Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 7
Dimensional Analysis and
Similitude
Main Topics
1. Nature of Dimensional Analysis
2. Buckingham Pi Theorem
3. Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid
Mechanics
4. Flow Similarity and Model Studies
5. Nondimensionalizing the Basic Differential
Equations
2
7.2 Nature of Dimensional Analysis
Example: Drag on a Sphere
ρ μ
F
D
Drag depends on FOUR parameters:
sphere size (D); speed (V); fluid density (r); fluid
viscosity (m)
Difficult to know how to set up experiments to determine
dependencies
Difficult to know how to present results (four graphs?)
3
Nature of Dimensional Analysis
Example: Drag on a Sphere.
The drag force depends on the size of the sphere (diameter, D
), the fluid speed, (V), and the fluid viscosity, (μ) and the density
of the fluid, (ρ)
ρ μ
using dimensional analysis, get F
D
• Only one dependent and one independent variable
• Easy to set up experiments to determine dependency
• Easy to present results (one graph)
4
Nature of Dimensional Analysis
Plot a single relationship between two dimensional parameters
instead of many plots.
Drag on
a Sphere
Can be used to obtain the drag force on a very wide range of
sphere/fluid combinations.
5
7.3 Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 1:
List all the dimensional parameters involved
Let n be the number of parameters
Example: For drag on a sphere, F, V, D, r, m,
n=5 ρ μ
F
D
6
Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 2
Select a set of fundamental (primary) dimensions
For example, MLt or FLt
Example: For drag on a sphere
choose M L t ρ μ
F
D
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Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 3
List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of primary
dimensions
Let r be the number of primary dimensions
Example: For drag on a sphere r=3
dimensional
parameters involved
primary dimensions
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Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 4
Select a set of r dimensional parameters that includes all the
primary dimensions
Example: For drag on a sphere
(m = r = 3) select r, V, D
ρ μ
r be the number of primary dimensions F
D
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Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 5
Set up dimensional equations, combining the parameters
selected in Step 4 with each of the other parameters in turn, to
form dimensionless groups
ρ μ
There will be n – m equations
Example: For drag on a sphere F
D
n – m = 5 – 3 = 2 2 dimensionless groups
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Buckingham Pi Theorem
Step 6
Check to see that each group obtained is dimensionless
Example: For drag on a sphere
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Example 7.1
DRAG FORCE ON A SMOOTH SPHERE
As noted in Section 7.2, the drag force, F, on a smooth sphere
depends on the relative speed, V, the sphere diameter, D, the
fluid density, r, and the fluid viscosity, m. Obtain a set of
dimensionless groups that can be used to correlate
experimental data.
Given: F = f (r, V, D, m) to a smooth sphere.
Find: An appropriate set of dimensionless groups.
ρ μ
F
D
12
Solution: (Circled numbers refer to steps in the procedure
for determining dimensionless parameters.)
1. F, V, D, r, m (n = 5 dimensional parameters)
2. Select primary dimensions M, L, and t.
3.
r = 3 primary dimensions
ρ μ
F
D
13
4.Select repeating parameters r, V, D. m = r = 3 repeating
parameters
5.Then n - m = 2 dimensionless groups will result. Setting up
dimensional equations, we obtain
14
15
Similarly,
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6. Check using F, L, t dimensions
where [ ] means "has dimensions of,"
The functional relationship is
or
Reynold number
as noted before. The form of the function, f, must be determined
experimentally (see Fig. 7.1).
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Recirculation
Flow seperation
18
Golf ball
層流
紊流
19
Golf ball
20
Baseball -- Curve Ball
p + rv2/2 + rgz = const.
21
22
23
Vortex Streets
24
25
26
Drag coefficient CD is relatively flat in the range of Reynolds
number between about 103 and 2105 . In this range,
therefore, CD can be considered nearly independent of Red. At
higher Reynolds numbers however, the drag coefficient drops
suddenly from a value between 0.4 and 0.5 at Red = 2 105 to
a value slightly below 0.1 at Red = 4105 . This sudden drop
in CD is called the “drag crisis”, which is associated with
separation of the boundary layer from the surface of the
sphere. Namely, for Red < 2105 the boundary layer on the
forward portion of the sphere is laminar. This boundary layer
separates just upstream of the sphere midsection, leading to a
very wide wake and large drag.
Drag
coefficient
CD
27
For a smooth sphere, as Red increases beyond 2105 , the
laminar boundary layer begins to transition into a turbulent
boundary layer on the forward surface. Since a turbulent
boundary layer is more resistant to flow separation than is a
laminar boundary layer, the turbulent boundary layer remains
attached to the sphere surface for a longer distance around the
sphere, separating will downstream of the sphere midsection.
The resulting wake is much narrower, with a corresponding
lower drag.
turbulent
boundary layer
Much downstream
separating
narrower wake lower
drag
lower drag turbulent 28
Example 7.2
PRESSURE DROP IN PIPE FLOW
The pressure drop, p, for steady, incompressible viscous flow
through a straight horizontal pipe depends on the pipe length, l,
the average velocity, V, the fluid viscosity, m, the pipe diameter,
D, the fluid density, r and the average "roughness" height, e.
Determine a set of dimensionless groups that can be used to
correlate data.
Given: p = f (r,V, D, l, m, e) for flow in a circular pipe.
Find: A suitable set of dimensionless groups.
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Solution: (Circled numbers refer to steps in the procedure for
determining dimensionless parameters.)
n = 7 dimensional parameters
r = 3 primary dimensions
m = r = 3 repeating parameters
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p = f (r,V, D, l, m, e)
31
p = f (r,V, D, l, m, e)
32
33
34
35
36
Example 7.3
CAPILLARY EFFECT
USE OF DIMENSIONAL MATRIX
When a small tube is dipped into a pool of
liquid, surface tension causes a meniscus
to form at the free surface, which is
elevated or depressed depending on the
contact angle at the liquid-solid-gas
interface. Experiments indicate that the
magnitude of this capillary effect, h, is a
function of the tube diameter, D, liquid
specific weight, , and surface tension, .
Determine the number of independent
parameters that can be formed and obtain
a set.
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Example 7.3
CAPILLARY EFFECT
38
39
Thus for each set of primary dimensions we ask, "Is m equal to
r ?" Let us check each dimensional matrix to find out. The
dimensional matrices are:
The rank of a matrix is equal to the order of its largest nonzero
determinant.
40
41
42
Therefore, both systems of dimensions yield the same dimensionless
parameters. The predicted functional relationship is
43
7.4 Significant Dimensionless Groups
in Fluid Mechanics
Reynolds Number
Inertial force
F=ma r V 2 L2
Viscous force
44
Reynolds Number
Flows with ‘large’ Reynolds number generally are turblent.
Flows in witch the inertia force are ‘small’ compared with the
viscous forces are characteristically laminar flow.
where L is a characteristic length descriptive of the
flow field geometry.
Generally, in a pipe, the flow field is laminar when Re 2300.
45
Dimensionless Group
Euler Number
where p is the local pressure minus the freestream pressure,
and r and V are properties of the freestream flow.
The Euler number is often called the pressure coefficient, Cp.
46
Dimensionless Group
Cp
Cavitation Number
where p is the pressure in the liquid stream, and pv is the
liquid vapor pressure at the test temperature.
The smaller the cavitation number, the more likely cavitation
is to occur. This is usually unwated phenomenon.
47
Cavitation Number
48
Dimensionless Group
Froude Number
was significant for flows with free surface effects.
Squaring the Froude number gives:
See Ch. 11, p514
49
Open-Channel Flows
50
51
Froude Number & Waves
52
Froude Number & Ship
53
Froude Number
& Cast
54
Dimensionless Group
Weber Number
The value of the Weber number is indicative of the existence
of, and frequency of, capillary waves at a free surface.
55
Dimensionless Group
Mach Number
where V is the flow speed and c is the local sonic speed.
The Mach number is a key parameter that characterizes
compressibility effects in a flow.
The bulk
compressibility
modulus
or
56
For M < 0.3, the maximum density variation is less than 5
precent. Thus gas flows with M < 0.3 can be treated as
incompressible.
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Shock and Mach number
Ma<1 Ma=1 Ma>1
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Critical mach no & Drag divergence mach no
59
Home Workes
7.7
7.12
7.18
7.24
7.29
7.36
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7.5 Flow Similarity and Model Studies
A model test must yield data that can be scaled to obtain the forces,
moments, of the full-scale prototype.
Geometric Similarity
Model and prototype have same shape
Linear dimensions on model and prototype correspond within
constant scale factor
Kinematic Similarity
Velocities at corresponding points on model and prototype
differ only by a constant scale factor
Dynamic Similarity
Forces on model and prototype differ only by a constant scale
factor
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Flow Similarity and Model Studies
Example: Drag on a Sphere
ρ μ
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Flow Similarity and Model Studies
Example: Drag on a Sphere
For dynamic similarity …
… then …
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Example 7.4
The drag of a sonar transducer is to be predicted, based on
wind tunnel test data. The prototype, a 0.3 m diameter sphere,
is to be towed at 2.57 m/s (nautical miles per hour) in
seawater at 4.5oC. The model is 152 mm in diameter.
Determine the required test speed in air. If the drag of the
model at these test conditions is 2.7 N, estimate the drag of
the prototype.
Given: Sonar transducer to be tested in a wind tunnel.
Find: (a) Vm (b) Fp 64
Solution: Since the prototype operates in water and the
model test is to be performed in air, useful results can be
expected only if cavitation effects are absent in the prototype
flow and compressibility effects are absent from the model
test. Under these conditions,
and the test should be run at
to ensure dynamic similarity. For seawater at 4.5oC, r = 1000
kg/m3 and 1.57 10-6 m2/s. At prototype conditions,
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The model test conditions must duplicate this Reynolds number.
Thus
For air at STP, r = 1.227 kg/m3 and = 1.46 10-5 m2/s. The
wind tunnel must be operated at
47.16m/s
This speed is low enough to neglect compressibility effects.
66
At these test conditions, the model and prototype flows are
dynamically similar. Hence
If cavitation were expected--if the sonar probe were operated
at high speed near the free surface of the seawater--then
useful results could not be obtained from a model test in air.
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Home Works
7.42
7.46
7.50
7.54
7.59
7.61
68
Incomplete Similarity
Sometimes (e.g., in aerodynamics) complete
similarity cannot be obtained, but phenomena may
still be successfully modeled
69
Scaling with Multiple Dependent
Parameters
Example: Centrifugal Pump
Pump Head
Pump Power
Head h : energy per unit mass (L2/t2)
70
Scaling with Multiple Dependent
Parameters
Head Coefficient
Power Coefficient
Flow coefficient Re
71
Scaling with Multiple Dependent
Parameters
Example: Centrifugal Pump
(Negligible Viscous Effects)
If … … then …
72
Scaling with Multiple Dependent
Parameters
Specific Speed
h : energy per unit mass
H : energy per unit weight
Flow coefficient Head coefficient
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7.1 Nondimensionalizing the Basic
Differential Equations
1. Steady, Incompressible, Two-Dimensional, Newtonian
Fluid
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Nondimensionalizing the Basic
Differential Equations
1. Divide all lengths by a reference length, L
2. Divide all velocities by a reference speed, V∞,
which usually is taken as the freestream
velocity.
3. Make the pressure nondimensional by dividing
by ρV2∞
4. Denoting nondimensional quantities with
asterisks, we obtain
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Nondimensionalizing the Basic
Differential Equations
1/Fr 1/Re
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We can predict that if Re is large or small, then viscous forces
will be significant or not, respectively; if Fr is large or small,
We can predict that gravity forces will be significant or not,
respectively.
For example, if Re is very large, the second-order differentials,
representing viscous force, can be neglected, and we end up
with a form of Euler’s equations.
Writing nondimensional forms of the governing equations,
then, can yield insight into the underlying physical
phenomena, and indicate which forces are fominant.
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Home Work
7.3
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