EE356: Power Transmission, Distribution and

Utilization
Lecture 12

Noor Ul Ain

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

December 5, 2024

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 Topics

Topics to be Covered

• Fixed and Switched Capacitors

• Examples

References:
• Chapter 8, Turan Gonen

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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Types of Capacitor Installations

• In general, capacitors installed on feeders are pole-top banks with

necessary group fusing
• The fusing applications restrict the size of the bank that can be used
• Therefore, the maximum sizes used are about 1800 kVAR at 15 kV
and 3600 kVAR at higher voltage levels
• Usually, utilities do not install more than four capacitor banks (of
equal sizes) on each feeder

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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Impact of Capacitor on Voltage Profile

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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Impact of Capacitor on Voltage Profile

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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Impact of Capacitor on Voltage Profile

• For the fixed capacitor, the utility will experience an excessive

leading power factor and voltage rise at that feeder
• The switched capacitor banks are installed to reduce the capacitance
in lightly-loaded conditions
• The fixed capacitors are sized for light load and connected
permanently
• The switched capacitors can be switched as a block or in several
consecutive steps as the reactive load becomes greater from
light-load level to peak load and sized accordingly
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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Fixed and Switched Capacitors

• This curve is called the reactive

load–duration curve
• It is the cumulative sum of the reactive
loads (e.g., fluorescent lights,
household appliances, and motors) of
consumers and the reactive power
requirements of the system (e.g.,
transformers and regulators)
• Once the daily reactive load–duration
curve is obtained, then by visual
inspection of the curve, the size of the
fixed capacitors can be determined to
meet the minimum reactive load
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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Fixed and Switched Capacitors

• A combination of time switched

capacitors, voltage switched capacitors
and fixed capacitors is used to fulfil the
reactive power demand of the system
• Voltage switched capacitors are
brought in the system by sensing the
voltage at the customer end
• Time switched capacitors are changed
based upon the shape of the load
demand curve

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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Three Phase Capacitor Banks

• A three-phase capacitor bank on a distribution feeder can be

connected in
• Delta
• Grounded wye
• Ungrounded wye
• The type of connection used depends upon the following:
• System type, that is, whether it is a grounded or an ungrounded
system
• Fusing requirements
• Capacitor-bank location
• Telephone interference considerations

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 Types of Capacitor Installations

Economic Benefits of Capacitors

• Loads on electric utility systems include two components:
• active power (measured in kW), and
• reactive power (measured in kVAR)
• P has to be generated at power plants, whereas Q can be provided
by either power plants or capacitors
• When Q is provided only by the power plants, each system
component (i.e., generators, transformers, transmission and
distribution lines, switchgear, and protective equipment) has to be
increased in size accordingly
• Capacitors can mitigate these conditions by decreasing theQ demand
all the way back to the generators. Line currents are reduced
correspondingly. As a result, losses and loadings are reduced in the
distribution lines, substation transformers, and transmission lines
• The reduction in current in transformer, distribution equipment and
lines reduces the load on these kVA-limited apparatus thus delaying
the new facility installations
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 Examples

Example 8.2 (1/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.2 (2/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.2 (3/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.3 (1/2)

• Compute Qc
• Given Data

P = 80 kW
Q1 = 60 kVAR
pf1 = cos (θ1 ) = 0.8
Required power factor
pf2 = cos (θ2 ) = 0.9
Qc =?

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 Examples

Example 8.3 (2/2)

Qc =P1 tan (θ1 ) − P2 tan (θ2 )

   
Qc =P1 tan cos−1 (pf1 ) − P2 tan cos−1 (pf2 )
P1 = P2 = 80 kW
   
Qc =80 tan cos−1 (0.8) − 80 tan cos−1 (0.9)
Qc = 21.254kVAR

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 Examples

Use of Tables for Capacitor Calculation

• Power factor correction table is used to simplify the calculations

involved in determining the capacitor size necessary to improve the
power factor of a given load from original to desired value. It gives a
multiplier to determine the kVAR requirement. It is based on the
following formula:

Qc = P (tan (θorg ) − tan (θnew )) (1)

"s s #
1 1
Qc = P 2
−1− 2
−1 (2)
P Forg P Fonew

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 Examples

Use of Tables for Capacitor Calculation

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 Examples

Use of Tables for Capacitor Calculation

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 Examples

Example 8.4
Assume that a load draws an 80 kW and 60 kVAR at a 0.8 pf. It is
required to improve the pf from 80% to 90 % by using a capacitor.
Determine the amount of reactive power to be provided by the capacitor

△ tan θ = 0.266
Qc = P △ tan θ
Qc = 80 × 0.266
Qc = 21.28 kVAR

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 Examples

Example 8.5

Assume that a certain load withdraws a kW current of 2 A and

kVAR current of 2 A. Determine the amount of total current that
it withdraws.

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 Examples

Example 8.6 (1/2)

Assume that a 460 V cable circuit is rated at 240 A but is carrying a load
of 320 A at 0.65 power factor. Determine the kVAR of the capacitor
that is needed to reduce the current to 240 A.
• Corresponding to 320 A
√
√ 3 × 460 V × 320 A
S1 = kV A = 3V I = = 254.96
1000
P1 = kW = S cos θ = 254.96 × 0.65 = 165.72

• Corresponding to 240 A
√
√ 3 × 460 V × 240 A
S2 = kV A = 3V I = = 191.2
1000
P 165.72
cos θ2 = = = 0.8667
S2 191.2

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 Examples

Example 8.6 (2/2)

Qc = P tan (θ1 ) − P tan (θ2 )

h    i
Qc = 165.72 tan cos−1 (0.65) − tan cos−1 (0.8667)
Qc = 98.30kVAR

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 Examples

Example 8.7 (1/2)

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 Examples

Example 8.7 (2/2)

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 Examples

Example 8.8 (1/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.8 (2/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.8 (3/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.9 (1/3)

Assume that a three-phase 500 hp 60 Hz 4160 V wye-connected induction motor has a
full- load efficiency (η) of 88% and a lagging power factor of 0.75 and is connected to
a feeder. If it is desired to correct the power factor of the load to a lagging power
factor of 0.9 by connecting three capacitors at the load, determine the following:
• The rating of the capacitor bank, in kVARs
• The capacitance of each unit if the capacitors are connected in delta, in
microfarads
• The capacitance of each unit if the capacitors are connected in wye, in
microfarads

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 Examples

Example 8.9 (2/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.9 (3/3)

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 Examples

Example 8.10 (1/2)

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 Examples

Example 8.10 (2/2)

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 Examples

Example 8.11 (1/3)

A substation has a bank of three 2000 kVA transformers that supplies a peak
load of 7800 kVA at a lagging power factor of 0.89 . All three transformers have
a thermal capability of 120% of the nameplate rating. It has already been
planned to install 1000 kVAR of shunt capacitors on the feeder to improve the
voltage regulation.
Determine the following:
• Whether or not to install additional capacitors on the feeder to decrease
the load to the thermal capability of the transformer.
• The rating of the additional capacitors
Solution
• Before the installation of capacitors
S1 = 7800kV A cos θ = 0.89 sin θ = 0.456
P = S1 cos θ = 7800 × 0.89 = 6942kW
Q1 = S1 sin θ = 7800 × 0.456 = 3556.8kV AR

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 Examples

Example 8.11 (2/3)

• After the installation of capacitors

Q2 = Q1 − Qc = 3556.8 − 1000 = 2556.8kVAR

P2 = P1 = 6942 kW
q p
S2 = P22 + Q22 = 69422 + 2556.82 = 7397.8kVA
P
cos θ2 = = 0.938 = 93.8%
S2
• Transformer capability

ST = 6000 × 1.2 = 7200 kVA

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 Examples

Example 8.11 (3/3)

• The new or corrected power factor required

P 6942
P F2, new = cos θ2, new = = = 0.9642 = 96.42%
ST 7200
• The new required reactive power
 
Q2, new = P × tan θ2, new = P × tan cos−1 P F2, new
 
P × tan cos−1 P F2, new = 6942 × 0.2752 = 1910 kVAR

• The additional capacitors required

Qc, add = Q2 − Q2, new = 2556.8 − 1910 = 646.7 kVAR

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 Examples

Example 8.12 (1/3)

If a power system has 10,000 kVA capacity and is operating at a power factor of
0.7 and the cost of a synchronous capacitor (i.e., synchronous condenser) to
correct the power factor is $10 per kVA, find the investment required to correct
the power factor to
• 0.85 lagging power factor
• Unity power factor
Solution
• Before Improvement

θold = cos−1 PF = cos−1 0.7 = 45.57◦

Pold = S cos θold = (10, 000 kVA)0.7 = 7, 000 kW
Qold = S sin θold = (10, 000 kVA) sin 45.57◦ = 7, 141.43 kvar

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 Examples

Example 8.12 (2/3)

• For PF = 0.85 lagging

Pnew = Pold = 7000 kW (as before )

Pnew 7000 kW
Snew = = = 8235.29 kVA
cos θnew 0.85
   
Qnew = Snew sin cos−1 PF = (8235.29kVA) sin cos−1 0.85
= 4338.21 kvar
Qc = Qrequired = Qold − Qnew = 7141.43 − 4338.21 = 2803.22 kvar
$10
 
Cost capacitor = (2, 803.22 kVA) = $28, 032.20
kVA
It is customary to give the cost of capacitors in dollars per kVA rather
than in dollars per kVAR.
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 Examples

Example 8.12 (3/3)

• For PF = 1.0

Pnew = Pold = 7000 kW (asbefore )

Qc = Qrequired = Qold − Qnew = 7141.43 − 0.0 = 7141.43 kvar
$10
 
Costcapacitor = (7, 141.43 kVA) = $71, 414.30
kVA

As per American standards, the cost is specified as $/kV A for the

capacitors and for the calculations, kVAR of capacitor is considered as
kVA.

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

• Loads on electric utility systems include two components:

• active power (measured in kW), and
• reactive power (measured in KVAR)
• Active power has to be generated at power plants, whereas reactive power
can be provided by either power plants or capacitors
• When reactive power is provided only by the power plants, each system
component (i.e., generators, transformers, transmission and distribution
lines, switchgear, and protective equipment) has to be increased in size
accordingly
• Capacitors can mitigate these conditions by decreasing the reactive power
demand all the way back to the generators. Line currents are reduced
correspondingly. As a result, losses and loadings are reduced in the
distribution lines, substation transformers, and transmission lines
• The reduction in current in transformer, distribution equipment and lines
reduce the load on these kVA-limited apparatus and consequently delays
the new facility installations

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

• Annual benefits due to the released generation capacity

△$G = △SG × CG × iG

• ∆$G is the annual benefits due to released generation

capacity, $/y ear
• ∆SG is the released generation capacity beyond maximum
generation capacity at original power factor, kVA
• CG is the cost of (peaking) generation, $/kVA
• iG is the annual fixed charge rate applicable to generation

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

• Annual benefits due to the released transmission capacity

△$T = △ST × CT × iT

• ∆$T is the annual benefits due to released transmission

capacity, $/y ear
• ∆ST is the released transmission capacity beyond maximum
transmission capacity at original power factor, kVA
• CT is the cost of transmission line and associated apparatus, $/kVA
• iT is the annual fixed charge rate applicable to transmission

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

• Annual benefits due to the released distribution substation capacity

△$S = △SS × CS × iS

• ∆$S is the annual benefits due to released substation capacity, $/ year

• ∆SS is the released substation capacity, kVA
• CS is the cost of substation and associated apparatus, $/kVA
• iS is the annual fixed charge rate applicable to substation

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

• Annual benefits due conserved energy

△$ACE = △ACE × E.C

• △ACE is the annual benefits due to conserved energy, $/y ear

• E. C is the cost of energy, $/kWh
• Annual benefits due reduced voltage drop
• As current decreases, the line losses reduces

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

• Annual benefits due to the released feeder capacity

△$F = △SF × CF × iF

• ∆$F is the annual benefits due to released feeder capacity, $/ year

• ∆SF is the released feeder capacity, kVA
• CS is the cost of installed feeder $/kVA
• iF is the annual fixed charge rate applicable to feeder

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 Examples

Economics Benefits of Capacitors

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 Examples

Example 8.19 (1/5)

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 Examples

Example 8.19 (2/5)

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 Examples

Example 8.19 (3/5)

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 Examples

Example 8.19 (4/5)

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 Examples

Example 8.19 (5/5)

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