual Favors and
other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.

Harassment does not have to be of a sexual nature, however and can include offensive
remark about a person’s sex. For example, it is illegal to harass a woman by making offensive
comments about women in general. Both victim and harasser can be either a woman and man,
and the victim and harasser can be the same sex. Although the law doesn’t prohibit simple
teasing, offhand comments or isolated incidents that are not very serious, harassment is illegal.

UNIT- 12

RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE

The followers of most religions (and of no organized religion) feel that their beliefs are true and
that the beliefs of other groups are, at least to some degree, false. By itself, this stance is not
dangerous to public order. However, profound evil can result when they also oppress other
religious groups, discriminate against them, or disseminate hatred against them.

The religious intolerance may be defined as ‘not respecting the fundamental human rights of
other people to hold religious beliefs that are different from once own’
Religious intolerance, rather, is when a group (e.g., a society, religious group, non-religious
group) specifically refuses to tolerate practices, persons or beliefs on religious grounds (i.e.,
intolerance in practice).
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Forms of Religious Intolerance:

We divide religious intolerance into four forms, depending upon the perpetrator and the intended
target:

1. Inter-faith intolerance (e.g. a Hindu - Christian conflict)

2. Intra-faith intolerance (e.g. Shi'ite vs. Sunni Muslims/ RC vs Knanaya Catholics)
3. Intolerance by from a faith group against a secular group (e.g. Christian fundamentalists
vs. Agnostics, Atheists, Humanists, Homosexuals, Transsexuals, loving, committed
samesex couples who wish to marry, etc.)
4. Intolerance by a secular group against a religious group. (e.g. feminists vs. some
organized religions)

A given instance of religious intolerance may be considered inter-faith by some groups and
intrafaith by another. For example, some fundamentalist Christians do not consider Roman
Catholicism, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormon church), liberal
Christian denominations, progressive Christianity, etc. to be a legitimate part of Christianity.
Thus, an attack by an evangelical group on Roman Catholicism might be considered inter-faith
by the evangelical and intra-faith by a Roman Catholic.

We consider the following actions as exhibiting religious intolerance:

• Spreading misinformation about a group's beliefs or practices even though the inaccuracy
of that information could have been easily checked and corrected;

• Spreading hatred about an entire group; e.g. stating or implying that all members of a
group are evil, behave immorally, commit criminal acts, etc.;

• Ridiculing and belittling an entire faith group for their sincerely held beliefs and
practices;
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• Attempting to force religious beliefs and practices on others against their will;

• Restricting human rights of members of an identifiable

religious group;
• Devaluing other faiths as worthless or evil.

• Inhibiting the freedom of a person to change their religion.

TERRORISM

Terrorism is a problem we have been facing in India for more than two decades. Today terrorism
is perceived as a problem capable of destabilizing not only national but also international
politics. Terrorism in recent times has affected both the developed and developing countries.

Terrorism refers to political violence targeting the civilians. It is an organized indiscriminate and
deliberate act of violence. Sometimes the terrorism may spread to other countries crossing the
borders. It was called international terrorism, which involve the people and territory of more than
one country.

Terrorism is the use of threats, intimidation or violence to achieve political or religion goals. It is
the policy of striking terror in the minds of people by violent methods to achieve some ends.

DEFINITION

Terrorism refers to political violence targeting the civilians. It is an organized, indiscriminate and
deliberate act of violence. Sometimes the terrorism may spread to other countries crossing the
borders. It was called international terrorism, which involve the people and territory of more than
one country. The terrorist groups want to change the political atmosphere or condition by force
or threats of force…. They target the civilians to terrorize the public. They use the unhappiness
of the people as a target weapon against the national government or other parties in conflict.

Terrorism is the use of threats, intimidation or violence to achieve political or religious goals. It
is the policy of striking terror in the minds of the people by violent methods to achieve some
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ends. Terrorism in India is basically two types external and internal, external terrorism emerge
from neighboring countries and internal terrorism emulates from religious or communal
violence. The main goal of terrorist is not to kill people but to spread their terror in heart of
people.

Terrorism is an organized system of intimidation it is broadly defined as violent behaviour

designed to generate fear in the community, or a substantial segment of it for political purposes.
The common definition of terrorism does not include all types of violence used by the organized
groups.

Terrorism appears in many forms-from planting a crude, homemade bomb, hand-grenade or

other explosive in a shopping Centre, a railway station, a bus stand etc…

CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM

• It is against the state and against the law of a state.

• Terrorism has networked organized structure, with various members. Terrorism is moved
on decentralization. So several leaders are independently responsible for carrying out
terrorists. • They do not have any particular enemies. Many innocent peoples are victims
of terrorists’ attacks.
• The terrorists groups are international companies. They have many branches spread over
the world so they can do their operations easily.
• The terrorist way of practicing terror is different from traditional military approach.

TYPES OF TERRORISM

According to the National Advisory Committee on criminal justice standards and goals,
there they are six distinct types of terrorism. They are:-

1. Civil disorder is sometime violent form of protest held by a group of individuals, usually in
opposition to a political party policy or action.
2. Political terrorism is used by one political faction to intimate another. Although government
leader are the ones who are intended to receive the ultimate message, it is the citizens who
are targeted with violent attacks.
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3. Nonpolitical terrorism is a terrorist act perpetrated by a group for any other purpose, most
often a religious native.
4. Quasi terrorism is a violent act that utilizes the same methods terrorist employ, but does not
have the same motivating factors.
5. Limited political terrorism acts are generally one time only plots to make a political or
ideological statement.
6. State terrorism defines any violent action initiated by an existing government to achieve a
particular goal.

MAJOR TERRORISTS’ ATTACKS ON INDIA

1.BOMBAY BOMB BLASTS

On 12 th march 1993 Mumbai was shaken by series of bomb blasts. That blast
was headed by the underworld leader Dawood Ibrahim. This fatal tragedy was combined act of
the underworld and other Islamic terrorist groups. This blast killed 257 people and injured 700 in
time frame of 2 hours.

2. BOMB BLASTS IN MUMBAI LOCAL TRAINS

On 11 thJuly, 2006, Mumbai completely shocked by the series of 7 bomb blast in

different local trains. This tragedy occurred during the rush hours of the evening in Mumbai. That
blasts occurred in just 11 minutes.

3. MUMBAI TERRORIST ATTACK

On 26th November, Mumbai faced terror attack terrorists attacked on various important places
like Taj hotel, Chattrapathi Shivaji station, Nariman house, Earna hospital and Metro cinema.
They are highly trained and well equipped terrorists entered in Mumbai and killed 172 people
and injured 308 people. The fight between terrorist and Indian military ended on 29 th November
in that fight, we found one survive terrorist Ajmal Kasab who hanged to death at the Yerawada
central prison nearly after 4 years of the terror attack.

REASON FOR TERRORISM IN INDIA

1. Lack of security or ignorance

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The main reason of terrorism is lack of security. The security agencies are only hired for
providing security to celebrity, politicians etc. these agencies are not for the common man. These
agencies are not providing security to the every region of India. That’s why still terror attacks are
going in India.

2. Poverty, lack of educational and unemployment

No one born as a terrorist the situation will make a terrorist. Because of poverty, lack of
education and unemployment, terrorist influenced the innocent people and involve them into the
dangerous activity.

3. Lack of unity

India is a multicultural country. Because of different culture. We find the difference between the
people. Politicians are using this disunity of people for their politic purpose and politicians create
the political terrorism.

PREVENTION

We can’t directly stop terrorism, but we can control terrorism by reducing the corruption and
poverty, developing the unity among the people etc

Awareness and education: compulsory courses have to be taken in schools and colleges to make
the awareness to terrorism. Public have to inform to the nearby police station immediately, if
there is any suspicious activity occurs and police have to take the action without failure.

Taking strict action against terrorism: government should take strict action against terrorism.
Government has to increase security of India. They have to stop corruption and also they have to
implement some rule which is help to reduce the terrorism.

CORRUPTION

Corruption is one of the social evils found in all societies of the world. In some societies, it is
more rampant than some others. Corruption is attracting a lot of attention around the world
unfortunately; India is regarded as one of the countries in which corruption has become very
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much widespread during the recent years. Corruption is one of the factors that has contributed to
the degradation of the Indian politics. This assignment discusses issues related to causes,
consequences and scope of corruption and possible corrective actions. And also it gives an idea
about the corruption and its effects in the societies.

Definition of Corruption

1. The dictionary defines corruptions “an inducement to wring by other bribery or other and
lawful means: a departure from what is pure and correct.

2.C.B.Mamoriawrites, we may define corruption as an improper or selfish exercise of power and

influence attached to a public office or to a special position in public life.

Causes of Corruption

Corruption is like blood cancer. Corruption is a complex phenomenon and various factors and
forces have conspired to cause it and spread it everywhere. The following causes are leads to
corruption.

1. Economic Insecurity

This is regarded as most important cause of corruption. The poor people become corrupt in the
hope of becoming rich. The rich indulge in it for fear of losing what they have. The rich craving
for luxurious goods and imported commodities, such as dresses, telephones, calculators,
cosmetics, transistors , air conditions, televisions, wrist watches, etc. this encourages smuggling
on a massive scale.

1. High Rate of Income Tax

Since tax rates are comparatively high in India even the honest people are often tempted to
escape from it by making false returns of their property and income. Many of the officers in the
Income Department are also equally corrupt and they thrive on bribery.

2. Meager salary being paid to the Government Servants

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Employees in some of the government departments are paid comparatively very less salary. This
situation is said to be the cause of corruption in administration.

4. Emergence of New Sources of Welfare and Power.

The modern political economic setup provides a chance for the politicians in power to make
money through illegal means.

5 The System of Democracy

The present style of functioning of democracy in India, also contributes to corruption. All parties,
especially the ruling party funds spend corers of rupees on each election.

6 The Very presence of Black money

Existence of large amounts of uncounted black money is one of the main sources of corruption.

7. Social and Economic Modernisation

It is said that modernisation breeds corruption in industrial society, which offers prizes for doing
evil, money, position, and power, besides brining about attitudinal changes in the system. New
loyalties and identifications emerge among individuals and groups.

Factors that Promote Corruption: Direct Factors

Corruption is generally connected with the activities of the state and especially with the
monopoly and discretionary power of the state. Particular aspects of governmental activities
create a fertile ground for corruption.

1.Regulations and authorizations

In many countries and especially in developing countries, the role of the states is often carried
out through the use of many rules or regulations.
2. Taxation

Taxes based on clear law not requiring contacts between taxpayers and tax inspectors are much
less likely to lead to acts of corruption.
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3. Provision for goods and services at below market prices

The government engages in the provision of goods, services and resources at below market
prices. This is good fertile ground for corruption

Factors that Promote Corruption; Indirect Factors

Besides the factors the promote corruption directly, discussed the previous pages, other factors
can contribute to corruption indirectly.

1. Quality of the bureaucracy

The quality of the bureaucracy leads certain extension of corruption. The absence of politically
motivated hiring, patronage and clear rules on promotions and hiring, it leads less corruption in
the societies.

2. Level of Public Sector Wages

The higher the wage level, the lower is corruption indicated the societies. Therefore provide
good wages to the employees.

3. Penalty Systems

The higher penalties may reduce the number of acts of corruption.

4. Examples by the Leadership

A final contributing factor is the example provided by the leadership. When the top political
leaders do not provide the right example. They engage in acts of corruption.

Prevention of Corruption

Corruption which has gone deep into our social life cannot be removed very easily. In fact, it can
only be reduced or minimised and can hardly be stopped altogether. There are committee formed
in 1964. The Santharam committee on the prevention of corruption suggests, that the following
remedies for the corruption.

1. Administrative delays should be reduced to the minimum to avoid corrupt practices.

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✓ Existing procedures and practices should be reviewed to avoid delays.

✓ Time limit should be prescribed for dealing with receipts and should be strictly
enforced.

2. Attempts should be made to educate

Citizens in regard to their rights, responsibilities and the procedures of the government.

3. Improvement must be made to increase the salary of the employees besides making necessary
provisions for housing, medical facilities for the government employees.
4. Companies and businessmen should be obliged to keep detailed accounts of expenditure.

5. Officers for the administrative posts should be selected with care.

6. There should be a complete ban against servants accepting private commercial or industrial
employment for two years after retirement.
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MODULE- 5 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC ECONOMIC CONCEPT

UNIT-- 13

Basic economic concepts

While many economic topics can be confusing, there are some basic facts and terms that are
important to know. This knowledge can help you manage your money, make smart purchasing
decisions, explore investment options and understand our local and national economic model.

Here are economic concepts that everybody should know:

• Supply and demand

A market system is driven by supply and demand. Supply and demand is more than just two
intersecting lines; it affects us in every aspect of our lives. From the groceries that we buy to
cook our daily meals to the gas that we put in our car, there are countless forces at work that
mold the supply and demand of a particular good or service.

The basic theory behind supply and demand states that there is a price point where consumers
and producers both match up; in essence, every good or service has a unique point at which
buyers and sellers agree to make an exchange.

Supply and demand can be affected by factors like speculation of future developments, advances
in technology and shortages and surpluses in the domestic and international markets.
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2.Scarcity

This concept goes hand in hand with supply and demand. Scarcity is defined as “the basic
economic problem that arises because people have unlimited wants but resources are le resources
include time, money and natural resources; essentially anything that is finite falls under this
category.

The reason that this is an important concept to understand is because it helps us place a value on
a good or service. The scarcer a resource and the higher the demand for it, the more expensive it
is going to be.

When allocating your resources for any project, you must learn how to prioritize your resources.
The scarcest resource is your most valuable, so plan accordingly. Scarcity explains the basic
economic problem that the world has limited—or scarce—resources to meet seemingly unlimited
wants. This reality forces people to make decisions about how to allocate resources in the most
efficient way possible so that as many of their highest priorities as possible are met.

3. Costs and Benefits

The concept of costs and benefits is related to the theory of rational choice (and rational
expectations) that economics is based on. When economists say that people behave rationally,
they mean that people try to maximize the ratio of benefits to costs in their decisions. The
concept of costs and benefits is applicable to other decisions that are not related to financial
transactions. University students perform cost-benefit analyses on a daily basis by choosing to
focus on certain courses that they’ve deemed more important for their success. Sometimes this
even means cutting the time they spend studying for courses that they see as less necessary.

Although economics assumes that people are generally rational, many of the decisions that
humans make are actually very emotional and do not maximize our own benefit. For example,
the field of advertising preys on the tendency of humans to act non-rationally. Commercials try
to activate the emotional centers of our brain and fool us into overestimating the benefits of a
given item.

4.Opportunitycost
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Many of us have heard the phrase, “Nothing in life is free.” While trying to understand this
concept, we should also be familiar with the term “trade-off.” Trade-off means that in order to
gain something, you have to give up something else.

The trick is being able to identify when you are giving up something, and remember: inaction is
also a cost. For example, every time that you skip class to sleep in, your upfront, sunk costs are
what you directly paid in tuition for that class.

You also, however, could have used that time that you spent in bed to go to work, go to the gym,
or be productive and get your homework done. Your inaction itself is a cost, whether it is missing
out on making some money at work, the calories you could have burned from lifting or the
improved grades that you could have made from studying.

Before making any decision, be sure that what you are choosing to do is more valuable to you
than the things that you are missing out on.

5 . Choice

Choice refers to the ability of a consumer or producer to decide which good, service or resource
to purchase or provide from a range of possible options. Being free to chose is regarded as a
fundamental indicator of economic well-being and development National income

• National Income is the sum-total of factor- incomes earned by normal residents of a

country during the period of one year.
• National Income is also defined as the sum-total of market-value of final goods and
services, produced by normal residents of a country in one year.
• National income definition
• Traditional Definition
• Modern Definition

Traditional Definition

According to Marshall: “The labour and capital of a country acting on its natural resources
produce annually a certain net aggregate of commodities, material and immaterial including
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services of all kinds. This is the true net annual income or revenue of the country or national
dividend.”

The definition as laid down by Marshall is being criticized on the following grounds. Due to the
varied category of goods and services, a correct estimation is very difficult. There is a chance of
double counting, hence National Income cannot be estimated correctly. Following are the
Modern National Income definition

• GDP
• GNP

Gross Domestic Product

The total value of goods produced and services rendered within a country during a year is its
Gross Domestic Product.

Gross National Product

For calculation of GNP, we need to collect and assess the data from all productive activities, such
as agricultural produce, wood, minerals, commodities, the contributions to production by
transport, communications, insurance companies, professions such (as lawyers, doctors, teachers,
etc). at market prices. Standard of living

• Standard of living refers to the quantity and quality of material goods and services
available to a given population.
• The standard of living is a term used to describe the level of income, necessities, luxury,
and other goods and services that are generally readily available to a designated
population.
• A minimum of necessities, comforts, or luxuries held essential to maintaining a person or
group in customary or proper status or circumstances Per capita income

• Per capita income is a measure of the amount of money earned per person in a nation or
geographic region. Per capita income can be used to determine the average per-person
income for an area and to evaluate the standard of living and quality of life of the
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population. Per capita income for a nation is calculated by dividing the country’s national
income by its population.
• The definition of income per capita is simply the average amount of money earned by
people living in a specific area

UNIT- 14

Introduction to economic system What

is an Economic System ?
Any system that involves the mechanism for production, distribution, and exchange of goods
apart from consumption of the goods and services within the different entities can be classified
as an Economic System. The various kinds of economic systems and their classifications broadly
follow the methods by which means of ownership are established. Thus, the mode of ownership
of capital leads to the different kinds of economic systems in vogue. Types of economic system

• Capitalism
• Socialism
• Communalism
• Mixed economy

CAPITALISM

• Capitalism is an economic system in which private individuals or businesses own capital

goods. The production of goods and services is based on supply and demand in the
general market—known as a market economy—rather than through central planning—
known as a planned economy or command economy.
• Here, private individuals are unrestrained. They may determine where to invest, what to
produce or sell, and at which prices to exchange goods and services. The laissez-faire
marketplace operates without checks or controls Characteristics of capitalism

• Two-Class System
• Private Ownership
• Profit Motive
• Minimal Government Intervention
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• Competition
• The Bottom Line

SOCIALISM

• Socialism is a populist economic and political system based on public ownership (also
known as collective or common ownership) of the means of production. Those means
include the machinery, tools, and factories used to produce goods that aim to directly
satisfy human needs.
• Socialism is an economic and political system based on public ownership of the means of
production.
• All legal production and distribution decisions are made by the government in a socialist
system. The government determines all output and pricing levels.
• Citizens in a socialist society rely on the government for everything, from food to
healthcare.
• Proponents of socialism believe that it leads to a more equal distribution of goods and
services and a more equitable society.
• Socialist ideals include production for use, rather than for profit; an equitable distribution
of wealth and material resources among all people; no more competitive buying and
selling in the market; and free access to goods and services.
• Capitalism, with its belief in private ownership and the goal to maximize profits, stands
in contrast to socialism.
• While socialism and capitalism seem diametrically opposed, most capitalist economies
today have some socialist aspects.

COMMUNALISM

Communalism, is referred in the western world as a “theory or system of government in which

virtually autonomous local communities are loosely in federation”. Communalism is a political
philosophy, which proposes that market and money be abolished and that land and enterprises to
be placed in the custody of community. But in the Indian sub-continent context, communalism
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has come to be associated with tensions and clashes between different religious communities in
various regions.

Communalism in South Asia is used to denote the differences between the various religious
groups and difference among the people of different community. And generally it is used to
catalyze communal violence between those groups.

Communalism is not unique only to South Asia, but is also found in Africa, America, Europe,
Australia, and Asia. But, it is significant socio-economic and political issue in Bangladesh, India,
Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal, etc.

What is Communalism?

It is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:-

• A belief that people who follow the same religion/community have common secular
interests i.e. they have same political, economic and social interests. So, here socio-
political communalities arises.
• A notion that, in a multi-religious society like India, these common secular interests of
one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of another
religion.
• The interests of the follower of the different religion or of different ‘communities’ are
seen to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile.

Communalism is political trade in religion. It is an ideology on which communal politics is

based. And communal violence are conjectural consequences of communal ideology.

Communalism as an ideology may be perceived as:

(a) A total commitment to a set of beliefs,

(b) Far from rationality,
(c) Committing of self to the community alone,
(d) Unwillingness to accept other belief patterns and faiths,
(e) Closing of self and being highly emotional to it, to the extent of crossing the
bounds of law at times.
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Characteristics of Communalism:

(i) Communalism is an ideological concept,

(ii) It mostly rests on prejudices,
(iii) It has a broader base which encompasses social, economic and political
aspects, for its manifestations.
(iv) It causes rivalry and violence among masses.
(v) It is used by the higher-class people and elites as an instrument for division
and exploitation.
(vi) It strikes at the roots of secularism and national integration.

(vii) Us effects are disastrous.

Evolution of communalism in Indian society

In Medieval period, we have examples such as- Akbar, who was epitome of secular practises and
believed in propagating such values by abolishing Jajhiya tax and starting of Din-I- ilahi and
Ibadat Khana. Same acceptance for different cultures and tradition was practised in several
kingdoms throughout India, because of which there was peace and harmony, barring few
sectarian rulers like Aurangzeb, who was least tolerant for other religious practises. But, such
motives were guided purely for their personal greed of power and wealth.

Communalism in India is result of the emergence of modern politics, which has its roots in
partition of Bengal in 1905 and feature of separate electorate under Government of India Act,
1909.Later, British government also appeased various communities through Communal award in
1932, which faced strong resistance from Gandhiji and others. All these acts were done by the
British government to appease Muslims and other communities, for their own political needs.
This feeling of communalism has deepened since then, fragmenting the Indian society and being
a cause of unrest.

Infamous communal violence in India

• Partition of India,1947
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After partition, millions of population were forced to move from both sides of the border. Hindus
in Pakistan and Muslims in India were killed in masses, women were raped, and many children
lost their parents. There was hatred everywhere, violence didn’t see anything except bloodshed.

• Anti-Sikh riots, 1984

This is one of the blood-shed in India, where Sikhs in large number were massacred by anti- Sikh
mob. This massacre took place in response to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
by his own Sikh body Guard in response to her actions authorising the military operation.

• Babri masjid demolition in Ayodhya, 1992

According to Hindu mythology, Ayodhaya is birth place of Lord Rama and therefore it is sacred
place for Hindu religion. But in medieval period Mughal general Mir Baqi, built a mosque,
named after Mughal ruler Babur. There were disputes since then and riots also took place. But in
1990, due to some political mobilisation, there was atmosphere of protest by Hindu religious
groups and in large scale “kar-sevak” visited Ayodhya from all parts of India, in support of
demolishing Babri masjid and building Ram temple there. These movements caused huge
amount of bloodshed and since then it is a disputed matter.

• Assam Communal violence,2012

North eastern states are known for its distinguished tribal population & ethnic diversity and
large-scale Bangladeshi immigration has changed the demography of North eastern states, which
often becomes reason for clashes. In 2012, there were ethnic clashes between Bodo’s (Tribal,
Christian & Hindu faith) and Muslims.

MIXED ECONOMY

• A mixed economy is an economy organized with some free market elements and some
socialistic elements, which lies on a continuum somewhere between pure capitalism and
pure socialism.
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• Mixed economies typically maintain private ownership and control of most of the means
of production, but often under government regulation.
• Mixed economies socialize select industries that are deemed essential or that produce
public goods.
• All known historical and modern economies are examples of mixed economies, though
some economists have critiqued the economic effects of various forms of mixed
economy.

Characteristics of Mixed Economy

The following are the main characteristics of mixed economy:

• Co-existence of the Private and Public Sectors

• Existence of Joint Sector
• Regulation of Private Sector
• Planned Economy
• Private Property
• Provision of Social Security
• Under mixed economy, Government takes steps to provide social security.
• Motive of Business Concerns
• Reduction of Inequalities of Income and Wealth
• Complete Economic Freedom

MODULE -4

UNIT- 15 NATIONAL ECONOMIC POLICY

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ECONOMIC POLICY

The economic policy of governments covers the systems for setting levels of taxation,
government budgets, the money supply and interest rates as well as the labour market, national
ownership, and many other areas of government interventions into the economy.

INDUSTRIAL POLICY

• Rules, regulations, principles, policies and procedures laid down by the government for
regulating, developing and controlling industrial under takings in the country
• It prescribes the particular role of the public, private and co-operative sectors.

Objectives
• Achieving a socialist pattern of society
• Achieving industrial development
• Reducing disparities in regional development
• Achieving faster economic growth
• Updating technology and modernizing industries
Industrial policy -1948
• Established on April -6 1948
• Laid stress on the role of state in the development of industries
• The industrial activities are divided in to 4 main categories
1. Items under central government control
➢ Manufacture of arms and weapons
➢ Production and control of atomic energy
➢ Ownership and management of railway transportation
2. Items under State governments control
• Coal, iron and Steel, aircraft manufacturing, ship building, manufacturing of
telephone, telegraph and wirless3 apparatus mineral, oil
3. Items of basic importance
• Can be manufactured by private sectors but planned and regulated by Central
Government
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• Manufacturing of salt, automobiles and tractors, electric engineering, other heavy

machineries, heavy chemicals , sugar
4. Items for private sectors
• All other industrial fields with be open for private enterprises.
Industrial policy- April 30, 1956
• Was also regarded as the economic constitution of India
Major objectives are as follows
1. Improving standard of working condition of people
2. To reduce disparities in income and wealth
3. To prevent private monopolies
4. Development of transportation facilities
5. Planned and rapid development
6. Expand public sector
7. Reduce disparities in regional development
Fiscal policy
• The means by which government adjust it’s spending level and tax rates to
monitor and influence a nation’s economy
• Defined as any decisions to change the level , composition or timing of
government expenditure or to vary the burden the structure or the frequency
of the tax payment is fiscal policy.
Objectives of fiscal policy
1. Development by effective mobilization of resources
2. Efficient allocation of financial resources
3. Price stability and control of inflation
Employment generation
Capital formation
Development of Infrastructure
Main stages of fiscal policy
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1. Neutral state: spending is fully funded by tax revenue and overall budget is equal to
expenditure
2. Expansionary state: government expenditure is more than tax receipts
3. Contractionary state: government expenditure is less than tax and revenue recived
Instruments of fiscal policy
• Budgetary surplus and deficit
• Government expenditure
• Taxation
• Public debt

Monetary policy
• Measures taken to regulate the supply of money
• Also deals with distribution of credit between and among users and bank
• Circulation of money in economy. Recollect the money from public.
Various instruments of monetary policy
• Changes in the supply of currencies
• Variation in bank rate
• Variation in interest rate
• Variation in reserves Exim policy
• Contains various policies related with import and export of commodities
• Focuses on promoting exports , policies and procedures related with export
and import
• Also known as foreign trade policy
• Aims at developing
✓ Export potential
✓ Improving export performance
✓ Encouraging foreign trade
UNIT- 16
Economics concepts
 102

• Economic concepts—scarcity, supply and demand, costs and benefits, and

incentives—can help explain many decisions that humans make.
• Scarcity explains the basic economic problem that the world has limited—or
scarce—resources to meet seemingly unlimited wants, and this reality forces
people to make decisions about how to allocate resources in the most efficient
way.
• As a result of scarce resources, humans are constantly making choices that are
determined by their costs and benefits and the incentives offered by different
courses of action
• Supply and Demand- A market system is driven by supply and demand. Concept
of supply and demand helps to explain why last year’s popular product is half the
price the following year.
• Costs and Benefits -The concept of costs and benefits is related to the theory of
rational choice. People try to maximize the ratio of benefits to costs in their
decisions.
Welfare state
• A system whereby the state undertakes to protect the health and well-being of its citizens,
especially those in financial or social need, by means of grants, pensions, and other
benefits.
• The welfare state is a form of government in which the state protects and promotes the
economic and social well-being of the citizens, based upon the principles of equal
opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for citizens unable
to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.
• Sociologist T. H. Marshall described the modern welfare state as a distinctive
combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism.
Social justice
• Social justice is the relation of balance between individuals and society measured by
comparing distribution of wealth differences, from personal liberties to fair privilege
opportunities.
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• In Western as well as in older Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often
referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive
what was their due from society.
• In the current global grassroots movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on
the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets and economic
justice. Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables
people to receive the basic benefits and burdens of cooperation.
Development
• Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of
physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components.

• The purpose of development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the population, and
the creation or expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities,
without damaging the resources of the environment.
• Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately, and includes an aspect of
quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that change.
Under development
• Underdevelopment refers to the low level of development characterized by low real per
capita income, wide-spread poverty, lower level of literacy, low life expectancy and
underutilization of resources etc.
• The state in underdeveloped economy fails to provide acceptable levels of living to a
large fraction of its population, thus resulting into misery and material deprivations. Such
countries are characterised by relative development gap in comparison to developed
countries.

UNIT- 17
Agriculture
Natural Resources
Natural Resources are all that exists without the actions of humankind. This includes all natural
characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical properties and forces. On earth we
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include sunlight, atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation and
animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and
substances.
The existence or the absence of favourable natural resources can facilitate or retard the process of
economic development. Natural resources include land, water resources, fisheries, mineral
resources, forest, marine resources, climate, rainfall etc. A natural resource is anything that
people can use which comes from nature. Classification of Natural Resources
There are different ways to classify natural resources, including where they come from and if
they are renewable or not.
1. On the basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into:
Biotic and Abiotic Natural Resources
If natural resources come from living things or organic materials, then they are considered biotic
resources. Biotic resources include plants, animals, and fossil fuels. The three fossil fuels are
coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels are classified as biotic resources because they were formed
from the decay of organic matter over millions of years.

On the other hand, abiotic resources originate from non-living and inorganic materials. For
example, air, sunlight, and water are abiotic natural resources. Minerals (gold, copper, iron, and
diamonds) are also considered abiotic.
2. Renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized
as either renewable or non-renewable:
Renewable and Non-Renewable natural resources
Natural resources used by humans can be classified as renewable and non-renewable. Renewable
natural resources are those which can be replaced within a human lifetime over and over again.
Non-renewable natural resources are those that may take millions of years to be replaced;
therefore, people can rely only on those deposits already in existence.
3. Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the
following ways:
• Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may
be used in the future. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in
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various regions, but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it
remains a potential resource.
• Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their
quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The
development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the
technology available and the cost involved.
• Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed
profitably in the future is called a reserve resource.
• Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be
used by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.
4. Inexhaustible Resources and Exhaustible Resources
The resources which cannot be exhausted by human consumption and other uses, are called
inexhaustible resources. These include energy sources like solar radiation, wind power, water
power (flowing streams) and tidal power, and substances like sand, clay, air, water in oceans, etc.
Exhaustible Resources on the other hand, there are some resources, which are available in
limited quantities and are going to be exhausted as a result of continuous use. These are called
exhaustible resources. For example, the stock of coal in the earth is limited and one day there
will be no more coal available for our use. Petroleum is another important exhaustible resource.
Natural resources in India
India’s major mineral resources include Coal (4 th largest reserves in the world), Iron ore,
Manganese ore (7th largest reserve in the world as in 2013), Mica, Bauxite (5 th largest reserve in
the world as in 2013), Chromite, Natural gas, Diamonds, Limestone and Thorium (world’s
largest along coast of Kerala shores).
Conservation of natural resources
Conservation is the wise use of natural resources so that people do not waste them or use them
up.
• use of recycled water
• People should at once stop the over utilization of natural resources instead they must be
properly used.
• We should make habit for waste disposal, compose and to restore biodiversity.
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• Mixed cropping, crop rotation, and proper use of fertilizer, insecticide and pesticides
should be taught to farmers. Encourage the use of manures, biofertilizers and organic
fertilizers.
• We should protect wildlife. Though hunting is not allowed even then the persons are
doing so. For this educated young should teach the lesson of wildlife act.
• We must develop energy saving methods to avoid wastage of energy. We should
remember “energy saved is energy produced.
• Utilize renewable energy sources as much as possible. Encourage use of solar cooker,
pump etc.
• We should recycle the waste and waste water for agriculture purposes.
• Install rain water harvesting system in houses, colonies.
• Try to educate local people for the protection and judicious use of natural resources.
Infrastructure As a key driver of the economy, Infrastructure is highly responsible for
propelling India’s overall development. The industry enjoys intense focus from the top officials
of the Government for initiating policies that would ensure time-bound creation of world class
infrastructure in the country. This sector includes power, bridges, dams, roads and urban
infrastructure development. Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems
serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to
function. It typically characterises technical structures such as roads, bridges, tunnels, water
supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, and can be defined as “the
physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to
enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions.”
Types of infrastructure
Infrastructure is a complex field with so many different components under it; but all of them can
be categorized into two main types of infrastructures. They are the hard and the soft
infrastructure. Each type will be briefly discussed below.
Hard Infrastructure
This refers to the physical network that keeps an industrialized nation smoothly functional.
Among the components that are classified under the hard infrastructure are the capital assets like
the utilities, transport vehicles, telecommunication systems, roads, highways, railways, subways,
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traffic lights and street lights, dams, walls and culverts, drainage systems, the airports and bus
terminals, and bridges, among others.
Soft Infrastructure
The soft infrastructure, on the other hand, is the framework required to keep and maintain the
different institutions. This can also include both the physical and the non-physical assets.
Examples of physical assets are the buildings that house the network and the equipment used to
maintain the institution.
For non-physical assets, this includes the software and programs, the governing rules and
regulations, the financial system, and the organizational structure. In essence, the soft
infrastructure embodies the system of delivery of services to the people.
Sustainable Development
The concept came in to general use following the publication of the report of the United Nations
Brundtland Commission 1987. This was through the World Commission on Environment and
Development or WCED.
The world leaders were getting concerned with energy and resources were being over utilized
and would not last very long. The strain on the earth was intensifying so the nations were called
upon to adopt sustainable development measures.
Sustainable development (SD) is a process for meeting human development goals while
maintaining the ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and
ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend.
According to the WCED, sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. In other
words, humans must not consume the earth’s resources as if there is an endless supply and we
must think of future generations. The essence of this form of development is a healthy
relationship between human activities and the natural resources, a relationship which considers
that future generations must also enjoy a quality of life at least as good as our own Sustainable
development does not focus solely on environmental issues, and encompass three general policy
areas: economic, environmental and social. Therefore, sustainable development is a holistic
socioeconomic-ecological process bringing about fulfilment of human needs while maintaining
the quality of the natural environment indefinitely for future generations.
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Poverty
Poverty is a problem which is faced by each and every society. Society, as affluent as USA, also
has 14-15% of poor people. Usually, poverty in developing countries is more widespread. As
already discussed, the developing society often faces a scarcity of resources. On account of this,
they fail to meet the need of their vast population which aggregate the problem of poverty in
such societies.
Understanding Poverty
Understanding poverty rests on the level of income, property and living standards. A person is
said to be poor if his income is insufficient to fulfil his basic needs of food, clothing and shelter.
A related concept from poverty is ‘Pauperism’ which means ‘extreme poverty’.
Poverty is not only a condition of economic insufficiency. It acts as an impediment to the mental,
physical, and social development of the individuals in society.
Types of Poverty
1. Absolute poverty
It is referred as the inability of the person to fulfil his basic necessities. It is also known as
subsistence poverty. It is the condition of acute physical wants, starvation, malnutrition and lack
of other basic needs like shelter or health care.

2. Relative Poverty
According to this concept poverty is defined as per the standard of society keeps on at a given
place and time.
Causes of poverty
The causes of poverty can be understood by realising that it is a problem deep rooted in our
social structure itself. The following are some major factors which cause poverty.
• Rapidly rising population
• Low productivity in agriculture
• Under-utilised resources
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• Low rate of economic development

• Price hike
• Unemployment
• Shortage of capital
• Social and political reason
Rural Poverty
The rural poor’s mainly include farmers, unskilled migrant workers, the artisans, landless labours
etc. empowering rural people is an essential step to eradicate poverty. Women face a higher risk
of poverty and have more limited economic opportunities than their male counterparts.
The factors responsible for rural poverty are:
a. Lack of Infrastructure: Rural poverty is often a product of poor infrastructure that
hinder development and mobility. Rural areas lack sufficient roads that would
increase access to agricultural input and markets.
2) Education and Social Service Inadequacies
3) Malnutrition: Lack of education also leads to malnutrition. Social isolation makes access to
health care facilities difficult for the rural people.
4) Limited access to employment
5) Lack of access to capital and financial institutions
Urban Poverty
Urban areas cover wide extremes of wealth and poverty. Around the world, over one billion
residents live in inadequate homes, slums and squatter settlement. Poverty in urban areas are
clubbed with anti-social behaviour, conflict gangs, organised crime, terror and riots. The urban
poverty can be temporary or persistent. It is a dynamic condition people may more in and out it.
The factors responsible for urban poverty are:
• Limited access to employment opportunities and income
• Inadequate and insecure housing and services
• Violent and unhealthy environment
• Little or no social protection mechanisms
• Limited access to adequate health and education opportunities
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Anti-Poverty Programmes
1. Pradhan Mantri Gramedia Yojana was started in 2000 and its main focus
was village level development especially in the five areas including
primary health care, primary education, housing, rural roads, drinking
water and nutrition.
2. In 1997, Targeted Public Distribution System was launched with focus on
poor. Under this, the states are required to formulate and implement full
proof arrangements for identification of the poor for delivery of food
grains and for its distribution in a transparent and accountable manner
Anthodia Anna Yojana is a step in the direction of making Targeted Public Distribution system
aim at reducing hunger among the poorest segments of the below poverty line population.
3. Indira Awas Yojana aims at creating housing for everyone. This scheme
provides money to the poor to build house.
4. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana aims at building roads and linking all
the villages to the nearest towns and cities. This could help in reducing
poverty by increasing connectivity and market access to the rural
population.
7. Nirmal Bharat is another programme which aims to improve drinking water and
sanitation facilities in rural areas
8. Bharat Nirman is a plan for creating and augmenting basic rural infrastructure. It
comprises of projects on irrigation, roads, housing, water supply, electrification and
telecommunication. The infrastructure is the most important factor which can help poor’s
to come out of the clutches of poverty.
9. Interest Subsidy Scheme for housing the urban poor is a programme initiated by Central
Government to help the poor in realising their dream of ‘my home’ by financially
assisting in the form of lending house loans at a subsidised rate of interest.
10. Rajiv Awas Yojana for the slum dwellers and the urban poor envisages a slum free India
through encouraging states/UTs to tackle the problem of slums in a definitive manner. It
will support slum development and construction of affordable housing.
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MODULE 6
UNIT-20
WORLD BANK
• The World Bank is an international organization dedicated to providing financing, advice,
and research to developing nations to aid their economic advancement. The bank
predominantly acts as an organization that attempts to fight poverty by offering
developmental assistance to middle- and low-income countries.
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• The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to
the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital
projects.
• It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a
component of the World Bank Group.
Objectives of World Bank:
i. To provide long term capital to members countries for economic
reconstruction and development.
ii. To induce long term capital investment for assuring BOP equilibrium
and balanced development of international trade.
iii. To promote capital investment in members countries by following
ways:
iv. To provide a guarantee on private loans or capital investment.
v. If capital is not available even after providing a guarantee, then
IBRD provides loans for productive activities on considerate
conditions. vi. To ensure the implementation of development
projects so as to bring about a smooth transference from wartime to a
peaceful economy.
Functions of world bank
i. Bank can grant loans to members countries up to 20 % of its
share in paid-up capital.
ii. Bank also provides loans to private investors belonging to the
members on its own guarantee, but private investors need to
take permission of its native country. Banks charge 1% to 2%
as service charge.
iii. The quantum of loan service, interest rate, terms and conditions
are decided by the World Bank itself.
iv. Generally, bank grant loans for a particular project duly
submitted to the bank by the member country.
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v. The debtor nation has to repay either in reserve currencies or in

the currencies in which the loan was sanctioned.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that promotes
global economic growth and financial stability, encourages international trade, and
reduces poverty.
• The IMF was originally created in 1945 as part of the Bretton Woods agreement, which
attempted to encourage international financial cooperation by introducing a system of
convertible currencies at fixed exchange rates.
• The International Monetary Fund, or IMF, promotes international financial stability and
monetary cooperation. It also facilitates international trade, promotes employment and
sustainable economic growth, and helps to reduce global poverty. The IMF is governed
by and accountable to its 190 member countries.
IMF Activities
The IMF’s primary methods for achieving these goals are monitoring capacity building and
lending. Surveillance
The IMF collects massive amounts of data on national economies, international trade, and the
global economy in aggregate. The organization also provides regularly updated economic
forecasts at the national and international levels. These forecasts, published in the World
Economic Outlook, are accompanied by lengthy discussions on the effect of fiscal, monetary, and
trade policies on growth prospects and financial stability.

Capacity Building
The IMF provides technical assistance, training, and policy advice to member countries through
its capacity building programs. These programs include training in data collection and analysis,
which feed into the IMF's project of monitoring national and global economies.
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Lending
The IMF makes loans to countries that are experiencing economic distress to prevent or mitigate
financial crises. Members contribute the funds for this lending to a pool based on a quota system.
In 2019, loan resources in the amount of SDR 11.4 billion (SDR 0.4 billion above target) were
secured to support the IMF’s concessional lending activities into the next decade.

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

• The World Trade Organization is an intergovernmental organization that regulates and
facilitates international trade between nations
• It officially commenced operations on 1 January 1995, pursuant to the 1994 Marrakesh
Agreement, thus replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that had
been established in 1948.
• The WTO is the world’s largest international economic organization, with 164 member
states representing over 96% of global trade and global GDP
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization
dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements,
negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their
parliaments. The goal is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as
possible. Objectives and operation

The WTO has six key objectives:

• to set and enforce rules for international trade,

• to provide a forum for negotiating and monitoring further trade trade
• to resolve trade disputes,
• to increase the transparency of decision-making processes,
• to cooperate with other major international economic institutions involved in global
economic management, and
• to help developing countries benefit fully from the global trading system.
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Membership
• Members and observers
The WTO has over 160 members representing 98 per cent of world trade. Over 20 countries are
seeking to join the WTO.
• Accessions
To join the WTO, a government has to bring its economic and trade policies in line with WTO
rules and negotiate its terms of entry with the WTO membership.
UNIT- 21
Globalization and its Impact on Global Economy

Globalization means integration of economies of the world with one another. Integration takes
place when product and factors move about freely as among different countries.

Globalization (or globalisation) is the process of international integration arising from the
interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture.

“Globalization represents the triumph of a capitalist world economy tied together by a global
division of labour.”

A Progressive reduction in barriers to the international movements of goods, services, capital and
technology” (Khan 1997)

Mobility of :-

Products - All tradable goods, commodities, services.

Factors – Capital, technology, finance, labour etc.

Parameters of Globalization

• Reduction of trade barriers so as to permit free flow goods across national frontiers
• Creation of an environment in which free flow of capital can take place among nation
states
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• Free flow of technology

• Free movement of labour

1. Economic Features

• Open Economy
• Currencies are freely exchangeable at the rate set by free market
• Products move according to the demands of people every where
• Globalized economy becomes a part of the global economy
• Free movement of all products, factors etc.
• Prices are determined by market
• Production, distribution, consumption and investment according to market conditions
• Globalized Consumption

2. Non-Economic Features

• Loss of national sovereignty

- International flow of information

- Global integration of financial markets

• Standardization of values and cultures

- Global advertising

- Produces some consumer tastes

- Produce certain cultures

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GLOBALIZATION – IMPACT ON INDIAN ECONOMY

• Indian Share in world export of goods and services improved

• Increased foreign investment flows
• Increase of imports far greater than increase of exports
• Increase in the growth rate of GDP
• Slowing down of the process of poverty reduction in the post globalization period
• Higher GDP growth accompanied with a decline in employment growth
• A Special kind of Inequality – skilled, unskilled
• Unemployment – disguised, technological, no problem for health workers, nurses etc.
• Impact – impoverishment, weakening of institutions and social support systems, rapid
erosion of established identities and values

Impact of Globalization on Agricultural Sector

Agricultural Sector is the mainstay of the rural Indian economy around which socio-economic
privileges and deprivations revolve and any change in its structure is likely to have a
corresponding impact on the existing pattern of Social equity. The liberalization of India’s
economy was adopted by India in 1991. Facing a severe economic crisis, India approached the
IMF for a loan, and the IMF granted what is called a ‘structural adjustment’ loan, which is a loan
with certain conditions attached which relate to a structural change in the economy. Essentially,
the reforms sought to gradually phase out government control of the market (liberalization),
privatize public sector organizations (privatization), and reduce export subsidies and import
barriers to enable free trade (globalization). Globalization has helped in:

• Raising living standards,

• Alleviating poverty,
• Assuring food security,
• Generating buoyant market for expansion of industry and services, and • Making
substantial contribution to the national economic growth.
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Impact of Globalization on Industrial Sector:

Effects of Globalization on Indian Industry started when the government opened the country's
markets to foreign investments in the early 1990s. Globalization of the Indian Industry took
place in its various sectors such as steel, pharmaceutical, petroleum, chemical, textile, cement,
retail, and BPO.

Globalization means the dismantling of trade barriers between nations and the integration of the
nations economies through financial flow, trade in goods and services, and corporate investments
between nations. Globalization has increased across the world in recent years due to the fast
progress that has been made in the field of technology especially in communications and
transport. The government of India made changes in its economic policy in 1991 by which it
allowed direct foreign investments in the country. The benefits of the effects of globalization in
the Indian Industry are that many foreign companies set up industries in India, especially in the
pharmaceutical, BPO, petroleum, manufacturing, and chemical sectors and this helped to provide
employment to many people in the country. This helped reduce the level of unemployment and
poverty in the country. Also the benefit of the Effects of Globalization on Indian Industry are that
the foreign companies brought in highly advanced technology with them and this helped to make
the Indian Industry more technologically advanced. The negative Effects of Globalization on
Indian Industry are that with the coming of technology the number of labour required decreased
and this resulted in many people being removed from their jobs. This happened mainly in the
pharmaceutical, chemical, manufacturing, and cement industries.

Impact on Financial Sector

Reforms of the financial sector constitute the most important component of India’s programme
towards economic liberalization. The recent economic liberalization measures have opened the
door to foreign competitors to enter into our domestic market. Innovation has become a must for
survival. Financial intermediaries have come out of their traditional approach and they are ready
to assume more credit risks. As a consequence, many innovations have taken place in the global
financial sectors which have its own impact on the domestic sector also. The emergences of
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various financial institutions and regulatory bodies have transformed the financial services sector
from being a conservative industry to a very dynamic one. In this process this sector is facing a
number of challenges

Impact on Export and Import

India's Export and Import in the year 2001-02 was to the extent of 32,572 and 38,362 million
respectively. Many Indian companies have started becoming respectable players in the
International scene. Agriculture exports account for about 13 to 18% of total annual of annual
export of the country. In 2000-01 Agricultural products valued at more than US $ 6million were
exported from the country 23% of which was contributed by the marine products alone. Marine
products in recent years have emerged as the single largest contributor to the total agricultural
export from the country accounting for over one fifth of the total agricultural exports. Cereals
(mostly basmati rice and non-basmati rice), oil seeds, tea and coffee are the other prominent
products each of which accounts fro nearly 5 to 10% of the countries total agricultural exports.

Advantages of Globalization

• There is an International market for companies and for consumers there is a wider range
of products to choose from.
• Increase in flow of investments from developed countries to developing countries, which
can be used for economic reconstruction.
• Greater and faster flow of information between countries and greater cultural interaction
has helped to overcome cultural barriers.
• Technological development has resulted in reverse brain drain in developing countries.

Demerits of Globalization (Challenges globalisation)

• The outsourcing of jobs to developing countries has resulted in loss of jobs in developed
countries.
• There is a greater threat of spread of communicable diseases
• There is an underlying threat of multinational corporations with immense power ruling
the globe.
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• For smaller developing nations at the receiving end, it could indirectly lead to a subtle
form of colonization. · The number of rural landless families increased from 35 %in
1987 to 45 % in 1999, further to 55% in 2005. The farmers are destined to die of
starvation or suicide.

UNIT- 22

Multi National Corporates and Effects on Indian Economy

When a company operates in a home nation established its subsidiary in other nation it becomes
an MNC and there starts the process of globalization where in a local company serves the entire
worlds with its products and services.

India has experienced a dramatic increase in the presence of Multinational Corporation having a
tremendous expansion in the amount of foreign direct investment inflows to the Indian economy.

Internet tools like Google, Yahoo, MSN, E-Bay, Skype, and Amazon make it easier for the
MNC’s to reach their potential customers in the country.
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) is a business unit which operates simultaneously in
different countries of the world. In some cases the manufacturing unit may be in one country,
while the marketing and investment may be in other country.

• 1st MNC in world Dutch East India Company

• 1st MNC in India IBM
• Infosys 1st Indian MNC’s

Features of MNC

• Big size
• Huge intellectual capital
• Operates in many countries
• Large number of customer
• Large number of competitors
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• Structured way of decision making

Impact on India

• Large amount of tax collection thru MNC’s

• Increased revenue
• Economic health improved
• Employment increased
• Foreign relation increased

Top Ten Brands in the World

• IBM, Microsoft, LG, Toyota, Samsung, Nokia, Hyundai, Fiat, Nike, Ford, Sony

Merits of MNC’s

• Increase investment level

• Transferring the technology
• It increase host country exports & reduce its imports Integrating national economy
• Implementing new innovations Increase competition
• MNCs create employment opportunities in the host countries.
• It helps to create a pool of managerial talent in the host country.
• Helps removal of monopoly and improve the quality of domestic made products.
• Promotes exports and reduce imports by raising domestic productions.
• Goods are made available at cheaper price due to economies of scale.
• Job and career opportunities at home and abroad in connection with overseas operations.
• Encourages the world unity and all resulting in world harmony.
De-merits of MNC’s

• May acquire monopoly power

• Underestimate local culture
• Think of about profits rather than host country interest
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• Inflexibility in terms & conditions Heavy use of non-renewable natural resources • They
are interested more on mergers and acquisitions and not on fresh projects.
• They have raised very large part of their financial resources from within the country.
• The host nation may also experience some loss of control over its own economy
• Feeling that labour is being exploited by the MNC/ Outsourcing

Role of MNC in India

• Profit Maximisation
• International Network of marketing
• Diversification Policy
• Concentration in Consumer goods
• Location of central control offices
• Techniques to achieve Public Acceptability
• Existence of Modern & Sophisticated Technology
• Business but not social Justice
• MNCs & Process of planned Economic Development in India
• Cultural Explosion.