CHAPTER 5 - PRESSURE

Instrumentation and Control

ENGR. JONATHAN C. PACALDO

Instructor
Chapter Objectives
This chapter will help you understand the units used in pressure measurements and become
familiar with the most common methods of using the various pressure measurement standards.

Discussed in this chapter are

The terms - pressure, specific weight, specific gravity (SG), and buoyancy
The difference between atmospheric, absolute, gauge, and differential pressure values
Various pressure units in use, i.e., British units versus SI (metric) units
Various types of pressure measuring devices
Difference in static, dynamic, and impact pressures
Laws applied to pressure
Application considerations
Pressure is the force exerted by gases and liquids due to their weight, such as
the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the earth and the pressure
containerized liquids exert on the bottom and walls of a container.

Pressure units are a measure of the force acting over a specified area. It is most
commonly expressed in pounds per square inch (psi), sometimes pounds per
square foot (psf) in English units, or pascals (Pa or kPa) in metric units.
Measuring Instruments

Manometers

Manometers are good examples of pressure measuring instruments, though they

are not as common as they used to be because of the development of new,
smaller, more rugged, and easier to use pressure sensors.
o The most basic manometers measure gas/liquid pressure against atmospheric
pressure

o Manometers come in a variety of shapes and sizes and while the principle for
measuring pressure differential is the same the degree of accuracy can be
enhanced

o As there are no moving parts, manometers require no maintenance and they

are extremely accurate
The principle behind a manometer gas or liquid pressure gauge is extremely simple.
Hydrostatic equilibrium shows that the pressure when a liquid is at rest is equal at any
point.

For example, if both ends of the U-tube are left open to the atmosphere then the pressure
on each side will be equal. As a consequence the level of the liquid on the left-hand side
will be the same as the level of the liquid on the right-hand side – equilibrium. However,
if one end of the U-tube is left open to the atmosphere and the other connected to an
additional gas/liquid supply this will create different pressures.
Types of Manometers

U-Tube manometer

The traditional U-Tube device is the most common with one end of the
partially liquid filled tube open to the atmosphere and the other connected to an
outside source. By measuring the different heights of liquid on the left and the
right hand side of the U-tube it is possible to calculate the pressure from the
outside source in relation to atmospheric pressure.
Differential U-tube manometer

A differential U-tube is closed and both ends are filled with different liquid/gas
at different pressures. This tends to be used where the pressure needs to be
measured directly, not based on an outside pressure.
Inverted U-tube manometer

The inverted U-tube design is used to measure low-pressure between two

separate points to a relatively high level of accuracy.

Liquid is introduced to the U-tube at either end with a volume of air separating
the different liquids. The use of a tap allows air to be expelled from or admitted
into the inverted U-tube device. Thereby adjusting the pressure difference and
giving an accurate reading.
Micro manometer

The micro-design is a modified version of the basic U-tube except one side of
the tube has a larger cross-section. The manometer definition of measuring
pressure is still the same but due to the structure of the U-tube it is able to
measure minute pressure differences.
Inclined manometer

As the name suggests, an inclined manometer involves a gradual incline in the

design. This allows for the measurement of minuscule pressure to extremely
high levels of accuracy. It is used where the manometric properties of liquids
are similar. Again, it is the simplicity, lack of maintenance and no moving parts
make it extremely efficient and easy to use.
Well manometers

Well manometers are alternatives to inclined manometers for measuring low

pressures using low-density liquids. Same as the U-tube except for the
reservoir on the high-pressure side. It is sometimes called a single column
gauge.

The manometer consists of a metal well of large cross sectional area

connected to a glass tube, or limb. This system normally contains mercury as
the filling liquid.
Diaphragms, capsules, and bellows

Gauges are a major group of pressure sensors that measure pressure with respect to
atmospheric pressure. Gauge sensors are usually devices that change their shape when
pressure is applied. These devices include diaphragms, capsules, bellows, and Bourdon
tubes.
The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge uses the elastic deformation of a diaphragm (i.e.
membrane) instead of a liquid level to measure the difference between an unknown
pressure and a reference pressure.

Many pressure sensors depend on the deflection of a diaphragm for measurement. The
diaphragm is a flexible disc, which can be either flat or with concentric corrugations and is
made from sheet metal with high tolerance dimensions.
Capsule pressure gauge working principle

The sensing element of a capsule pressure gauge consists of two corrugated diaphragms
welded together at their periphery to form a capsule.

The pressure to be measured is introduced into the capsule via an opening in the center of
the first diaphragm. The center of the second diaphragm is connected to the transmission
mechanism so that the deflection of the measuring element can be transmitted to the
pointer.
Bellows pressure gauge working principle

Bellows are thin-walled metallic cylinders, with deep convolutions, of which one end is
sealed and the other end remains open. The closed-end can move freely while the
open-end is fixed.

When pressure is applied to the closed-end, the bellows will be compressed. The
closed-end will move upwards and the link, which is the rod in between the closed-end of
the bellows and the transmission mechanism, will go up and rotate the pointer.
C-type Bourdon tube

The Bourdon tube pressure gauge consists of a circular tube that is bent over an angle of
generally 270°, and of which one end is closed and the other is connected to the process
pressure.

The closed-end can move freely. This movement is transmitted via a transmission
mechanism to the pointer of the pressure gauge.

With the rack and pinion of the transmission mechanism, the movement of the Bourdon
tube may be amplified so that the pointer rotates from start to end of the scale
[Link] – see this website for the animations
Other pressure sensors

Barometers are used for measuring atmospheric pressure. It is now rarely used due to its
fragility and the toxicity of mercury.

Piezoelectric pressure - Piezoelectric crystals produce a voltage between their opposite faces
when a force or pressure is applied to the crystal. This voltage can be amplified and the
device used as a pressure sensor.

Capacitive devices use the change in capacitance between the sensing diaphragm and a fixed
plate to measure pressure. Some micromachined silicon pressure sensors use this technique in
preference to a strain gauge. This technique is also used in a number of other devices to
accurately measure any small changes in diaphragm deformation.
Barometer Piezoelectric Sensor
Vacuum instruments

Vacuum instruments are used to measure pressures less than atmospheric

pressure. The Bourdon tube, diaphragms, and bellows can be used as vacuum
gauges, but measure negative pressures with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Pirani gauge and special setups using thermocouples can measure vacuums down to about
5 torr. These methods are based on the relation of heat conduction and radiation from a
heating element to the number of gas molecules per unit volume in the low-pressure region,
which determines the pressure.

Ionization gauges can be used to measure pressures down to about 2 torr. The gas is
ionized with a beam of electrons and the current is measured between two electrodes in the
gas. The current is proportional to the number of ions per unit volume, which is also
proportional to the gas pressure.

McLeod gauge is a device set up to measure very low pressures, i. e., from 1 to 50 torr. The
device compresses the low-pressure gas so that the increased pressure can be measured. The
change in volume and pressure can then be used to calculate the original gas pressure,
providing that the gas does not condense.
 Ionization Gauge

Pirani Gauge

Mcleod Gauge
Reporting Assignments:

Discuss the assigned journal article,

1. Datiles - Dynamic response of the U-tube liquid manometer with equal diameter columns ( Google Scholar)
2. Enjambre - Study on a concentric tube bulb manometer and its performance compared to U-shaped manometer (Google
Scholar, MDPI)
3. Urdejas - A multitube differential pressure manometer for measuring the average flow of fluids in closed ducts (Google
Scholar)
4. Bacasejos - Long-term Stability of a High Precision Diaphragm Gauge