2 COLD WATER AND SUPPLY SYSTEMS RAIN CYCLE - SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY IN WATER, FILTRATION OF WATER STERILISATION AND DISINFECTION STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER WATER MAINS VALVES AND TAPS JOINTS ON WATER PIPES PIPE JOINTING MATERIALS WATER SOFTENING WATER CONDITIONING AND TREATMENT DIRECT SYSTEM OF COLD WATER SUPPLY INDIRECT SYSTEM OF COLD WATER SUPPLY BACKFLOW PROTECTION SECONDARY BACKFLOW PROTECTION COLD WATER STORAGE CISTERNS COLD WATER STORAGE CALCULATIONS BOOSTED COLD WATER SYSTEMS DELAYED ACTION FLOAT VALVE PIPE SIZING HYDRAULICS AND FLUID FLOW 19Rain Cycle - Sources of Water Supply Water is the essence of life. Surface sources - lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs, run off from roofs and paved areas. Underground sources - shallow wells, deep wells, artesian wells, artesian springs. land springs. ttt ttt th 7 WS Impervious strata Rain cycle Impervious strata ‘Surface and normal underground supplies Collecting area Pervious strata 9 Impervious strata Artesian spring Artesian wells and springs 20Acidity and Alkalinity in Water Acid - a substance containing hydrogen which can be replaced by other elements. Litmus paper in the presence of acidic water turns red Alkali - a substance which will neutralise acid by accepting its hydrogen ions (H‘). Litmus paper in the presence of alkaline water turns blue. More accurate definitions can be obtained by using hydrochemical electric metres. These measure the amount of hydrogen ions (H') in a relative proportion of water. This measure of acidity or alkalinity in solution is referred to numerically from 0-14 as the pH value * pH <7 indicates acidity * pH > 7 indicates alkalinity * pH = 7 chemically pure The quality of processed water is unlikely to be pure due to contamination at source Rainwater - contaminated by suspended impurities as it falls through the air. These impurities are principally carbon dioxide, sulphur and nitrous oxides originating from domestic flue gases and industrial manufacturing processes. The mixture of these impurities and rainfall produce ‘acid rain’, an occurrence frequently blamed for the destruction of plant life. Surface and substrata water sources - contaminated by dissolved inorganic materials such as calcium, magnesium and sodium. These are responsible for water hardness as described on pages 43-45. Organic matter from decaying vegetation, animals and untreated waste water can also contaminate ground water supplies. These are normally associated with ammonia compounds in the water or bacteria. Certain types of bacteria present in water can be responsible for outbreaks of typhoid. cholera and dysentery. Chlorination, as described on page 23 is applied to filtered water to destroy any remaining bacterial microbes before general distribution through service reservoirs and mains The following table shows the quantity of pollutant microbes present during the stages of water processing, as described on pages 22-24: Source/process Typical pollutant microbe count per litre River 41000 impounding reservoir 1500 Primary filter 500 Secondary filter 50 Chlorination ° Service reservoir ° Distribution main ° 21Filtration of Water Pressure filter - rate of filtration 4 to 12m? per m? per hour. To backwash, valve A is closed and valves B and C opened. Compressed air clears the sand of dirt. Diameter = 2-4m Dirty water inlet pipe Compressed air pipe Y Fine sand ee P Nozzles (lean water outlet z Slow sand filter bed - rate of filtration 0:2 to 115m? per m? per hour Filter beds can occupy large areas and the top layer of sand will require removal and cleaning at periodic intervals. Floor tiles Clean water Clay puddle Small domestic filter - the unglazed porcelain cylinder will arrest very fine particles of dirt and even micro-organisms. The cylinder can be removed and sterilised in boiling water for 10 minutes. Drain cock 22Sterilisation Sterilisation by chlorine injection - water used for drinking must be sterilised to make it completely free of living micro-organisms. Chlorine is generally used for this purpose. A minute quantity of gaseous chlorine (Cl) or sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) in solution. commonly known as bleach, (0.1 to O.3ppm) is added after filtration in absorption towers or small covered reservoirs known as contact tanks. The process takes about two hours before the treated water is released into the water mains or pumped to service reservoirs. Control pane! Dilting water inlet \ Dituting water absorption tower Injector Chlorine cylinder Water main Fluoridation - an additive introduced to drinking water by some supply authorities. Unlike chlorine, it is not added to make supplies safe. The objective is to reduce tooth decay in young children. as fluoride is known to make the enamel covering of their teeth tougher. When added, the amount is between 0.5 and 1mq per litre of water (0.5 to L.Oppm) This amount is not enough to affect the appearance. taste or smell of water. Arguments against using fluoride are the availability of fluoride toothpastes and that it is wasteful to treat water supplies when over 99% of water is used for other purposes than cleaning teeth. Others include the suggestion that too much exposure can cause staining and mottling of the teeth, even bone disorders and other health issues. 23Storage and Distribution of Water Gravitational distribution - the water from upland gathering grounds is impounded in a reservoir. From this point the water is filtered and chlorinated before serving an inhabited area at lower level. There are no pumping costs. ; Impounding reservoir Slow sand tter CChiornatng house Pumped distribution - water extracted from a river is pumped into @ settlement tank, subsequently filtered and chlorinated. Pump maintenance and running costs make this process more expensive than gravity systems. Service reservoir sited underground on top of a hill lof storage tank on top ofa toner Pump rouse: “Tower Fiver Slow sand fiter | Tim St Water main Settlement tank Pumping and chlorinating house Ring main distribution - water mains supplying a town or village may be in the form of a grid. This is preferable to radial distribution as sections can be isolated with minimal disruption to the remaining system and there is no more opportunity for water to maintain a flow. ~~ Trunk maine Isolating valves. sup 7 to buildings Street mains 24Disinfection of Water Disinfection - the process of inactivating bacterial or viral cells, either by destruction or by eliminating their pathogenic properties. * Off-line, system not in use - 1. Oxidising disinfectants including sodium hypochlorite (chlorination) and chlorine dioxide. Bromine and ozone can be used to treat water in industrial processing plants. Water systems containing these and chlorine disinfectants at concentrations greater than that approved in drinking water (see Note) should be fitted with a backflow prevention device (see page 54) 2. Thermal disinfection, also known as pasteurisation, requires stored water to be maintained between 60°C and 70°C. This may be acceptable for industrial processes. but for domestic use and washing facilities in general it is impractical due to the possibility of scalding at hot water outlets. * On-line, system active — Either continuous dosing with chlorine additives (see Note) or an electrolytic treatment as described on page 50. * Ultra-violet - exposing water to an UV light with a dedicated output of 254 nanometer wavelength. An irradiating process that damages the DNA of bacterial and viral cells, inactivating them and preventing their reproduction. Of limited dispersal. therefore most suited to small circulation installations such as garden ponds. Water Wiser PVC otter sleeve ‘usr inner sleeve Note: Water that contains disinfectants with concentrations in excess of that acceptable for drinking purposes is known as Category 3 quality, as defined under Schedule 1 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations. See page 27. 25Cold Water Supply Water for drinking, washing or for food preparation must be of a wholesome quality. Reclaimed greywater, captured or harvested rainwater and water abstracted directly from wells, springs. boreholes and other accessible water courses is regarded as less than wholesome. but it can be used for other purposes. Pipework and equipment used to convey less than wholesome water must be appropriately marked and identified as such. All supplies are to be reliable and of sufficient pressure and flow rate to operate end use appliances efficiently Definitions Wholesome - water complying with regulations made under Section 7 (Standards of wholesomeness) of the Water Industry Act. The term wholesome is often used instead of potable. ie. fit to drink. Category 1.” Greywater - water from showers, baths, taps and washing machines, collected. treated, stored and recycled as an alternative to using wholesome water for sanitary appliances (WC) and for outdoor uses (gardening). Category 5." Captured or harvested rainwater - rainwater collected and stored from roofs and other external surfaces. An old technology that has evolved to become integral with contemporary building design. Used for flushing WCs. washing machines and garden watering (see pages 337 to 340). Category 5.” References Building Regulations Part G. Approved Document Gt: Cold Water Supply BS 8525-1: Greywater systems. Code of practice. Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS) Guidance Note 0-02-05 *Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations - see next page. In recent years water consumption in the UK has amounted to about 150 litres per person per day. Each household using about 100,000 litres (100m) per year. Total UK annual consumption is about 16.5 billion m3? with some 13.5 billion m? attributed to non-domestic users. Data source: Office for National Statistics. 26Water Supply Categories Schedule 1 of the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations, categories of fluids: * Category 1 - wholesome water supplied by an approved water undertaker that complies with standards of wholesomeness defined in Section 67 of the Water Industry Act. Suitable for domestic consumption and for food preparation purposes. Obtained directly trom the water company’s main * Category 2 - water that is not considered to be a health hazard, although it is not suitable for drinking. Water originating from a category 1 source that has changed in temperature, taste, smell or appearance. Some examples are water that has been subjected to a rise in temperature in a hot water system, mixed cold and hot water and domestic water softened by salt regeneration * Category 3 - water that is possibly a health hazard, therefore unsuitable for drinking as it may contain low concentrations of toxic additives. These include ethylene glycol (anti-freeze) that may be used in solar systems of hot water supply and sodium hypochlorite disinfectants. Also applies to the water in primary hot water and heating circuits (with or without additives) and commercial water softening by salt regeneration * Category 4 - water that is a distinct health hazard due to concentrations of toxic substances or bacterial or viral micro- ‘organisms, eg. Legionnaires’ disease. Unsuitable for drinking or for any domestic uses. Includes water in non-domestic hot water and heating circuits, treated water from processes other than salt regeneration, water from commercial dishwashers and washing machines, water containing herbicides, pesticides and other high concentrations of chemicals and carcinogenic substances * Category 5 - the highest level of fluid toxicity and contamination. A serious health hazard from concentrations of pathogenic [disease carrying) organisms, including bacteria and viruses such as salmonella ‘and cholera. Water containing radioactive and very toxic substances Many situations may apply. including poorly or unmaintained food processing machinery, sanitary facilities and medical equipment Recycled greywater (waste water from basins, baths, shower trays. dishwashers and washing machines) is in this category 27Water Mains Water mains have been manufactured from a variety of materials The material selected must be compatible with the water constituents, otherwise corrosion and decomposition of the pipes may occur Contemporary materials which suit most waters are ductile cast iron and uPVC. The water undertaking or authority must be consulted prior to laying mains to determine suitable materials. laying techniques and pipe diameter. Firefighting and hydrant requirements will prioritise the criteria with a minimum pressure of 30m head (300kPa) from a 75mm diameter pipe supplied from both ends, or 100mm diameter from one end only. Bedding of mains is usually a surround of shingle to accommodate any movement. uPVC pipes are pigmented blue for easy identification in future excavations and cast iron has a blue plastic tape attached for the same reason Pressure gland Bolts with an oSecal oblong head Stainless steel insert and sealing ring CAST IRON Gasket or Solvent cement or ‘O'ring seal olyfusion weld , / Yy <= _— Ld upvc. Refs. BS EN 545: Ductile iron pipes, fittings. accessories and their joints for water pipelines. BS EN ISO 1452-2: Plastics piping systems for water supply and for buried and above ground drainage and sewerage under pressure. 28Connection to Water Main The water authority requires at least 7 days’ written notice for connection to their supply main. The main is drilled and tapped live with special equipment. which leaves a plug valve ready for connection to the communication pipe. A goose neck or sweeping bend is formed at the connection to relieve stresses on the pipe and valve. At or close to the property boundary, a stop valve is located with an access compartment and cover at ground level. A meter may also be located at this point. The communication and supply pipe should be snaked to allow for settlement in the ground. During warm weather, plastic pipes in particular should be snaked to accommodate contraction after backfilling. n Revolving head f a) Water main under pressure ‘Tapoing of water main —— Goose neck Plug valve Watermain Property boundary View of water main connection Owned and Installed and maintained by maintained by Water Authority building owner ==_{Fyr— ‘Communication pipe 1750 mem min EST WB ‘Supply pipe Detail of supply to bulding 29Water Meters Water meters are installed at the discretion of the local water authority. Most require meters on all new build and conversion properties. plus existing buildings which have been substantially altered. in time. in common with other utilities. all buildings will have metered water supply. Meters are either installed in the communication pipe, or by direct annular connection to the stopvalve. If underground location is impractical, the water authority may agree internal attachment to the rising main Cast iron cover and frame \ Meter Maintenance. / _. ~ 300 mm space VA ( a maximum A ? stop vave—_ (HJ Bracket V A ‘Communication pipe Etecical eath Motor compartment bens oa mola pipes Maintenance valve \ sch Drain valve. mn. Digital ‘Annular coupling \- display testo vale x Ns Maintenance valve a Psst —}— Patent meter connection Existing stop valve 30Cold Water Supply-Efficiency in Use Water is a finite resource with provision determined very much by the fickle nature of the weather. In the UK demand from an increasing population is imposing considerably on this limited and unreliable resource. Also. rising levels of affluence and higher standards of living create expectations for luxury goods such as whirlpool baths. power showers, hot tubs and possibly swimming pools in some high specification modern homes. Promotion of water use efficiency is therefore paramount to management of demand Fixed sanitary appliances must be designed to prevent undue consumption of water. This places an emphasis on sanitaryware and equipment manufacturers to produce end use fittings that function efficiently and economically (see page 42} Building Regulation 17K and associated Approved Document G2 set a target for consumption of wholesome water not exceeding 125 litres per person per day to include a fixed factor of S litres per person per day outdoor use. Tables and charts’ are used to calculate consumption based on fitment manufacturers’ flow rate data. The use of greywater and rainwater is encouraged by offsetting this against consumption of wholesome water. Water meters - average home consumption is some 15% less than homes without a meter. Meter use is not a legal requirement, although it is generally standard with all newly built dwellings. Just over a third of UK homes have a meter with an expectation of half by 2015. Refs. WRAS Approved Water Fittings and Materials Directory. Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) Code for Sustainable Homes. Building Regulation 17K (Water efficiency of new dwellings) Building Regulations Part G. Approved Document G2: Water Efficiency *DCLG Water Efficiency Calculator for New Dwellings National House Building Council (NHBC) Water efficiency in new dwellings. 31Control and Drain Valves The globe-type stop valve is used to control the flow of water at high pressure. To close the flow of water the crutch head handle is rotated slowly in a clockwise direction gradually reducing the flow. thus preventing sudden impact and the possibility of vibration and water hammer. The gate or sluice valve is used to control the flow of water on low pressure installations. The wheel head is rotated clockwise to control the flow of water, but this valve will offer far less resistance to flow than a globe valve. With use the metallic gate will wear and on high pressure installations would vibrate The drain valve has several applications and is found at the lowest point in pipe systems, boilers and storage vessels. For temperatures up to 100°C valves are usually made from brass For higher temperatures gunmetal (a type of bronze) is used. Brass contains $0% zinc and 50% copper. Gunmetal contains 85% copper. 5% zinc and 10% tin O41 9-0 Spinal Packing gland Square for key SS Come wasrer Washer (ilbbdio LBS obo 1 Plug Stop valve (globe type) Drain valve connection Flow (either direction) Gate oF sluice valve Ref. BS 5154: Specification for copper alloy globe. globe stop and check, check and gate valves 32Float Valves Float valves are automatic flow control devices fitted to cisterns to maintain an appropriate volume of water. Various types are in use. The diaphragm type is the least noisy as there is less friction between moving parts. The Portsmouth and Croydon-type valves have a piston moving horizontally or vertically respectively, although the latter is obsolete and only likely to be found in very old installations. Water outlets must be well above the highest water level (see page 52) to prevent back siphonage of cistern water into the main supply. Nozzle diameters reduce as the pressure increases. High, medium and low pressure valves must be capable of closing against pressures of 1380, 690 and 275kPa respectively. Produced from copper alloy or ABS plastic (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) depending on application. Noise supa Adjustable fixing for ball float Diaphragm float valve BS 1212-2 and 3 Rubber washer Side of cistern Piston Porlsmouthipiston float valve BS 1212-1 , Water port up LOAD YPYLIZZZIZIZLZIZLA —— y (8 a Croydon float valve Side of cistern Ref. BS 1212: Float operated valves. 33Taps The pillar tap is used to supply water to basins, baths, bidets and sinks. Combined hot and cold pillar taps are available with fixed or swivel outlet. The outlet of these taps must be bi-flow. ie. separate waterways for hot and cold water to prevent crossflow of water within the pipework The bib tap is for wall fixing, normally about 150mm above a sanitary appliance. The “Supatap’ bib tap permits a change of washer without shutting off the water supply. It is also available in pillar format Quarter-turn taps are easy to operate by hand or elbow, therefore are suitable for use by the disabled and medical practitioners. CORD capstan head Capstan head Colour tab Bib, Washer Pillar tap Conventional bib tap Colour tab Check valve re “xe Ses “Supatap’ bib tap Quarter-turn ceramic disc pillar tap Ref. BS EN 200: Sanitary tapware. 34Mixer/Combination Taps The blending of two supplies of water at different temperature using a combination tap with a common outlet can be effected within the body of the tap. or through separate waterways to the spout as shown below. Hot and cold Mixed water tn Hot old ot cold Waters mixing in tap body Waters cischargng separately Where there is an imbalance of pressures. typical of blending high pressure mains supplied cold water with lower pressure cistern supplied hot water in the body of a combination tap. a check valve should be provided on each supply. These are required to prevent cross contamination by the higher pressure cold flowing into the hot water supply system and, under fault or vacuum conditions. the hot flowing into the cold water supply CComoinaton tap with water mining in to tap body Basin, batho ek 7 iyi ote (wo pa 2 \ U t - N. Mains eupplos Cictern supplieg Check valves cold water hot water 35