Southern Leyte State University-Main Campus

Institute of Arts and Sciences

GE-Eng 101 (Speech and Oral Communication)
Ms. Rose Sugar S. Callano

Lesson 2: Communication Models

Objectives:
After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate the forms of communication;
2. Identify the components of the speech communication process; and
3. Analyze the different communication models.

INTRODUCTION

Communication is part of our daily life. For this reason, everything we will study in this course is
something you are already doing. However, perhaps you never really bothered to explore the
communication process further. Maybe you even took your role as a communicator for granted
sometimes and did not realize that there is so much room for improvement in this area.

For instance, did you know that communication comes in two forms? These are verbal communication
and nonverbal communication. Many people think that verbal communication refers to the spoken
language called speech and that it is solely oral in nature. If you are one of these people, then we are
glad to have this chance to correct a misconception.

Verbal communication (VC) refers to symbols that have universal meaning for all involved in the
process. These spoken and written verbal symbols are known as language (Barker, 1993). So, verbal
communication refers not only to spoken word but also to the written word. For as long as you use
language systems to communicate a meaning, then that is considered verbal communication.

Nonverbal communication (NVC), on the other hand, refers to the use of signs and symbols other than
language, such as gesture, bodily actions, facial expression, eye behaviour and many more categories
which I will discuss with you later in this course. I’m sure you are familiar with the idea that action
speaks louder than words. For example, if I look sarcastic when I tell you everything is well between you
and me, you might wonder which to believe – the words I uttered or my facial expression. We will study
the functions and categories of NVC later. Meanwhile, here’s food for thought for you: Words are easier
to manipulate but actions are more spontaneous and sincere. Do you agree? If you don’t agree at this
point, that’s okay. Our lesson devoted to NVC, will further clarify this. Then, after having that lesson, we
will come back to this question and see if you have changed your mind.

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Every time you talk to somebody, you experience what is called a communication situation. Let’s take a
closer look at the components of this situation. These are better known as universal components due to
the fact that each component is present in every communicative situation.
First, there has to be a SOURCE, who is the originator of the message. In oral communication, the source
is the SPEAKER; in written communication, the source is the WRITER.

Then, there is the MESSAGE, which could be an idea or feeling that can be transmitted verbally and/or
nonverbally.

This message has to be transmitted through a CHANNEL. In face-to-face human communication, the
message is transmitted through sound waves, light waves and air. Human beings use their five senses
(seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting) to receive and decode a message. In mass
communication, other channels used for transmission of messages are television, radio, newspapers,
computers, and other electronic or high-tech means.

The message then travels to a RECEIVER or LISTENER or point of destination. The receiver can be the
same person as the source (when do you think is this the case?) or another person or many persons like
the audience in a lecture.

The receiver decodes the message, which must have some kind of an effect. The message could make
the receiver feel mad, sad, or glad. This causes him/her to react or give FEEDBACK. The feedback could
be verbal or nonverbal (e.g. respond or look away), visible or invisible (e.g. look sleepy and bored or fake
attention), and intentional or unintentional. Have you experienced reacting with knitted eyebrows to
what a speaker is saying and not really being aware of it until the speaker calls your attention and ask
you what is it that you do not understand? Well, the speaker detected from you unintentional nonverbal
feedback that there is something you either do not understand or do not agree with. Sometimes, there
is an opportunity for immediate feedback while at times feedback can be considerably delayed. An
example of delayed feedback is the feedback to a radio broadcast. This is not immediately available to
the broadcaster (source) unless he/she entertains phone calls from the listeners while the program is
on-air.

Another component always present in a communication situation is NOISE. This is defined as factors
that distort the quality of a signal. In communication, anything that distracts you from decoding the
message with accuracy can be branded as noise. Noise can be psychological, physiological, physical, or
semantic.

Psychological noise consists of worries, problems, fears, and inner thoughts that distract from
the message. Unless you are able to discipline yourself and shut off some of your psychological noise, it
will be hard for you to fully grasp the meaning of a message.

Physiological noise refers to those distractions stemming from your body. Examples are pains
and illness like headaches, stomach aches, dizzy spells, tooth aches, fever and the like. A listener
suffering from a migraine due to a hangover is definitely distracted by physiological noise.
Physical noise, such as chatting, the hum of an air conditioner, and the sound of a door banging is the
most easily detected by all.

Semantic noise is noise created from choice of words. A communicator can use words which
could be too difficult, highly offensive, emotionally loaded, or simply foreign to the receiver. This will
create noise as the receiver will certainly be at a loss in interpreting the meaning of the message.
The seventh component of the communication process is CONTEXT. Context, environment, and
situation are one and the same. They are integral part of the communication process. We always
communicate within a context.

Context refers to the physical setting and social aspects of the communicative situation (Gronbeck,
1990). The physical setting influences listener’s expectations, as well as their readiness to respond. A
social context is a particular combination of people, purposes and places interacting communicatively.
People are distinguished from each other by such factors as age, occupation, power, degree of intimacy,
and knowledge.

DeVito (1994) identified four dimensions of context: physical, cultural, social-psychological, and
temporal.

Cultural context refers to the communicator’s rules and norms, beliefs and attitudes that are
transmitted from one generation to another. For example, in some cultures, direct eye contact between
child and adult signifies disrespect.

Temporal context includes the time of day and time in history in which the communication
takes place. For the Chinese, for example, the evening is not the proper time for a suitor to visit a lady.
In contrast, for most Filipinos the evening is ideal for courting.

Social-psychological context includes the status of relationships among the participants, the
roles that people play, and the cultural rules of the society in which they are communicating. It also
includes the friendliness or unfriendliness, formality or informality, and seriousness or humorousness of
the situation.

For deVito, the communication process is never static because of the dimensions of context. Moreover,
each dimension influences and is influenced by the others. For example, arriving late for a date
(temporal context) has a certain meaning influenced by culture (cultural context) and may lead to
changes in friendliness-unfriendliness (social-psychological context), which may in turn may influence
the physical context.

Stop! So into reading, eh? How about taking a snack?

A banana cue could surely make you relax a bit!

Now, I think it’s time to do some activity! Please be ready!

COMMUNICATION MODELS

Now that you have an idea of what transpires during a communicative situation, let us study the models
of communication advanced by some communicologists. Models serve as a framework to help us
understand an angle or a portion or even one of the levels of communication. You see, there is no one
model can fully describe or visualize everything that transpires during a communicative experience. As
an abstract representation, a model can only serve as a framework for illustrating more clearly some
elements and factors that contribute to the dynamism and complexity of communication.
 1. Aristotle’s Model

The first model of communication was introduced by Aristotle all the way back in ancient Greece. The
great Greek philosopher and teacher wrote a book entitled Rhetorica in which he identified speaker,
speech and audience as the three elements of communication. During his time, oratorical exercises were
very popular and he was one of the great orators always teaching large crowds. The components he
identified were very simple but essential to public speaking.

SPEAKER SPEECH AUDIENCE

Figure 1. The Aristotelian or classical model

2. David Berlo’s Model

David Berlo expanded the classical model of communication with his source-message-channel-receiver
or SMCR Model. He identified factors that determine communication effectiveness or what he called the
fidelity of the process. He enumerated four factors within the source which can increase or decrease
fidelity: communication skills (which include writing, speaking, reading, listening, and thought or
reasoning), attitudes (towards the self, toward the subject matter, toward the receiver), knowledge level
(you cannot communicate what you do not know), and social-cultural system (role, functions, prestige,
cultural beliefs and values dominant and acceptable in the culture). These four factors affect the way the
speaker behaves as well as his/her effectiveness in communicating his/her purposes to other people.

SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER

Communication Element Seeing Communication Skills

Skills
Knowledge Structure Hearing Knowledge
Attitude Content Touching Attitude
Social System Treatment Smelling Social System
Culture Code Tasting Culture

Figure 2. Berlo model

In Berlo’s SMCR Model, the same factors were identified for the source-encoder and receiver-decoder.
The person at one end of the communication process and the person at the other end are influenced by
the same set of factors.
3. Wilbur Schramm’s Model
Schramm’s communication model is linear and based on the concept of a source encoding a message for
transmission to a destination using signals. However, the message should first go through the decoding
process before finally reaching the destination.
Signal
Source Destina-
Enco Deco tion

Figure 3-A. The Schramm model

In this model, the source and encoder is one person, while the decoder and destination is another
person, and the signal is language. A system like this will have maximum capacity for handling
information when a “commonness” is established between the source-encoder (person A) and the
decoder-destination (person B). Schramm called this “field of experience” in another illustration of his
model (see figure 4). This illustration makes his model more interactive as opposed to just plain linear.

Figure 3-B. The Schramm model

4. Frank Dance’s Model

Of all the communication models, that of Dance is the most unique and abstract. Realizing the
inadequacy of the linear model (such as Berlo and Schramm’s models) and the circular model (like
Eugene White’s model), he combined the linear and the circular form by drawing a helix to represent
the dynamism and complexity of the communication process.

Figure 4. Dance’s helical model

Dance believed that the linear model shows only one type of communication. In the helix is a starting
point, the beginning of our communicative life from the moment of conception. The circular motion is
continuous, growing upward in bigger and bigger strokes. This represents growth and learning and the
dynamism of the communication experience.

CONCLUSION

There are many other communication models introduced by different communicologists. Examples are
the communication models of Eugene White (White, 1960), Gronbeck, Mckerrow, Ehninger and Monroe
(Gronbeck et al., 1990), Shannon and Weaver (Weaver, 1966), Lasswell (Lasswell, 1948), and Joseph
DeVito (DeVito, 1994).

The authors have different presentations of what they perceive to be the more important components
or ingredients in the communication situation. Some of them even focus on a particular level of
communication (e.g., Aristotle and White’s main focus is public speaking). Whatever the focus or angle
and whatever the illustration (linear, circular, helix, interactional, etc.), it is important to remember the
main ingredients. Identify these universal components or ingredients and take special notice of their
functions and how each interrelates with the other ingredients during a communication situation.
Understanding the basic process of communication is the key to knowing what you can do to achieve
higher fidelity or, in lay person’s terms, to be more effective as a communicator.

REFERENCES:

Agravante, J. & Buenaventura, V.A. (1999). Speech communication. Quezon City: UP Press

Wow! You’re such a good reader for reaching this far!

Okay, let’s have a short quiz! 