Piping Elements

PIPING ENGINEERING
Piping elements
Introduction
One of the major tasks in any Process Industry is the transportation of materials often
in fluid from one place to another. The most commonly adopted method for the same is to
force the fluid through the piping system. The piping system is the inter-connected piping
subject to the same set of design conditions. The piping system involves not only pipes but
also the fittings, valves and other specialties. These items are known as piping components.
Code specifies the piping components as mechanical elements suitable for joining or
assembly into pressure-tight fluid-containing piping systems.
COMPONENTS INCLUDED
1. Pipes
2. Fittings
3. Flanges
4. Gaskets
5. Bolting
6. Valves
7. Specialties
Piping element is defined as any material or works required to plan and install the
piping system. Elements of piping include design specifications, materials, components,
supports, fabrication, inspection and testing.
Piping elements should, so far as practicable, conform to the specification and

standards listed in the code referred for design. Unapproved element may also be used
provided they are qualified for use as set forth in applicable chapters of the code.
Piping specification is a document specifying each of the components. Different

material specifications are segregated in different “Piping Class” identification of the “Piping
classes” depends on each Designer, and the logic he adopts.
MATERIAL SELECTION OF PIPING COMPONENTS

The first thing to be considered is the selection of suitable material for the service.
The selection of piping material requires knowledge of corrosion properties, strength and
engineering characteristics, relative cost and availability.
The main process considerations in the material selection are the corrosion properties
of the fluid, the pressure temperature conditions of the service and the nature of the service.
The Piping Designer selects/ designs the piping component based on the mechanical
properties such as the following.
A. Yield strength
B. Ultimate strength
C. Percentage of elongation
D. Impact strength
E. Creep-rupture strength
F. Fatigue endurance strength
Based on the material construction piping elements could be classified as shown in Fig 1.1
Prepared by Soter.A 1
Checked by John Bosco.M
PIPING ENGINEERING
Piping elements
Metallic Non Metallic Lined
Lead Titanium Nickel Aluminium Copper

+ + +
Nickel Aluminium Copper
Alloys Alloys Alloys
Cast Carbon Alloy Stainless Spl PVC CPVC PP HDPE URMW FRP PTFE LDPE GLASS
Iron steel steel steel alloys
Ceramic Cement
MSGL MSRL MS MS MS MS MS MS FRP

PTFE PP PVDS Cement Lead Ceramic PP PVC
Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined
FIG 1.1
PIPING ELEMENTS
CLASSIFIED BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
PIPING ENGINEERING
MATERIAL SELECTION OF PIPING COMPONENTS
a) Design Pressure as 10% higher than the maximum anticipated

operating pressure.
b) Design Temperature as 10% higher than the maximum anticipated
operating temperature.
c) When operating temperature is 15 C and below, the design
temperature as the anticipated minimum operating temperature.
d) The design should meet the requirement of the relevant code.
e) The material used shall be in accordance with latest revision of
standards. If ASTM materials are used then the materials adapted by
ASME should be preferred.
The selection of materials in general shall follow the norms below
1. Carbon Steel shall be used upto 800 F (425 C)

2. Low temperature Steel shall be used below -20 F(-29 C)
3. Alloy Steel shall be used above 800 F(425 C)
4. For corrosive fluids, recommendation from the Process Licensor to be followed.
PIPE
Definition:
Pipe can be defined as a pressure tight cylinder used to convey a fluid.
The word PIPE is used as distinguished from TUBE to apply to tubular products of
dimensions commonly used for piping systems. The pipe dimensions of size 12 inch
(300mm) and smaller have outside diameter numerically larger than corresponding sizes. In
contrast, the outside diameter of tubes is numerically identical to size number for all sizes.
The Pipes & Tubes can be compared on the following lines:

S.No Tube Pipe
1 Lower thickness and higher ductility Lower ductility makes it unsuitable to coil.
permits rolling into coils with out high Due to higher moment of inertia larger
differential stress between inside and bending moment is required for the same
outside of coil. radius. This means larger residual stress
2 Specified by outside diameter and Specified by nominal bore and thickness by
actual thickness in mm/inch or wire schedule.
gauge.
3 Uniform thickness means less chance Variation in thickness can cause hotspots
of tube failure due to hot pots. and consequent failures.
4 Low roughness & lower pressure drop. Higher roughness factor & higher pressure
drop.
5 Normally used in heat exchangers & Normally used in straight length for fluid
coils for heat transfer. transfer.
6 Limitation in size No limitation.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Examples of Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
Examples of Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Transformations on the T-T-T Diagram
PIPING ENGINEERING
The time-temperature transformation curves correspond to the start and finish of
transformations which extend into the range of temperatures where Austenite transforms to
Pearlite. Above 550 C, austenite transforms completely to pearlite. Below 550 C, both
pearlite and bainite are formed and below 450 C, only bainite is formed. The horizontal line
C-D that runs between the two curves marks the beginning and end of isothermal
transformations. The dashed line that runs parallel to the solid line curves represents the time
to transform half the austenite to pearlite. Below we have listed some simple examples as an
exercise at other temperatures that result in different phase transformations and hence
different microstructures.
Time -Temperature Paths on Isothermal Transformation Diagram
1. Given Fig. 2, describe what transformations happen in:
a. Path 1 (Red line)

b. Path 2 (Green line)
c. Path 3 (Blue line)
d. Path 4 (Orange line)
a. (Red) The specimen is cooled rapidly to 433 K and left for 20 minutes. The cooling
rate is too rapid for pearlite to form at higher temperatures; therefore, the steel
remains in the austenitic phase until the Ms Temperature is passed, where Martensite
begins to form. Since 433 K is the temperature at which half of the austenite
transforms to martensite, the direct quench converts 50% of the structure to
martensite. Holding at 433 K forms only a small quantity of additional martensite, so
the structure can be assumed to be half martensite and half retained austenite.
b. (Green) The specimen is held at 523 K for 100 seconds, which is not long enough
to form bainite. Therefore, the second quench from 523 K to room temperature
develops a Martensitic structure.
c. (Blue) An isothermal hold at 573 K for 500 seconds produces a half-bainite and
half-austenite structure. Cooling quickly would result in a final structure of martensite
and bainite.
PIPING ENGINEERING
d. (Orange) Austenite converts completely to after eight seconds at 873 K. This phase
is stable and will not be changed on holding for 100,000 seconds at 873 K. The final
structure, when cooled, is fine pearlite.
Selection of Pipes
Metallic pipe
The corrosion allowance for carbon steel and Ferritic alloy steel pipes shall be at least
1 mm.
Non-metallic pipe
Polyethylene (PE)
BS 6730 shall apply for black PE pipe up to DN 63 for above ground use for cold
(potable) water services. This pipe is suitable for operating pressures up to 12 bar, at 20 C.
BS 6437 shall apply for PE pipe (type 50) in metric sizes for general purposes
(including use in chemical plants). This pipe is suitable for operating pressures up to 12 bar at
20 C.
BS 7281 shall apply for PE pipe for the supply of gaseous fuels. This pipe is suitable
for operating pressures up to 8 bar at temperatures between minus 20 C and plus 40 C. This
pipe shall either be buried or protected against weathering.
API 15LE shall apply for PE pipe for the transport of oil, gas and non-potable water
in underground service. This pipe is suitable for operating pressures up to 18 bar for water, 9
bar for crude oil and 7 bar natural gas, all at 23 C.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

BS 3505 shall apply for unplasticised PVC (PVC-U) pressure pipe for (cold) potable
water. This pipe is suitable for an operating pressure up to 15 bar, at 20 C.
BS 4346-1 shall apply for joints and fittings for use with PVC-U pipe.
Polypropylene (PP)
BS 4991 shall apply for PP pipe for (portable) water and chemicals. This pipe may be
used for temperatures up to 100 C. This pipe is suitable for an operating pressure of 15 bar at
20 C.
Glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GRP)
Lined piping
Nominal sizes of lined piping shall be in accordance with ASME B36.10 or
ASME B36.19 unless otherwise specified.
Plastic-lined piping shall be in accordance with ASTM F 1545, except that welding neck
flanges are also allowed. Threaded flanges shall not be used.
Pipe bending
Bending may be an economic alternative to welding elbows for changing the pipe
direction.
Factors which will influence the choice between elbows and bending are:
1. Local experience with bending;
PIPING ENGINEERING
2. Availability of pipe bending machines.
Size
The size of the pipe is identified by the NOMINAL BORE or the NOMINAL PIPE
SIZE. The manufacture of pipe is based on outside diameter, which is standardized. The OD
was originally selected so that pipe with standard wall thickness, which was typical of that
period, would have an internal diameter approximately equal to the nominal size.
In American standard, the pipes are covered under
ASME 36.10 – Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
ASME 36.19 – Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe.
The nominal bore and the corresponding outside diameters specified table. American
standards have not metricated the pipe sizes and the equivalent metric sizes widely followed
are also noted along with. However, the latest revisions of these standards include the SI
metric dimensions for OD, thickness and unit weight.
As regards the non-metallic and lined piping systems, the thickness of pipe and/or
lining are not covered under any of the above standards. These are as per the relevant ASTM
standards. For certain plastic pipes, Indian Standards are also available.
Pipes are designated by its NOMINAL BORE (NB)

E.g.: 2” NB or 50mm NB. Further pipe can also be designated as
NOMINAL PIPE SIZE (NPS) which is a dimensionless designator in USCS. It indicates
standard pipe size when followed by specific size designation number without inch symbol
E.g. NPS2, NPS12 etc.
Nominal Diameter (DN), again a dimensionless designator in metric system. It indicates
standard size designation number without millimeter symbol.
E.g. DN50, DN300 etc.
Pipe Size NB Eq. Metric Pipe Outside Dia Outside Dia

(Inch) Size NB (mm) (Inch) (mm)
1/8 6 0.405 10.3
1/4 8 0.540 13.7
3/8 10 0.675 17.1
1/2 15 0.840 21.3
3/4 20 1.050 26.7
1 25 1.315 33.4
*1 ¼ 32 1.660 42.2
1½ 40 1.900 48.3
2 50 2.375 60.3
*2 ½ 65 2.875 73.0
3 80 3.500 88.9
*3 ½ 90 4.000 101.6
4 100 4.500 114.3
*5 125 5.563 141.3
6 150 6.625 168.3
8 200 8.625 219.1
10 250 10.750 273.0
12 300 12.750 323.9
14 350 14.000 355.6
16 400 16.000 406.4
18 450 18.000 457.2
PIPING ENGINEERING
20 500 20.000 508.0
*22 550 22.000 558.8
24 600 24.000 609.6
Wall Thickness
Prior to ASME B36.10 & ASME B 36.19 became effective, the pipes were
manufactured as per the Iron Pipe Standard (IPS) with wall thickness designations Standard
Weight(STD), Extra Strong(XS) and Double Extra Strong(XXS).
Subsequently schedule numbers were added as convenient designations. The pipe
thickness is designated by Schedule Number and the corresponding thickness is specified in
the standard ASME B 36.10 for Carbon Steel pipes & ASME 36.19 for Stainless Steel pipes.
Stainless Steel pipes are available in schedule 5s, 10s, 40s and 80s whereas Carbon Steel
pipes are available in schedule 5,10,20,30,40,60,80,100,120,140,160,STD,XS,XXS.
Thickness Standard Weight and Schedule 40 are identical for nominal pipe sizes upto
10inch (250 mm) inclusive. All larger sizes of STD have 3/8-inch (10mm) wall thickness.
Extra strong and Schedule 80 are identical of nominal pipe size upto 8 inch (200mm)
inclusive. All larger sizes of extra strong have ½ inch (12.7mm) wall thickness. The thickness
Double Extra Strong is more than Schedule 160 in pipe sizes upto 6 inch (150mm) NB. This
thickness is specified for pipe upto 12 inch (300mm) NB. For 12 inch (300mm) NB the
thickness matches to that of Schedule 120 and for 10 inch (250 mm) NB it is schedule 140.
The figures indicated in these standards are nominal thickness and mill tolerance of ±12.5%
is applicable to those values, except for the plate fabricated pipes where tolerances for plates
govern. Generally the thickness specified by schedule numbers of B36.10 and B36.19 match
except in the following:
10”SCH80/SCH80S
12”SCH40/SCH40S
12”SCH80/SCH80S
14”SCH10/SCH10S
16”SCH10/SCH10S
18”SCH10/SCH10S
20”SCH10/SCH10S
22”SCH10/SCH10S
In Indian Standard IS 1239, the thicknesses of pipes are specified as Light, Medium
and Heavy. The medium and heavy pipes are only used for fluid handling. In IS 3589, the
thickness are specified in actual dimensions in mm.
The pipes are available in standard lengths of 20 feet (6m).
Pipe Ends
Based on the material of construction and the pipe to pipe joint, the ends of the pipes
are specified as follows.
1.4.1 Beveled Ends
1.4.2 Plain Ends
1.4.3 Screwed Ends
1.4.4 Flanged Ends
1.4.5 Spigot/Socket Ends
1.4.6 Buttress Ends
Beveled Ends are specified when pipe to pipe and/or pipe to fittings joints are done by Butt
Welding.
Plain Ends are specified when pipe to pipe and/or pipe to fittings joints are done by Fillet
Welding.
Screwed Ends are specified when pipe to pipe and/or pipe to fittings joints are done by
threaded connections.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Flanged Ends are specified to provide bolted connections between pipes and between pipes
and/or fittings.
Buttress Ends are used in glass piping and are joined by bolting with the use of backing
flanges.
S.No Name of Diagram Advantages Disadvantages
Pipe
Joints
.Most .
practical Weld intrusion
way of joining will affect flow.
big bore Piping.
.End
1
Butt
Weld
.Reliable Leak preparation is
proof joint. necessary.
.Joint Can be
Radio graphed.
.Easier alignment .The1/16”

than Butt welding (1.5mm) excess
pockets liquid.
.No weld metal
Socket intrusion .
into Use not
2 bore. permitted by
Weld
code if Severe
Erosion or
Crevice
Corrosion is
anticipated.
.Easily made .Joint may leak

site. when not
properly sealed
.Can be used
where welding is Use. not
not permitted due permitted by
to fire hazard. code if severe
erosion, crevice
corrosion,
shock or
vibrations are
3 Screwed
anticipated.
.Strength of
pipe is reduced
as threads
reduce wall
thickness.
.Seal welding
may be required
PIPING ENGINEERING
S.No Name of Diagram Advantages Disadvantages
Pipe
Joints
.Easily made .It is a point of
site. potential
leakage.
.Can be used
where welding is .Cannot be
not permitted due used when
4 Flanged to fire hazard or piping is
material subjected to
Properties. high bending
moment.
.Dismantling is
very easy
.Easily made .Suitable for

site. low pressure
application.
5
Spigot/ .Can accept
opening misalignment .
Special
upto 10 at pipe configuration at
joints. pipe end
required
Buttress
6 Used only for glass piping and not
End
capable to hold high pressure
Type of Pipes
Based on the method of manufacture pipes could be classified as
1. Welded
a. Electrical Resistance Welded (ERW).
b. Furnace Butt Welded, Continuous Welded.
c. Electric Fusion Welded.
d. Double Submerged-Arc Welded.
e. Spiral Welded
2. Seamless
WELDED
Electrical Resistance Welded (ERW)
Pipes having longitudinal Butt joint wherein coalescence is produced by the
heat obtained from resistance of the pipe to flow of electric current in a circuit of which the
pipe is a part and by application of pressure.
Furnace Butt Welded, Continuous Welded

Pipes having longitudinal weld joints forge welded by mechanical pressure
developed in passing the hot-formed and edge-heated kelp through round pass weld rolls.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Electric Fusion Welded

Pipes having longitudinal Butt joint wherein coalescence is produced in the
performed tube by manual or automatic electric arc welding. Weld may be single or double.
Double Submerged-Arc Welded

Pipes having longitudinal Butt joint wherein coalescence is produced by at
least two passes, one of which is on the inside of the pipe. Coalescence is produced by
heating with an electric arc or arcs between the bare metal electrode or electrodes and the
pipe. Pressure is not used and filler material is obtained from electrode.
Spiral Welded
Pipes having helical seam with a butt, lap, and lock-seam joint which is
welded using either an electrical resistance, electric fusion or double sub merged arc welding
process.
SEAMLESS
Pipes produced by piercing a billet followed by rolling or drawing or both.
The most commonly used material standards for the pipes are listed below.
Pipe materials
Pipe Material Description

ASTM A53 Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe, Black & Galvanized.
ASTM A106 Seamless CS Pipe for High Temp. Services.
Black & Hot Dipped Zinc coated(Galvanized) welded and seamless pipe for
ASTM A120 ordinary use
ASTM A134 Electric Fusion Welded steel plate pipe (sizes 16” NB)
ASTM A135 Electrical Resistance Welded Pipe
ASTM A155 Electric Fusion Welded Steel Pipe for high temperature service.
ASTM A312 Seamless and welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
ASTM A333 Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for low temperature service.
ASTM A335 Seamless Ferritic alloy Steel Pipe for high temperature service.
Electric Fusion welded Austenitic Chrome Nickel Steel Pipe for high
ASTM A358 temperature service
ASTM A369 Carbon and Ferritic alloy steel forged and bored for high temp. service
ASTM A376 Seamless Austenitic Steel Pipe for high temp central station service
Welded large diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for corrosive or high temp.
ASTM A409 service
ASTM A426 Centrifugally Cast Ferritic alloy steel pipe for high temp.service.
ASTM A430 Austenitic Steel forged and bored pipe for high temp.service.
ASTM A451 Centrifugally Cast Austenitic steel pipe for high temp.service
ASTM A452 Centrifugally Cast Austenitic Steel Cold Wrought Pipe for high temp.service
ASTM A524 Seamless Carbon steel pipe for atmospheric and low temp. service
ASTM A587 Electric Welded Low Carbon Steel pipe for chemical industry.
ASTM A660 Centrifugally Cast Carbon steel pipe for high temp.service.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Electric Fusion Welded steel pipe for atmospheric and low temp. service
ASTM A671 (sizes 16” NB)
Electric Fusion Welded Steel Pipe for high pressure service at moderate
ASTM A672 temperature services (sizes 16” NB)
ASTM A691 Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe, Electric Fusion welded for high pressure
service at high temperature(sizes 16” NB)
ASTM A731 Seamless and welded Ferritic Stainless Steel Pipes
ASTM A790 Seamless and welded Ferritic / Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
ASTM A813 Single and Double Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe.
ASTM A814 Cold Worked Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe.
ASTM F1545 Plastic Lined ferrous Pipe.
API 5L Line Pipe
IS 1239 Steel Pipe for general purposes(sizes 6” NB)
IS 1536 Centrifugally Cast Iron Pipe
IS 1537 Vertically Cast Iron Pipe
IS 1978 Line Pipe
IS1979 High Test line pipe
IS 3589 Steel pipe for general service.
IS 4984 HDPE pipe for water service.
IS 4985 PVC pipe
IS 14333 HDPE pipe for Sewerage service
IS 15155 Bar-Wire Wrapped Steel cylinder pipes with mortar lining coating
PRESSURE VESSELS AND BOILERS

ASME Sec Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels Sections I, II, V, VIII, Div. 1 & 2 and
Section IX
API 510 Pressure Vessel Inspection Code
API 920 Prevention of Brittle fracture of pressure vessels
API 941 Steels for hydrogen service at elevated temperature and pressures
BS 759 Valves, Gauges & Other Safety Fittings for Application to Boilers
BS 5500 Specification for Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels
TANKS
API 12P Specification for fiberglass reinforced plastic tanks
API 620 Design and construction of large, welded, low pressure storage tanks
API 650 Welded Steel tanks for Oil Storage
API 2000 Venting atmospheric and low pressure storage tanks (non-refrigerated and
refrigerated)
RELIEF SYSTEMS
API-RP-520 Part I & II sizing, selection, and installation of Pressure Relieving Systems
in Refineries
API-RP-521 Guide for Pressure Relief and Depressurizing Systems
API-RP-526 Flanged Steel Safety Relief Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS AND AIR COOLERS
API 661 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Services
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
API 610 Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Services
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

API 682 Shaft Sealing Systems for Centrifugal & Rotary Pumps
AIR COMPRESSORS
API 680 Packaged Reciprocating Plant and instrument Air Compressors for General
Refinery Services
BS 6244 Code of Practice for Stationary Air Compressors
DIESEL ENGINE
API RP 7C-11F Recommended practice for Installation, Maintenance and Operation of
internal-combustion Engines
API RP 7B-11C Specification for Internal Combustion Reciprocation Engines for oil Field
Services
BS 5514 Reciprocating Internal-Combustion Engines Part 1/2/3/4/5/6
LIFTING EQUIPMENT
API 2573 (Part 1 and Part 2) Rules for the design of Cranes
API 2903 Specification for Higher Tensile Steel Hooks for Chains, Slings, Blocks and
General Engineering Purpose
API 5304 Code of Practice for Safety of Machinery
VALVES
ANSI B16.10 Face to Face and End to end Dimensions of Valves
ANSI B16.34 Steel Valves, Flanged and Butt welding ends
ANSI 6D Pipeline Valves
API 600 Steel Gate Valves Flanged and Butt Welding Ends
API 608 Metal Ball Valves-Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends
BS 1868 Specification for Steel Check Valves (flanged and butt-weld) For the
petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries
BS 1873 Specification for steel Globe and Globe Stop and check Valves (Flanged
and Butt-welding Ends) for the Petroleum, Petrochemical and Allied
industries
BS 5155 Specification for Butterfly Valves
BS 5351 Specification Steel Ball Valves for the Petroleum, Petrochemical and Allied
industries
BS 5352 Specification for Steel Wedge Gate, Globe and Check Valves 50 mm and
smaller for the Petroleum, Petrochemical and Allied industries
BS 6755 Testing of Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING
MSS SP 44 Steel Pipeline Flanges
MSS SP 53 Quality Standard for Steel Castings and Forgings for Valves, Flanges and
Fittings and other Components
- Magnetic Particle Examination Method
- Radiographic Examination Method
- Visual Examination Method
PIPING AND PIPELINES

ANSI B 2.1 Pipe Threads
ANSI B16.1 Face to face & end to end Dimensions of Valves
ANSI B16.5 Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ANSI B16.9
Factory Made Wrought Steel Butt Welded Fittings
ANSI B16.11 Forged Steel Fittings (Socket Welded and Threaded)
ANSI B16.34 Valves-Flanged, Threaded & Welding ends
ANSI B16.37 Valves-Hydrostatic testing of controls
ANSI B16.47 Large Diameter Steel Flanges
ANSI B31.1 Code for Pressure piping: Power piping
ANSI B31.3 Code for Pressure piping: Chemical Plant & Petroleum Refinery Piping
ANSI B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid Petroleum Gas,
Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohols
ANSI B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
API 5L Line Pipe
API 5 LR Pressure Fiber Glass Line Pipe
API 605 Large Size Carbon Steel (26”-60” 150# & 300#) Flanges
BS 5480 Glass reinforced plastics (GRP) pipes, Joints and Fittings for use for water
supply or sewage
ISO 5167 Spec. for Orifice Plates, Nozzles, Venturies
NACE MR-01- Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials for Oilfield Equipment
75
Pressure Design
Codes specify the formula to arrive at the required thickness for the pipes t
withstand internal/external pressure to which the system is subjected to. Unlike pressure
vessels, the pipes and fittings are manufactured to certain standard dimensions.
Hence, it is necessary for the Piping Engineer to select the best suited
thickness of the element.
Corrosion allowance, depending on the service to which the system is
subjected to and the material of construction, is to be added to the calculated minimum
thickness.
The thickness arrived thus is to be compared with the available standard
thickness after allowing for the mill tolerance of ±12.5% on the nominal thickness.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Thickness of Straight Pipe under Internal Pressure
ASME B31.3, the Process Piping Code, in clause 304.1.1 gives Minimum
thickness as follows:
Tm = T + C
PD
where T =
2(SEW +PY)
Where
P = Internal Design Gauge Pressure.
D = Outside Diameter of pipe.
S = Allowable Stress from Appendix-1
E = Joint Quality factor from Table A-1B
Y = Coefficient from 304.1.1
C = C1 + C2
C1= Corrosion Allowance
= 1.6 mm in general for Carbon Steel
= 0 for Stainless Steel.
C2 = Depth Of Critical thread (Used only upto 1 ½” NB)
W = Weld Joint Strength Reduction Factor
The calculated thickness to be corrected to consider the mill tolerance of 12.5% as
At elevated temperature, the long term strength of the weld joints may be lower than
the long term strength of the base material. For welded pipe, the product of the allowable
stress and the applicable weld quality factor SE shall be multiplied by the weld joint strength
reduction factor W when determining the required wall thickness.
The weld joint strength reduction factor is the ratio of the nominal stress to cause
failure of the weld joint to that of the base material for the same duration. In absence of the
more applicable data, the factor shall be taken as 1.0 at temperature 510 C (950 F) and below
0.5 at 815 C (1500 F) for all materials. The factor shall be linearly interpolated for
intermediate temperatures.
Thickness of Straight Pipe under External Pressure
The pipe with the large ratio of diameter to wall thickness will collapse under an
external pressure which is only a small fraction of internal pressure which it is capable of
withstanding. To determine the wall thickness under external pressure, the procedure outlined
in the BPV code ASME section VIII Div.1 UG-28 through UG-30 shall be followed.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Thickness of Bend
ASME 31.3, in it the 1999edition, has added the formula as below for establishing the
minimum thickness of bend. The minimum thickness t m of a bend
PD
T =
2(SEW/ I +PY)
After bending, in it’s finished from, shall be at the intrados (inside bend radius)
And at the extrados (outside bend radius)
And at side wall the bend centre line radius I = 1. The thickness applies at mid span /2.
Where W = Weld joint strength reduction factor.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Pipe Fittings
The branching tree below indicates the various types of fittings. These fittings
can have various types of end connection or can have combination of end connections. The
dimensional standard are referred for the fittings are as follows
Dimensional Standards
Material Description
ASME B 16.1 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
ASME B 16.3 Malleable- Iron Threaded Fittings
ASME B 16.4 Grey Iron Threaded Fittings
ASME B 16.5 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ASME B 16.9 Factory-made Wrought Steel Butt Welding Fittings
ASME B 16.11 Forged Fittings, Socket welding and Threaded fittings
ASME B 16.28 Wrought Steel Butt welding Short Radius Elbow and Returns
ASME B 16.42 Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ASME B 16.49 Butt welding induction Bends for Transportation & Distribution System
BS 1640 Butt Weld Fittings
BS 3799 Socket Weld and Screwed end Fittings
BS 2598 Glass Pipelines and Fittings
IS 1239 M.S. Fittings
IS 1538 Cast Iron Fittings
MSS-SP-43 Stainless Steel Fittings.
STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS

Classification Based on End connections
Socket weld / Screwed End Fittings

For Socket Weld / Screwed end fittings are covered under ASME B 16.11 / BS 3799.
For these fittings, four pressure classes are available.
They are,
1. 2000# Class
2. 3000# Class
3. 6000# Class
4. 9000# Class
These designations represent the maximum cold non-shock working pressure of the fitting in
pounds per square inch.
PIPING ENGINEERING
1. 2000 # Class
This class is applicable only to screwed fittings and is covered only in ASME B 16.11
the corresponding pipe thickness for this class is SCH 80 or XS
2. 3000# Class
This class is applicable to both screwed and socket weld fittings. The corresponding
pipe thickness for this class is SCH 80 or XS for socket weld end connection and SCH 160
for screwed end connections.
3. 6000# Class
This class is also applicable to both screwed and socket weld fittings. The socket weld
fittings under this class are normally used with SCH 160 pipes and several fittings with XXS
pipes and is covered only in ASME B 16.11
The Screwed end fittings can be with parallel threads or with taper threads. Taper
threads are preferred for the fittings. These could be to NPT as covered in American
standards or to BPST as covered in British standards or to relevant Indian Standard
specifications. The dimensional standard ASME B 16.11 / BS 3799 cover the size upto 4”
(100mm) NB only.
The Socket weld / Screwed fittings are manufactured by forging. The materials of
construction used for the same are as follows.
SW/SCRD Fitting Materials
ASTM A105 Forged Carbon Steel.
ASTM A181 Forged Carbon Steel for general Purposes.
ASTM A182 Forged Alloy Steel & Stainless Steel.
ASTM A 234 Wrought Carbon Steel & Alloy Steel Pipe fittings for Moderate &
Elevated Temperatures.
ASTM A 350 Forged Alloy Steel for Low Temperature Services.
Beveled End Fittings

These types of fittings are connected by means of Butt Welding. The thickness of
these fittings is to be specified the same as that of pipes because the bore of the pipes and the
attached fittings should match. That means both the items should have the same schedule
number. There are certain exceptional cases where fittings of higher thickness are used.
The beveled end fittings could be of seamless or welded construction. The material of
construction specified in the American Standards for the Beveled weld fittings are,
BW Fitting Material
ASTM A 234 Carbon Steel / Alloy Steel fittings for Moderate & High Temp. Service.
ASTM A 403 Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings
ASTM A 420 Carbon Steel / Alloy Steel fittings for Low Temperature Service.
ASTM A 815 Ferritic, Ferritic / Austenitic and Martensitic Steel Pipe Fittings.
Beveled end fittings are covered under ASME B 16.9, B 16.28 and BS 1640.
Flanged End Fittings

Fittings with both ends flanged are used where welding is not possible or not
permitted. Normally these are made by casting. Classification of these fittings, based on the
pressure temperature ratings, is same as that of flanges.
Flanged fittings fabricated from standard butt-welded or socket welded fittings are not
covered under this standard. The material specification is the same as that of the castings.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Flanged End Fittings Materials
ASTM A 216 Carbon Steel Castings
ASTM A 217 Alloy Steel Castings for High Temperature
ASTM A 351 Stainless Steel Castings
ASTM A 352 Alloy Steel Casting for low temperature
ASTM A 1545 Plastic Lined Fittings
IS 1538 CI Fittings
These Fittings are covered under ASME B16.5 and BS 1650 for Carbon and alloy steel
piping and ASME B 16.1 for cast iron fittings.
SPIGOT / Socket Fittings
Spigot Socket fittings are used in Cast Iron Piping for low pressure services. The joints are
sealed by Lead Caulking. This type of connection has the advantage that it can take
misalignment to a certain extent. Flanged sockets and flanged Spigots are used for connection
to flanged equipments and valves. These fittings are covered under IS 1538.
BUTTRESS END FITTINGS
Buttress ends fittings are used in glass piping. These fittings are bolted together with the help
of backing flanges and PTFE inserts. These fittings are covered under BS 2598.
Type OF Fittings
There are various type of fittings used to complete the piping system. These are used to
change direction, change diameter or to branch off from main run of pipe. The special
features of these are as below.
Elbows
Elbows are used to make 90 or 45 changes in the direction of run pipe. There are
two types of 90 elbows available. The long radius elbows have a bend radius of 1.5D, where
D is the nominal size; where as the short radius elbows have a bend radius of 1D. The 45
elbows are of 1.5D Radius. Any bend with more than 1.5D bending radius has to be specially
made as per requirements. For large diameter piping, bends are fabricated by profile cutting
of pipes and are called mitre bends. Mitre bends with two piece, three piece or four piece
construction can be made. Mitre bends may be only used in ASME rating class 150 and with
the approval of the Principal. These are normally not used in critical services 22.5 elbows
are also available in cast iron construction.
Returns
Returns change the direction through 180 . This is mainly used in heating coils, heat
exchangers, etc., Returns with 1.5D radius and 1D radius are available.
Tees
Tees are used for branching off. For low pressure services, branching off is done by
direct welding of branch pipe to run pipe instead of using a standard Tee. In certain cases,
reinforcing pads are used for structural stability of such connections. Design code gives the
calculation by which the requirement of reinforcement pad can be established and provided
for branch connection. The branching schedule specified along with piping specification
PIPING ENGINEERING
explains what sort of a branch connection is to be used for that particular piping class. The
manufacturing restrictions do not allow reducing tees of all size combinations. To arrive at
available sizes of reducing tees in the standard, use thumb rule of dividing the major diameter
by 2 and consider the next lower size. For example, the minimum size of reducing tee
available for 4” NB size is 4”x 1 ½” ( next lower size of 4/2 = 2”)
A branch fitting connects a branch pipe to the run pipe.
Branches should be connected at 90° to the run pipe.

Butt-welding tees with equal or reducing outlets should be used for services where
flow disturbance is to be minimised.
Butt-welding tees should be used for branches equal in diameter to the run pipe.
Economic aspects and service conditions shall be considered in the selection of the
reinforcing method. Where available, Butt-Welding Tee fittings shall be used in severe cyclic
service Branch connections shall not be made on Elbows or Concentric Reducers. Branch
connections should not be made on Eccentric Reducers or Tees but may be made if the
branch is maximum DN 40 and the run-size of the fitting at the branch position is minimum
DN 150. On eccentric reducers the branch shall be located at the flat side of the reducer. On
tees the branch shall be located opposite the main branch of the tee.
Cross
This is a fitting very rarely used in industrial piping system. There are two types of
crosses, the straight and reducing. To reduce the inventory, it is preferred to use tees except
where space is restricted as in Marine Piping.
Reducers
There are two type of reducers available, Concentric Reducers and Eccentric
Reducers) when the center line of the large pipe and smaller pipe are to be maintained same,
then Concentric Reducers are used. When one of the outside surfaces of the pipe lines are to
be maintained same, then Eccentric Reducers are required. There are no Eccentric Reducers
in socket weld fitting and Swage Nipples are used for such services. The size restrictions for
manufacture as explained in Tees are also applicable in general to reducers.
Stub Ends
To reduce the cost of piping, stub ends are used with backing flanges for flange joints
when exotic materials are used in piping. ASME B16.9 specifies two types of stub ends and
the short stub ends. The length of stub ends as per MSS-SP_43 specifies two classes, Class A
with radius and Class B without radius at the corner. Class B can be used with slip-on
flanges. Designer selects stub end (long/short) ensuring the weld of pipe to stub end not get
covered by flange. When class a stub ends are used, the inner diameter of backing flange is
chamfered for better seating.
The minimum lap thickness should be the same as that of the pipe wall. When special
facings such as tongue and groove, male and female etc., are employed additional lap
thickness shall be provided. The gasket face finish shall be provided with serrations as
required. ASME B 16.9 considered long pattern as the standard when nothing is specified in
this respect.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Piping Fittings
Butt Welded Fittings
45 Elbow 90 Elbow Equal Tee
180 Elbow Return Reducing Tee
Concentric Reducer Eccentric Reducer Caps
Stub End for Lapped Flange
PIPING ENGINEERING
Threaded Fittings
Thread engagement
Internal thread External Thread 90 Threaded Elbow
45 Threaded Elbow Threaded Tees Threaded Cross
Threaded Full Coupling Threaded Half Coupling Threaded Caps
PIPING ENGINEERING
Threaded Hex Plug Threaded Threaded Female Threaded

Hex Head Bushing Male Reducer Reducing Hex Nipples
Threaded Welding Boss Threaded Reducing Threaded

Coupling 90 Street Elbow
Threaded Union elbow Threaded Union elbow Threaded Union Tee

(Female-Female) (Female-Male) (Female-Female)
Threaded Union Tee Threaded Union Threaded Union Swage

(Female-Male) (Female-Female) (Female-Male) Nipples
PIPING ENGINEERING
Socket Welded
Socket Details
Socket Weld 90 Socket Weld 45

Elbow Elbow
Socket welded Tee Socket Welded Cross Socket Welded Coupling
Socket Welded Half Socket Welded Socket Welded Reducing

Coupling Cap Coupling
Socket welded Reducing Insert -1 Socket welded Reducing Insert -2
Socket welded Reducing Insert -3 Socket welded Union

PIPING ENGINEERING
Couplings
Couplings are of three types

1. Full Coupling
2. Half Coupling
3. Reducing Coupling
Full couplings are used to connect small bore pipes as projection of welding inside the
pipe bore, when butt welding is used, reduce the flow area. Half coupling used for branch
connections and reducing couplings for size reduction. Reducing couplings maintain the pipe
centerlines same and eccentric swage nipples are used to maintain the outside surface same
for such systems.
Swage Nipples
Swage Nipples are like Reducers but are used to connect Butt Welded pipe to smaller
screwed or socket welded pipe. There are two types of Swage Nipples, the Concentric and
Eccentric. Various combinations of end connections are possible in swage nipples. These are
designated as
1. PBE – Plain Both Ends

2. PSE – Plain Small End
3. BLE – Beveled Large End
4. TSE – Threaded Small End
These are covered under the regulatory Code BS 3799 & MSS-SP-95.
Unions
Unions are used in low pressure piping where dismantling of the pipe is required more
often, as an alternative to flanges. Unions can be with threaded end or with socket weld ends.
There are three pieces to attach to the run pipe and the third threaded piece to connect these
two. The ball type metal seating ensures sealing.
Special Fittings
Olets
The items referred under special fittings are
1. Weldolet
2. Sockolet
3. Threadolet
4. Elbolet
5. Sweepolet
6. Nipolet
7. Latrolet
These are fittings, which have restrictive use.
Weldolet is used for Butt-welded branch connection where standard tee is not
available due to size restriction and the piping is of critical / high pressure service.
Sockolet is used for socket welding branch connection, which require reinforcing pad.
Threadolet is used for threaded branch connections.
Elbolet is used for branch connection on elbows and have the profiles made to suit the
flow.
Sweepolet is integrally reinforced butt weld branch connection and have least SIF.
Latrolet is used for branch connection at an angle.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Butt Welded Olets
Threaded Olets
Screw Welded Olets
PIPING ENGINEERING
Flanges
Slip-On Raised Face Flange Socket Welded Raised Face Flange
Threaded Raised Face Flange Lap Joint Flange with Stub End
Welding Neck Raised Face Flange Reducing Slip-On Flange
Expander or Reducer Flange
PIPING ENGINEERING
Flanges are used when the joint needs dismantling. These are used mainly at
equipments, valves and specialties. In certain pipelines where maintenance is a regular
feature, breakout flanges are provided at definite intervals on pipe lines. A flanged joint is
composed of three separate and independent although interrelated components; the flanges,
the gaskets and the bolting; which are assembled by yet another influence, the fitter. Special
controls are required in the selection and application of all these elements to attain a joint,
which has acceptable leak tightness. Classification of flanges is done in several alternate
ways as follows.
Based On Pipe Attachment

Flanges can be classified based on the attachment to the piping as below;
1. Slip-On
2. Socket Weld
3. Screwed
4. Lap Joint
5. Welding Neck
6. Blind
7. Reducing
8. Integral
Slip-On Flanges are attached by welding inside as well as outside. Normally, these
flanges are of forged construction and are of forged construction and are provided with
Hub. Sometimes, these flanges are fabricated from plates and are not provided with the
hub.
Socket Weld Flanges are welded only on one side and are not recommended where
crevice corrosion is expected. These are used for small-bore lines only. The thickness of
connecting pipe should be specified for this type of flanges to ensure proper bore
dimension.
Screwed-On Flanges are used on pipe lines where welding cannot be carried out.
Socket Welding and threaded flanges are not recommended for service above 250 C and
below -45 C.
Lap Joint Flanges are used with stub ends when piping is of a costly material. The
stub ends will be butt welded to the piping and the flanges are kept loose over the same.
The inside radius of these flanges is chamfered to clear the stub end radius. With Class B
type stub ends slip-on flanges can be used for the same duty.
Welding Neck Flanges are attached by Butt-Welding to the pipes. These are used
mainly for critical services where all the weld joints need radiographic inspection. While
specifying these flanges, the thickness of the welding end also should be specified along
with flange specification.
Blind Flanges are used to close the ends, which need to be respond later.
Reducing Flanges are used to connect between larger and smaller sizes without using
a reducer. In case of reducing flanges, the thickness of the flange should be that of the
higher diameter.
Internal Flanges are those, which are cast along with the piping component or
equipment. Thickness of integrally cast flanges and welded on flanges differ in certain
sizes. These are some types of flanges developed by manufacturers, which are not
covered in the standard. They are modification on the welding neck as follows
a) Long Welding Neck Flange is where the length though the welding neck is made as
required. The latest revision of ASME B 16.5 has included this as a standard item.
b) Expander Reducer Flange Not covered in ASME B 16.5 made as per
manufacturer’s standard. Bolt Holes are in multiple of four and shall straddle the fitting
centerline.
PIPING ENGINEERING
ANSI Flanges
Weld Neck Flange Slip on Flange Blind Flange
Threaded Flange Socket Welded Flange Lapped Flange
BS Flange Table T DIN Flange API Type Weld Neck
API Type Threaded Flange API Type Blind Flange API Type Test Blind Flange
Based On Pressure Temperature Rating
The Flanges are also classified by the pressure temperature rating in ASME B 16.5
are as below.
1. 150 #
2. 300 #
3. 400 #
4. 600 #
5. 900 #
6. 1500 #
7. 2500 #
Pressure Temperature rating charts, in the standard ASME B 16.5; specify the
working gauge pressure to which the flange can be subjected to at a particular temperature.
The indicated pressure class of 150 #, 300 # etc. are the basic ratings and the flanges can
withstand higher pressure at lower temperatures. ASME B 16.5 indicates the allowable
pressures as various materials of construction Vis-à-vis the temperature. ASME B 16.5 does
not recommend the use of 150# flange above 400 F (200 C).
PIPING ENGINEERING
Based On Facing
The flanges can also be classified based on the facings below

1. Flat Face (FF)
2. Raised Face (RF)
3. Tongue & Groove(T/G)
4. Male & Female (M/F)
5. Ring type Joint (RTJ)
Flat Face flanges are used when the counter flanges are flat face. This condition occurs
mainly on connection to Cast Iron equipments, valves and specialties.
For 150# & 300# flanges, the raised face is of 1/16 inch. The raised face thickness for higher
rating is 1/4 inch. The specified flange thickness does not include the raised face thickness.
Flat Face Raised Face
Ring Joint Tongue & Groove Joint
Male / Female Joint
PIPING ENGINEERING
Based On Face Finish
There are two types of finishes done on to the facings. They are the Smooth Finish
and Serrated Finish. The Smooth Finish flanges are specified when metallic gaskets are
specified and serrated finish is provided when non metallic gasket is provided. The Serrations
provided on the facing could be concentric or spiral (Phonographic). Concentric Serrations
are insisted for face finish when the fluid being carried has very low density and can find
leakage path through the cavity. The serration is specified by the number, which is the
Arithmetic Average Roughness Height (AARH). This is the arithmetic average of the
absolute values of measured profile height deviations taken within the sampling length and
measured from the graphical center line.
Based On Material of Construction
The flanges are normally forged except in very few cases where they are fabricated
from plates. When plates are used for fabrication, they should be of weldable quality. ASME
B 16.5 allows only reducing flanges and blind flanges to be fabricated from plate. The
materials of construction are as follows.
Flange Materials
S.No Material Description

1 ASTM A 105 Forged Carbon Steel
2 ASTM A 181 Forged Carbon Steel for General Purpose
3 ASTM A 182 Forged Alloy Steel & Stainless Steel
4 ASTM A 350 Forged Alloy Steel for low Temp Service
Other Standards
Certain British Standards, German Standards and Indian Standards are also followed
in India for flange specifications. BS-10 is the most popular among them. DIN flanges are
also popular because they have wider range of pressure temperature classes. IS has developed
IS 6392 in line with DIN standards and the same is also in use.
ASME B 1.5 Covers Sizes from 1 / 2” NB to 24” NB only and ANSI B 16.47 is
referred for higher sizes (from 26” NB to 60”NB)
Gaskets
Selection
Proper selection of gasket depends upon the following factors.
1. Compatibility of the gasket material with the fluid.
2. Ability to with stand the pressure temperature of the system.
Type
Based on the type of construction, gaskets are classified as
1. Full face
2. Inside Bolt Circle
3. Spiral Wound Metallic
4. Metal Jacketed
5. Ring Type.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Flat Gasket Spiral Wound
Ring Type Joint
Material
Experience on the job and published literature shall be used to select the gasket
material with respect to the compatibility of the same with the fluid.
The material, which is most commonly used, is the Compressed Asbestos Fiber in
India. Indian Standard IS 2712 specifies three different materials at three different grades.
1.
2. IS 2712 Gr W/1, W/2 and W/3 – For Steam, Alkali and General Applications.
3. IS 2712Gr A/1 – For Acid applications.
4. IS 2712 Gr O/1, O/2 – For Oil Applications.
Asbestos free gaskets are also available for above applications. For very corrosive
applications, PTFE or PTFE Enveloped gaskets are used.
For high temperature and high pressure applications, spiral wound metallic gaskets
are used. The selection of material of construction for winding depends upon the corrosive
nature and concentration of the fluid, the operating temperature and the relative cost of
alternate winding materials. The most commonly used are the Austenitic Stainless Steel 304,
316 and 321 with Graphite Filler. Alternate windings and filler material can be used
depending upon thee services.
ASME B 16.5 does not recommend the use of 150# rating spiral wound gaskets
on flanges other than welding neck and lapped join types
Spiral wound gaskets are provided with external ring known as centering ring
to position the gasket. When used in vacuum services, an internal ring is also provided. The
material of inner ring should be compatible with the fluid. The spiral wound gasket will
perform when the flange face is 125-250 AARH finish.
Dimensional Standard
Gasket dimensions are covered under the following standards.

1. BS 3381 – Metallic Spiral Wound Gaskets.
2. ANSI B 16.20 – Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges.
3. ANSI B 16.21 – Non Metallic Gaskets for pipe Flanges.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Valves
General
For economy and interchangeability, a minimum number of valve types shall be
selected.
The following duties of valves are defined:
1. Stopping of fluid flow when closed, with minimum flow resistance and
pressure drop when open.
2. Flow regulation.
3. Back-flow prevention.
4. Pressure regulation, maintaining constant downstream pressure by
variable valve opening.
5. Pressure relief, to safeguard the system against excessive pressures that
may cause damage to, or failure of, the protected system;
6. Special valves for a abnormal conditions e.g. ESDs.
Selection of Valves
If piping classes allow various valves to be used, their selection shall be based on
operational requirements and economic considerations.
For special valves outside the scope of the piping classes, the following factors shall
be considered in valve selection:
1. Pressure.
2. Temperature.
3. Erosiveness, corrosiveness and toxicity of service.
4. Fouling or non-fouling service.
5. Throttling or open/close service.
6. Isolating service, required level of leak-tightness.
7. Required capacity.
8. Type of valve operating mechanism (handwheel, wrench, gearbox etc.).
9. Safety requirements such as.
- Fail-safe position.
- Minimum and maximum time for opening and closing.
- Requirements in the event of fire.
Any type of bi-directional valve is suitable for isolation, provided it is properly
designed and installed.
Double-seated valves (e.g. gate, ball and plug valves) with a body bleed shall not be
considered to be proper double-block-and-bleed valves since a common failure may still
make both isolations ineffective. However, they can be used to give a more reliable isolation
than single-seated valves, or can be used to prevent product contamination (e.g. in oil
movement operations).
Stop Flow, Main or Block Valves

Piping classes specify which valves are to be selected for a particular service or duty,
generally in accordance with the following guidelines:
Ball valves, soft seated DN 15 to DN 250 General service 200 C
Ball valves, metal DN 15 to DN 900 General service and special
seated applications 200 C
Gate valves DN 15 and larger General service
Butterfly valves, lined DN 100 and larger General (water) service,
ASME rating class 150
PIPING ENGINEERING
Butterfly valves, lined DN 100 and larger Corrosive service,
ASME rating class 150 and
300
Butterfly valves, soft DN 80 and larger General service and special
seated or metal seated applications, e.g. cryogenic
(high performance) or high temperature
Diaphragm valves, lined DN 15 to DN 300 Corrosive service,
ASME rating class 150
Ball valves, lined DN 15 to DN 150 Corrosive service,
ASME rating class 150 and
300
Gate and globe valves, DN 15 to DN 40 Critical, very toxic service
bellows-sealed, welded
bonnet
Gate and globe valves, DN 50 to DN 600 Critical, very toxic service
with special gland
packing
Butterfly Valves
Triple-eccentric butterfly valves are preferred in EO service due to their short closure time.
Gate, Globe and Check Valves

Gate and globe valves in EO service shall have a bellows-sealed or special gland
packing construction.
Gate, globe and check valves shall have metal body seats. Metal seat rings shall be
integral, weld-in or screwed-in. Screwed-in seats shall be secured against loosening.
Over-pressurization and pressure locking may be caused by EO polymerization and by the
entrapment and subsequent heating of liquid in the valve cavity of double-seated valves. To
prevent such over-pressurization, the gate valves shall have a pressure relief feature as
specified in. Valves in nominal sizes DN 40 and smaller shall have a welded bonnet or cover
connection with full penetration welds. For valves with special gland packing constructions
in nominal sizes DN 50 and larger, a bolted bonnet connection is allowed in all pressure
classes.
Ball Valves
Ball valves used in EO systems shall have a pressure-equalizing hole drilled in the
ball and shall be fitted with metallic seats.
Flow Regulation (Throttling Valves)

The table below summarizes the typical duties of various throttling valves:
Needle valves DN 15 to DN 40 Accurate control
Globe valves DN 15 to DN 200 General service
Diaphragm valves, DN 15 to DN 300 Low-pressure, corrosive service
lined
Butterfly valves, lined DN 50 and larger Moderate pressure, corrosive
service
Choke valves DN 50 to DN 200 For high pressure difference and/or
erosive service
Butterfly valves (high DN 80 and larger General service
performance)
Control valves selected for throttling purposes shall not be used for an isolation function.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Back-Flow Prevention (Check Valves)
The table below summarizes the typical selection of check valves:
DN 15 to DN 40 Piston-type, horizontal flow
Check valves DN 50 and larger Swing-type
DN 50 and larger Dual-plate type, spring-energized
Check valves are designed to prevent the reverse flow of liquid or gaseous products. Check
valves shall not be relied upon for positive isolation purposes.
Small check valves (DN 15 to DN 40) are normally of the piston-type
Swing-type check valves may be used in horizontal pipes and in vertical pipes
when the flow is upwards.
Non-slam, tilting disc and "feather"-type check valves shall be used where
unacceptable pressure surges would otherwise be caused.
Non-slam axial flow piston-type check valves are very reliable in clean service
and have a low pressure drop. These check valves shall not be used in fouling
services due to the close tolerances of the moving parts.
Dual-plate check valves have a short face-to-face flange design and are
therefore lighter and more compact than swing type check valves. Only dual
plate check valves of retainerless design shall be used.
Utility pipes connected to pressurized process equipment or piping shall be equipped with a
check valve to prevent process fluids from entering the utility system. The piping class
"break" between utility piping and process piping shall be located so that at least two valves
(including the check valve) satisfy the process piping class. More secure safeguarding
systems shall be applied if hazardous situations can arise upon failure of such a system.
Special Valve Types and Their Application

Special valves have been developed and proven suitable for process requirements and
special services. Care shall be taken to select the correct valves, with a view to the design,
materials, fabrication and testing.
Examples of special valves are:
1. Ram-type drain valve

A flush bottom valve (i.e. without a dead nozzle end) with a piston extending
upwards, used for viscous or solidifying products, e.g. in reactors and mixing vessels.
2. Flush bottom valve

Drain valve without a dead nozzle end, used on piping or equipment containing
viscous products.
3. Plug valves
Plug valves require periodic maintenance by trained staff and therefore their use shall
be minimised.
Lubricated plug valves should not be used for general purposes and shall only be used
if the product allows the use of a plug lubricant.
Lined or sleeve-type plug valves may be used in pipes containing very toxic
substances but not containing scaling deposits or suspended solids.
In high pressure gas systems the use of pressure-balanced (non-lubricated) plug
valves may be considered.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Inverted pressure balanced, lubricated plug valves may be used as bypass / equalising
and blow down valves in hydrogen and natural gas pipes and as kicker and drain valves of
scraper traps.
4. Multi-port valves
Two conventional valves should be used for diverting flow but if this is impractical
(e.g. due to space restrictions), multi-port ball valves or multi-port plug valves may be used
after approval by the Principal.
5. Iris-type valve with diaphragm closure member

This type of valve may be used for pneumatic or gravity feed of solids and powders.
6. Excess flow valves

Excess flow valves are designed to shut when the flow rate exceeds design flow rates,
e.g. in the event of a hose burst. They should not be used in refinery or depot emergency
shutdown systems for storage vessels, loading points or multi-product systems, since they are
not sufficiently reliable in providing positive shut-off.
7. Rotary star valves

Rotary star valves are designed for solids handling, e.g. dosing of catalyst. These
valves are not tight shut-off.
8. Solids sluicing valves

Special through-conduit gate valves may be used for solids sluicing duties (gravity
flow).
9. Isolators and dampers

Various valve types (e.g. flap, guillotine, and louvre) are available for flue ducts
and gas turbine exhausts. These valves are for low pressures and their tightness ranges from
95% to 100%. They are suitable for both shut-off service and regulating service.
Pipes with wafer and/or lug type valves may require an extra flanged connection for installing
a spade flange or removal of a pipe spool.
For hydrogen-containing services (e.g. hydro processes) with ASME rating class 600 and
higher, and for other services with ASME rating class 900 and higher, double block valves
shall be installed as follows:
At equipment that needs to be isolated during operation;
At control valves with bypasses;
At relief valve inlets;
At level gauges.
10. THERMAL EXPANSION RELIEF VALVES (TERV)

Thermal expansion relief valves shall be installed in liquid-full equipment or piping
systems if the system can be blocked in and it is subject to heat from the atmosphere or
process.
11. Block Valves

Block valves shall be installed in the suction and discharge pipes, except for
atmospheric air compressors, which shall have block valves in the discharge pipes only. The
block valve in the suction pipe, if present and the piping to the suction nozzle shall have the
same rating as the discharge piping.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Valves
ANSI Valves
Flanged & Butt Welded
Gate Valve Globe Valve Control Valve
Swing Check Ball Valves

Wafer Check Valve
View Looking from Up Stream
Waffer Type Butterfly Valve Lug Type Butterfly Valve Relief Valve
PIPING ENGINEERING
Threaded Valves
Threaded Horizontal Threaded Vertical Check

Check Valve Valve
Socket Welded Valves
Socket Welded Horizontal Socket Welded Vertical

Check Valve Check Valve
Critical valves:
All valves other than those defined below as non-critical or non-operational are
considered to be critical. Critical valves shall be permanently accessible for operation and the
hand wheels shall be positioned. This applies also to control valves, motor operated valves
and check valves because of the need for maintenance access.
Non-critical valves:
Valves are considered to be non-critical if they satisfy any or all of the following
criteria:
The chance of a failure is small or a failure would not lead to serious
consequences;
Operation frequency is lower than once every six months;
Quick action is not required.
Non-operational valves:
Non-operational valves are those which are no longer expected to be used. An
example of a non-operational valve is a hot-tap valve.
Permanent access should be provided.
The possibility and the costs of providing devices to operate these valves shall
be taken into account during the design.
In an early design stage the non-critical valves and the non-operational valves
shall be explicitly identified on the PFS and PEFS.
Start-up strainers shall be provided upstream of control valves with labyrinth-
type low-noise trims.
PIPING ENGINEERING
BLINDS & SPACERS POSITIVE ISOLATION
(“SPADING")
General
Positive isolation is a procedure whereby physical separation between systems is achieved.
NOTE. Closing valves does not achieve positive isolation.

The need for positive isolation is dictated by special safety and/or process requirements.
Positive isolation shall be provided when:
1. Hot work is to be done. or
2. Equipment is to be hydrostatically tested. or
3. Entry by personnel is required for inspection or maintenance. or
4. Equipment is to be opened or removed whilst the remainder of the unit is still in
operation.
If personnel are to enter the equipment, the points of positive isolation should be as close as
possible to the equipment.
Positive isolation can be achieved by:
1. Spectacle blinds incl. quick-acting blinds.
2. Spades.
3. Removable spools with blind flanges.
4. Blind plates.
Spectacle Blind Line Spade Spacer
Male Type Reversible Spade
Male Type Line Spade
PIPING ENGINEERING
Spectacle blinds, spades, spacers and blind flanges shall have the same ASME
rating class as the piping.
Spacers and spades shall have two centering pieces welded to their circumference.
These centering pieces shall have a bolt hole of the same diameter and bolt circle
diameter as the mating flange.
If spectacle blinds in horizontal pipes are insulated, the spectacle blind should
point downwards at an angle of 45° to avoid water leaking into the insulation.
In order to prevent icing problems, spectacle blinds shall not be installed in pipes
with operating temperatures below 0 °C. In order to avoid excessive condensation
in high humidity locations, spectacle blinds should not be installed at places where
the temperature is below the dew point. In both situations, spades should be
instead of spectacle blinds.
Quick-acting blinds or line blind valves (e.g. "Hamer") may be used for frequent
pipe blinding if approved by the Principal. The seat material shall be suitable for
the fluid and operating temperature.
If it can be guaranteed that there will be no differential pressure between both sides of
the isolation point (even not via a utility or instrument connection), a thin (3 mm to 5 mm)
blind plate may be installed instead of a spectacle blind or a spade. The blind plate shall be
provided with gaskets on both sides in order to prevent damage to the surfaces of the mating
flanges.
Piping shall be designed, supported and installed so that the flanges do not move
when the bolting is removed for spading purposes. The piping shall be sufficient flexible to
be able to install the required isolation fittings (spades, blind plates etc.) and there shall be
sufficient space to turn spectacle blinds, where provided.
NUTS & Bolting
MS – 42 ISO Nuts UNC Nuts
Depending upon the service, its pressure/temperature and the type of gasket, type
of bolting is selected.
For low pressure, low temperature services, machined bolts are used and studs are
used and studs are used otherwise. Normally the bolts are provided with hexagonal head,
hexagonal nut and a round washer. Studs are provided with two hexagonal nuts and two
washers. The length of bolts/studs required for the flange joints of all pressure classes are
specified in ASME B 16.5
Flanged joints using low strength carbon steel bolts shall not be used above
200 C or below -29 C.
ASTM F-704 specifies the standard practice of selecting bolt lengths for piping
system- flanged joints.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Material of Construction for Bolting
Bolting Materials normally used are

1 ASTM A 307 Low Carbon Steel Bolting Material
2 ASTM A 320 Alloy Steel Bolting Material
3 ASTM A 563 Carbon &Alloy Steel Nuts
4 ASTM A 193 Alloy Steel Bolting Material for high temp service
5 ASTM A 194 Alloy Steel Nut Material for high temp service
6 IS 1367 Threaded Steel Fasteners
Dimensional Standards for Bolts
The dimensional standards referred for the studs/bolts are :

Flanges
1 ANSI B 18.2.1 Square & Hexagonal Head Bolts
HEAD BOLTS
2 ANSI B 18.2.2 Square & Hexagonal Nuts
NUTS
3 IS 1367 Threaded Steel Fasteners
Non – Ferrous Piping

The Non – Ferrous piping is used depending upon the corrosion properties and the
temperature at which the fluid is handled. Special technology is involved in the fabrication of
these piping. The commonly used materials are
Aluminium
Alloy – 20
Hastalloy
Lead
Monel
Nickel
Titanium
These materials are specified under ASTM section II part B and the numbers are
prefixed with the alphabet ‘B’
Due to economic considerations either carbon steel flanges with lining / bonding of
these materials or Lap joint backing flanges wherever possible are used in this piping.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Non Metallic Lined Piping

Non- metallic piping is used where the problem of corrosion is severe and it is
difficult to get a suitable economical metallic piping. Temperature limitations restrict the use
of these non metallic piping. The commonly used materials are
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

CPVC Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
ETFE Ethylene Tetra Fluoro Ethylene
FEP Fluoro Ethylene Propylene
FRP Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic
HDPE High Density Poly Ethylene
LDPE Low Density Poly Ethylene
PFA Perfluoro Alkoxyalkane
PP Poly Propylene
PTFE Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
PVDF Poly Vinyliedene Fluoride
Glass
Cement
Ceramic
To add mechanical strength with the corrosion properties of non- metallic material,
the concept of lining of material is established. The combinations normally used in industry
are
Mild Steel Rubber Lined (MSRL)

Mild Steel glass Lined (MSGL)
Mild Steel Cement Lined
Mild Steel PP lined
Mild Steel PTFE lined
Mild Steel PVDF lined
The lined pipes and pipe fittings have flanged ends and are joined by bolting. Of late
flangeless lined piping is in use. In this case the liner is Butt-Welded and the outer carbon
steel shell of the pipe is connected by “Lorking” Mechanical Coupling
The use of gaskets is not recommended in piping lined with resilient materials, but
this can damage the line restricting the reuse.
The requirements of lined pipes has to be studied case by case based on the service
conditions
The Glass pipes & Fittings have either Buttress End or Beaded Ends and are
connected with Flange Assembly.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Piping Specification / Piping Class

A document indicating the dimensional and material specification of pipes, fittings
and valve type is called a PIPING CLASS. Each class represents distinct features such as
pressure - temperature conditions, corrosion resistance and strength abilities or a combination
of these abilities. There could be a number of them selected and used for one project. While
selecting these, care should be taken to minimize the number to rationalize the inventory. The
designation of these Piping Classes varies with the company. While designing the piping
system for a project, the components, which are not mentioned in the piping class, should be
avoided.
Tips for the Preparation of Piping Specification

The approach should be to minimize the number of different elements and thus
simplify and rationalize inventory.
Materials
Carbon Steel shall be used for temperature upto 425 C (800 F) only
Low Temperature Carbon / Alloy Steel shall be used for temperature below
-29 C ( - 20 F)
Alloy Steel shall be used for temperature above 426 C (801 F)
Stainless Steel shall be used for corrosive fluids. Basic material of
construction specified by Process Licenser to be referred for the grade.
Galvanized Steel Piping shall be used for services such as drinking water,
instrument air, Nitrogen (LP) etc.
Selection of Non-Ferrous, Non-Metallic and Lined piping shall be as per the
recommendation from the Process Licenser.
Piping joints
1. Butt Welded connections shall normally be used for all Alloy/Carbon steel piping 2”
(50mm) NB and larger and also for Austenitic Stainless Steel.
2. Alloy / Carbon Steel piping 1 ½” (40mm) NB and below shall be socket welded.
Socket Welding shall be used where crevice corrosion is not anticipated.
3. Threaded connections shall be avoided except in galvanized piping.
4. Flange joints shall be minimized as they are points of potential leakage. It may be
used to connect piping to equipment or valves, connecting pipe lines of dissimilar
material, where spool pieces are required to permit removal or servicing of equipment
and where pipes and fittings are with flanged ends.
Piping Components
Pipes
1. All pipelines carrying toxic/inflammable fluids shall be seamless.

2. Utility piping can be ERW or Seam welded.
3. Seam pipelines shall preferably be seamless.
PIPING ENGINEERING
Fittings
1. Fittings shall preferably be seamless

2. Butt Weld fittings shall be used for pipe sizes 2” (50mm) NB and above for all
Alloy/Carbon steel piping. Socket Weld fittings shall be used for sizes 1 ½” (40mm)
NB and below where crevice corrosion is not expected.
3. For Stainless Steel Piping where thickness is less, all fittings could be Butt Welding
type.
4. Welding Tees shall be used for full size branch connections. For reduced branch size
upto 2 steps less than run diameter, it can be fabricated. For smaller sizes half
couplings can be used. Full size unreinforced branch welding can be done where
pressure temperature condition are mild.
Flanges
1. Rating shall be based on the pressure temperature conditions. However 150 lb flanges
are not recommended beyond 200 C (400 F).
2. Socket Welding Flanges may be used for all pressure ratings upto 1 ½” (40mm) NB
size except on lines subjected to severe cyclic conditions and where crevice corrosion
is expected.
3. Screwed Flanges shall be used for galvanized steel / cast iron piping.
4. Slip on Flanges are used in 150 lb and 300 lb rating upto a maximum of 200 C.
Welding neck flanges shall be used for higher pressure ratings.
5. Raised face is used for flanges upto 600 lb rating. For Flanges 900lb rating and above
RTJ is recommended. Tongue and groove facing shall be used selectively.
6. Depending on pressure and temperature gasket shall be either CAF, Non Asbestos,
Spiral wound metallic for raised face flanges or selected based on the corrosive nature
of the fluid.
7. Use flat face flanges to mate with cast iron valves and equipments.
8. Use Spiral wound gasket with inner ring for Vacuum service.
9. Low Strength Carbon Steel bolting shall not be used above 200 C and below - 29 C.
***************************************************************************

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PIPING ENGINEERING

Piping elements should, so far as practicable, conform to the specification and

Piping specification is a document specifying each of the components. Different

MATERIAL SELECTION OF PIPING COMPONENTS

Metallic Non Metallic Lined

Lead Titanium Nickel Aluminium Copper

MSGL MSRL MS MS MS MS MS MS FRP

a) Design Pressure as 10% higher than the maximum anticipated

1. Carbon Steel shall be used upto 800 F (425 C)

The Pipes & Tubes can be compared on the following lines:

Examples of Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Examples of Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Transformations on the T-T-T Diagram

Time -Temperature Paths on Isothermal Transformation Diagram

1. Given Fig. 2, describe what transformations happen in:

a. Path 1 (Red line)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GRP)

Pipes are designated by its NOMINAL BORE (NB)

Pipe Size NB Eq. Metric Pipe Outside Dia Outside Dia

.Easier alignment .The1/16”

.Easily made .Joint may leak

.Easily made .Suitable for

Furnace Butt Welded, Continuous Welded

Electric Fusion Welded

Double Submerged-Arc Welded

Pipe Material Description

PRESSURE VESSELS AND BOILERS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

PIPING AND PIPELINES

Thickness of Straight Pipe under Internal Pressure

Thickness of Straight Pipe under External Pressure

And at the extrados (outside bend radius)

STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS

Socket weld / Screwed End Fittings

SW/SCRD Fitting Materials

Beveled End Fittings

Flanged End Fittings

SPIGOT / Socket Fittings

BUTTRESS END FITTINGS

A branch fitting connects a branch pipe to the run pipe.

Branches should be connected at 90° to the run pipe.

45 Elbow 90 Elbow Equal Tee

180 Elbow Return Reducing Tee

Concentric Reducer Eccentric Reducer Caps

Stub End for Lapped Flange

Internal thread External Thread 90 Threaded Elbow

45 Threaded Elbow Threaded Tees Threaded Cross

Threaded Full Coupling Threaded Half Coupling Threaded Caps

Threaded Hex Plug Threaded Threaded Female Threaded

Threaded Welding Boss Threaded Reducing Threaded

Threaded Union elbow Threaded Union elbow Threaded Union Tee

Threaded Union Tee Threaded Union Threaded Union Swage

Socket Weld 90 Socket Weld 45

Socket welded Tee Socket Welded Cross Socket Welded Coupling

Socket Welded Half Socket Welded Socket Welded Reducing

Socket welded Reducing Insert -1 Socket welded Reducing Insert -2

Socket welded Reducing Insert -3 Socket welded Union

Couplings are of three types