Basics of Quantum Computing

Ema Puljak
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
2016:
Reprogrammable
quantum computer 2023:
5-qubit IBM
1121-qubit
1966:
Apollo 1971:
Guidance Intel 4004 2001:
1955:
Computer Shor's algorithm
1945: IBM 608
on 7-qubit QC
ENIAC

1942 1953 1962 1971 1998 2023

Vacuum tube Transistor Integrated Microprocessor Quantum processor

circuit
1942 - 1950s 1953 - 1960s 1962 - 1969 1971 - now 1998 - now

2
“If you think you understand quantum mechanics,
you don’t understand quantum mechanics.”
Richard Feynman
 SUPERPOSITION

ENTANGLEMENT

INTERFERENCE
]
7
quantamagazine.org
SUPERPOSITION

8
 SUPERPOSITION

0 1

ON
0 1
OFF
0 1

CLASSIC
BIT
9 5
 SUPERPOSITION
|qubit⟩ = C0 | 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩

0 1

ON
0 1
OFF
0 1

CLASSIC
BIT
10 6
 SUPERPOSITION
|qubit⟩ = C0 | 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩

0 1
Measurement
ON
0 1
OFF
0 1 1

CLASSIC QUANTUM
BIT BIT
11 7
 SUPERPOSITION
|qubit⟩ = C0 | 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩

0 1
Bloch sphere Measurement
ON
0 1
OFF
0 1 1

CLASSIC QUANTUM
BIT BIT
12 8
 SUPERPOSITION
|qubit⟩ = C0 | 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩
0

70%
0 1
Measurement
ON
0 1
30%
OFF
0 1 1

CLASSIC QUANTUM
1
BIT BIT
quantamagazine.org
13 9
 SUPERPOSITION
|qubit⟩ = Chead | ⟩ + Ctail | ⟩

70%

stop spinning
flip
HEAD TAIL
30%
flip
HEAD TAIL

spinning

CLASSIC QUANTUM
BIT BIT
14 10
 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

|qubit⟩ = Chead | ⟩ + Ctail | ⟩

100%
70%

stop spinning
30%

spinning

Probabilistic BIT
15 11
ENTANGLEMENT

Information encoded
in joint state

2 entangled qubits

16 12
 CORRELATION

Information encoded
in joint state

2 entangled qubits

17 13
 exponential power of The power of quantum computing rests on two cornerstones of quantum mechanics: interference
quantum computing and entanglement. The principle of interference allows a quantum computer to cancel unwanted

ENTANGLEMENT
solutions and enhance correct solutions. Entanglement means the combined state of the qubits
contains more information than the qubits do independently. Together, these two principles
have no classical analogy and modeling them on a classical computer would require exponential
resources. For example, as the table below describes, representing the complexity of a 100-qubit
quantum computer would require more classical bits than there are atoms on the planet Earth.

Qubits 2 3 10 16 20 30 35 100 280

more than more than

Classical bits required 512 1,024 16 1 17 17 550 all the all the
to represent an atoms on the atoms in the
entangled state bits bits kilobytes megabyte megabytes gigabytes gigabytes planet Earth universe

quantamagazine.org
ibm.com
Exponential power of18 quantum computers 14
INTERFERENCE

19
 wave function = ψ

Bra-Ket | ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩

20 15
 | ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩

Complex vector representation

[ C1 ]
C0
C0 = a + bi C1 = c + di C=

21 16
 | ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩

Complex vector representation

[ C1 ]
C0
C0 = a + bi C1 = c + di C= 4 parameters

22 17
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

Complex vector representation

[ C1 ]
C0
C0 = a + bi C1 = c + di C= 4 parameters

23 18
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Complex vector representation

[ C1 ]
C0
C0 = a + bi C1 = c + di C= 4 parameters

24 19
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Complex vector representation

[ C1 ]
C0
C0 = a + bi C1 = c + di C= 4 parameters

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 = 1

25 20
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Complex vector representation

[ C1 ]
C0
C0 = a + bi C1 = c + di C= 4 dof

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 = 1 d= 1 − a2 − b2 − c2 3 dof

26 21
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e

magnitude

27 21
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e
phase
magnitude

28 22
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e
phase
magnitude

iϕC0
| ψ⟩ = | C0 | e | 0⟩ + | C1 | e iϕC1 | 1⟩

29 23
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e
phase
magnitude

e −iϕC0 | ψ⟩ = e −iϕC0( | C0 | e iϕC0 | 0⟩ + | C1 | e iϕC1 | 1⟩)

30 24
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e
phase
magnitude

Global phase invariance

e −iϕC0 | ψ⟩ = e −iϕC0( | C0 | e iϕC0 | 0⟩ + | C1 | e iϕC1 | 1⟩)

i(ϕC0 − ϕC1)
= | C0 | | 0⟩ + | C1 | e | 1⟩
31 25
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e
phase
magnitude

Global phase invariance

e −iϕC0 | ψ⟩ = e −iϕC0( | C0 | e iϕC0 | 0⟩ + | C1 | e iϕC1 | 1⟩)

i(ϕC0 − ϕC1)
= | C0 | | 0⟩ + | C1 | e | 1⟩
32 26
 BORN RULE
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩ P0 | 0
⟩ = |C0|
2
P1| 1 ⟩ = |C1| 2

+
2
=1
2
Normalization constraint |C0| |C1|
Polar representation of Ci
iϕC0 iϕC1
C0 = | C0 | e C1 = | C1 | e
phase
magnitude

Global phase invariance

e −iϕC0 | ψ⟩ = e −iϕC0( | C0 | e iϕC0 | 0⟩ + | C1 | e iϕC1 | 1⟩)

= | C0 | | 0⟩ + | C1 | e iϕ| 1⟩
33 27
 Bloch sphere
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩
|0⟩
z
| ψ⟩

X
θ
Angle representation
ϕ x

C0 = cos ( 2 ) C1 = e sin ( 2 )
θ iϕ θ

|1⟩

34 28
 Bloch sphere
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩
|0⟩
z
| ψ⟩

X
θ
Angle representation
ϕ x

C0 = cos ( 2 ) C1 = e sin ( 2 )
θ iϕ θ

y
θ relative magnitudes
|1⟩
ϕ relative phase difference

35 29
 Bloch sphere
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩
|0⟩
z
| ψ⟩

X
θ
Angle representation
ϕ x

C0 = cos ( 2 ) C1 = e sin ( 2 )
θ iϕ θ

y
θ relative magnitudes [0 − π]
|1⟩
ϕ relative phase difference [0 − 2π]

36 30
 Bloch sphere
| ψ ⟩=C 0| 0 ⟩ + C1 | 1 ⟩
|0⟩
z
| ψ⟩

X
θ
Angle representation
ϕ x

C0 = cos ( 2 ) C1 = e sin ( 2 )
θ iϕ θ

y
θ latitude
|1⟩
ϕ longitude

37 31
 P

P0 | 0
⟩ = 50% P1 | 1 ⟩ = 50% 50% 50%

38 32
 P

P0 | 0
⟩ = 50% P1 | 1 ⟩ = 50% 50% 50%

1 1
C0 = C1 =
2 2

39 33
 P

P0 | 0
⟩ = 50% P1 | 1 ⟩ = 50% 50% 50%

1 1
C0 = C1 =
2 2

π
C0 = cos ( 2 ) C1 = e sin ( 2 )
θ θ
iϕ
→ θ = ,ϕ = 0
2

40 34
 P

P0 | 0
⟩ = 50% P1 | 1 ⟩ = 50% 50% 50%

1 1
C0 = C1 =
2 2

C0 = cos ( 4 ) C1 = e sin ( 4 )
π i⋅0 π

41 35
 |0⟩
P0 | 0
⟩ = 50% P1 | 1 ⟩ = 50% z

1 1
C0 = C1 =
2 2 π/2 x
y
C0 = cos ( 4 ) C1 = e sin ( 4 )
π π
i⋅0
| ψ⟩

X
| ψ ⟩= 1
2
| 0 ⟩+
1
2
| 1 ⟩
|1⟩

42 36
 Building blocks of quantum computer
Quantum bits
(QUBITS)

37
 Building blocks of quantum computer
Quantum bits Superconducting qubits
(QUBITS) Built on a chip

IBM 7-qubit QPU

44 37
 Building blocks of quantum computer
Quantum bits Superconducting qubits Quantum Computer
(QUBITS) Built on a chip

IBM 7-qubit QPU

45 37
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic Diamond
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
#photons Qubit:
E0 0 N path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

Quantum Motion's silicon chip
38
ubit technology

IBM 7-qubit QPU

39
ubit technology
qubits

IBM 7-qubit QPU

39
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Diamond Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
#photons Qubit:
E0 0 N path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

Quantum Motion's silicon chip
38
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Diamond Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
#photons Qubit:
E0 0 N path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

Quantum Motion's silicon chip
39
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Diamond Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
Polarization Qubit:
E0 path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

Quantum Motion's silicon chip
40
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Diamond Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
Polarization Qubit:
E0 path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

Quantum Motion's silicon chip
41
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Diamond Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
Polarization Qubit:
E0 path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

Quantum Motion's silicon chip

IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

42
 ubit technology
Superconducting Silicon Diamond Majorana
Trapped ions Photonic
qubits quantum dots defect topological

| 0⟩ | 1⟩ E1 | 0⟩ | 1⟩
Charge + - Quasiparticles
Path
| 0⟩ | 1⟩
photon
or
Energy E0 E1
photon
| 0⟩ | 1⟩ or
Polarization Qubit:
E0 path of particle
Spin Spin

~ 0 K temperature

55
Quantum Motion's silicon chip
IBM 7-qubit chip IonQ's trapped ions chip

42
IBM system one

56
IBM system one
~ 2m

57
space size = 2N

[IBM]

Gate-based model
Universal gate quantum computing
43
 Quantum Gates
1 0 |0> |1>
10
Pauli-X NOT gate

|1>
0 1 0 1|0> |0> |1> |1> |0>
10 10
|1> |0> |0>
|1>

44
 Quantum Gates
Pauli-X
01 |0> |1> |1> |0>
10 |0> i |1>
0 -i
Pauli-Y
-i |0> i |1>i 0
0 i |1> -i |0>
i 00 -i |0> |1>
i 0 |1> -i |0>
|1> -i |0>

45
 Quantum Gates
Pauli-X
01 |0> |1> |1> |0>
10
Pauli-Y
0 -i |0> i |1> |1> -i |0>
i 0 |0> |0>
|0> |0>
1 0
Pauli-Z 1 0 |0> |0>0 -1 |1> -|1>
0 -1 1 |1>0 -|1>
0 -1 |1> -|1>

46
 Quantum Gates
Pauli-X
01 |0> |1> |1> |0>
10
x
Pauli-Y
0 -i |0> i |1> |1> -i |0>
i 0
y
|0>
Pauli-Z 1 0 |0> |0> -1 |1> -|1>
z 0 -1
|+>
-1
1 1 |0>
Hadamard 1 1 |0> |+>
1 -1
|+>
1 -11 1|1> |0> |1> |->
H |->
1 -1 |1> |->
47
 Quantum Gates
Pauli-X
01 |0> |1> |1> |0>
10
x
Pauli-Y
0 -i |0> i |1> |1> -i |0>
i 0
y
|0>
Pauli-Z 1 0 |0> |0> -1 |1> -|1>
z 0 -1
|+>
-1 |+>
1 1 |0>
Hadamard 1 1 |0>
|0>1 + -1
1|+>
1 1 -1
1 |1>
|0> |1> 1 |0> -
H |1> |-> 2
|->
2
|1>
1 -1 |1> |-> 48
 Single-Qubit Gates
1 0 |0> |1>
Pauli-X
10
|1>
0 1 0 1|0> |0> |1> |1> |0>
10 10 0 -i |0> i |1>
x
Pauli-Y |1> |1> |0> i|0> 0
0 -i -i |0> |0> i |1>
0 i |1> |1> -i |0>
i 0
y i 0 |1> -i |0> 1 0 |0> |0>
|0> |0>|1> -i |0>
Pauli-Z 1 0 |0> |0>0 -1 |1> -|1>
z 0 -1 1 |1>0 -|1>
1 1 |0> |+>
Hadamard 1 1
-1
0|0> |1>
|+> -|1>
1 -1
|+>
1 -11 1|1> |0> |1> |->
H |->
1 -1 |1> |->
49
Quantum Gates as rotations

50
Quantum Gates as rotations

51
Quantum Gates as rotations

52
Quantum Gates as rotations

53
Unitary conditon

.
U U I
=
= (*) T
H

54
 Two-Qubit Gate

|1> |1> Controlled - NOT

|0> |1>
1 00 0
0 1 0 0
0 00 1
|1> |1> 0 0 1 0
|1> |0>

55
 Two-Qubit Gate

|1> |1> Controlled - NOT

|0> |1>
1 00 0
0 1 0 0
0 00 1
|1> |1> 0 0 1 0
|1> |0>

55
 Quantum Circuit

|0> H
|0>

56
 Quantum Circuit

|0> H
|0>|0> |0> H H
|0> |0>
1
0
0
0
57
 Quantum Circuit

|0> H
1
|0>|0> |0> H |+>H 1 0
1
2
1
|0> |0> |+> |0> 1 0 0
1 1 2 1
0
0
0
1
2
|0>
0
1
0 0
58
 Quantum Circuit

|0> H
1
|0>|0> |0> H |+>H 1 0
1
2
1
|0> |0> |+> |0> 1 0 0
1 1
1 2
|0> + |1>
0
0
0
1
2
|0>
0
1 2
0 0
59
 Quantum Circuit

|0> H
1
|0>|0> |0> H |+>
H 1 0
1
2
1
|0> |0> |+> |0> 1 0 0
1
1 1 1 + | 11 >
2 |00> 1 0
0
0
0
1
2
|0> 0
1
2 2 0
0 0 1
60
 Bell State

|0> H
1
|0>|0> |0> H |+>
H 1 0
1
2
1
|0> |0> |+> |0> 1 0 0
1
1 1 1 + | 11 >
2 |00> 1 0
0
0
0
1
2
|0> 0
1
2 2 0
0 0 1
61
 Bell State

|0> H
|0>

1
| >= 2
|00> + |11>

62
 Bell State
entanglement

|0> H
|0>

1
| >= 2
|00> + |11>

63
Shor's algorithm
integer factorization

𝒪(log(N)3) << 𝒪(exp(N))

Animated diagram [link]

64
Grover's algorithm
unstructured seach problem

𝒪( N) < 𝒪(N)

Grover is better than Google at search [link]

65
Yao.jl

57
Learning material

57
QUESTIONS?
ema.puljak@cern.ch

84
 Interacting with environment makes qubits prone to

Quantum errors
HEAT, COSMIC RAYS, SYSTEM ERRORS

VS VS

Linear Square Heavy-hex