Dr. Ahmed M.

Zaki
Associate Professor
Computer and Systems Engineering Department
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

CSE-271s
2024
- Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning
- Passive Circuits
- Operational Amplifiers
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.
 - Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

A common type of signal conditioning involves adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias (zero value) of some
voltage representing a process variable.

Ex: A sensor output voltage may vary from 0.3 to 0.8 V as a process variable changes from 20ºC to 80ºC

However, the circuitry requires a voltage that varies from 0 to 5 V for the same variation from 20ºC to 80ºC

20ºC 0.3V 0V
To Sensor To Signal Conditioning To
80ºC 0.8 V 5V
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

- Sensors rarely provide linear output

- Linearization circuits are difficult to design and usually
operate only within narrow limits
- The approach is to provide the nonlinear signal as input
to a computer and perform the linearization using
software.
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

o Overview
o Signal Transmission
o Digital Interface
• Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one type of electrical variation into another
• Many sensors exhibit changes of resistance with changes in a dynamic variable
• A circuit is then needed to convert this resistance change to a voltage or a current signal
• This is accomplished by bridges
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

o Overview
o Signal Transmission
o Digital Interface

• An important type of conversion is associated with the process-control standard of transmitting

signals as 4- to 20-mA current levels in wire.

• Current transmission is used because current is independent of load variations

• Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage converters are often required

- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

o Overview
o Signal Transmission
o Digital Interface
• The use of computers in process control requires conversion of analog data into a digital format
by devices called ADCs

• Analog signal conversion is needed to adjust the analog measurement signal to match the input
requirements of the ADC

• Ex: the ADC may need a voltage that varies between 0 and 5 V, but the sensor provides a signal
that varies from 30 to 80 mA.
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

• Spurious signals of considerable strength are present in industrial environments, such

as the 50/60-Hz line frequency signals and motor start transients
• It is necessary then to use high-pass, low-pass, or notch filters
• We may use passive filters using only resistors, capacitors and inductors
• We can also use active filters, using gain and feedback
• Impedance matching is an important element of signal conditioning too
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading.

𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉𝑥
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑥

This equation shows how the effects of

loading can be reduced
RL>>Rx
- Signal-Level and Bias Changes.
- Linearization.
- Conversions.
- Filtering and Impedance Matching.
- Concept of Loading. (Example 2-1)

𝑇 = 50℃
𝑉𝑇 = 50℃ × 20 mV/℃=1.0 V
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 10 × 1.0 V = 10 V

𝑅𝐿 10𝑘
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 = 1.0 × =0.667 V
𝑅𝐿 +𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 10𝑘+5𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 10 × 0.667 V = 6.67 V
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

• It converts resistance variation into voltage variation

• R1 or R2 can be the sensor whose resistance varies with some
measured value
• The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is nonlinear
• Power rating of both the resistors and sensor must be considered.
𝑅2 𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝐷 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

• Convert impedance variations into voltage variations

• Bridges can be designed so the voltage produced varies around zero
• Amplification can be used to increase the voltage level for increased sensitivity to
variation of impedance
 - Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

𝑅3 𝑉 𝑅4 𝑉
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = ∆𝑉 = -
𝑅1 +𝑅3 𝑅2 +𝑅4
𝑅3 𝑉
𝑅3 𝑅2 +𝑅4 −𝑅4 𝑅1 +𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑅2 −𝑅4 𝑅1 𝑉𝑎 =
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 =𝑉 𝑅1 + 𝑅3
𝑅1 +𝑅3 .(𝑅2 +𝑅4 ) 𝑅1 +𝑅3 .(𝑅2 +𝑅4 )
𝑅4 𝑉
𝑉𝑏 =
𝑅2 + 𝑅4
 - Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

𝑅3 𝑅2 − 𝑅4 𝑅1
∆𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅3 . (𝑅2 + 𝑅4 )
Let 𝑅1 =𝑅2 =𝑅3 =R
𝑅4 => sensor 𝑅4 =R+∆R

𝑅2 − (R+∆R)𝑅 𝑉 −∆R 𝑉 ∆R
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 = ≅− ; 𝑅 ≫ ∆R
2𝑅 . (𝑅 + R+∆R) 2 2𝑅 + ∆R 2 2𝑅
 - Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

Long distance effect

𝑅3 𝑅2 − 𝑅4 𝑅1
∆𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅3 . (𝑅2 + 𝑅4 )
Let 𝑅1 =𝑅2 =𝑅3 =R
𝑅4 => sensor, wire resistance =𝑅𝐿 ⇒ 𝑅4 =2𝑅𝐿 +R+∆R
𝑅2 − (2𝑅𝐿 +R+∆R)𝑅 −2𝑅. 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑅∆R
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 =𝑉
2𝑅 . (𝑅 + 2𝑅𝐿 +R+∆R) ……
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
Show that.
- Band-Reject Filter

Lead Compensation
Assignment (Ch2-A)
Show that
Given 𝑅1 =𝑅2 =𝑅3 =R, 𝑅4 =R+∆R and wire resistance =𝑟

∆𝑉 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ ∆R
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

Current Balance Bridge

Standard Wheatstone bridge is modified by splitting one arm resistor into two, R4 and R5.

R4 >> R5 (R2 + R4) >> R5

V = 0 when
VR3 V ( R4 + R5 )
IR5 = −
R1 + R3 R2 + R4 + R5
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

AC bridges
𝑍3 𝑍2 − 𝑍4 𝑍1
∆𝐸 = 𝐸
𝑍1 + 𝑍3 . (𝑍2 + 𝑍4 )
Where:

1
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔L
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits (cont.)
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter

Bridge Application
Bridge off-null voltage is clearly nonlinear for
large-scale changes in resistance.
For small ranges of resistance change, the off-
null voltage is nearly linear
 - Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter Vout 1
- Band-Reject Filter =
Vin [1 + ( f / fc )2 ]1 / 2
• fc = 1/(2RC)
• C in F to pF range
• 1K  R  1 M
• Use standard values for R and C
 - Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
Vout ( f / fc )
- Band-Pass RC Filter =
- Band-Reject Filter Vin [1 + ( f / fc )2 ]1 / 2
• fc = 1/(2RC)
• C in F to pF range
• 1K  R  1 M
• Use standard values for R and C
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter
- Divider Circuits
- Bridge Circuits
- RC Filters
- Low-Pass RC Filter
- High-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Pass RC Filter
- Band-Reject Filter
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 −0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −0
+ 𝑅 =0
𝑅1 2

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=-
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅2
=−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + +𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝑉1 −0 𝑉2 −0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −0
+ 𝑅 + 𝑅 =0
𝑅1 3 2

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
+
𝑅1 𝑅3
=- 𝑅2

𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅2 +
𝑅1 𝑅3
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
 • Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization

Voltage-to-Current Converter
Assignment (Ch2-B)
Show that
Given R1(R3+ R5) = R2 R4

𝑅2
I=− 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑖𝑛
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization

compensating resistor
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
• Voltage Follower
• Inverting Amplifier
• Summing Amplifier
• Noninverting Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Voltage-to-Current Converter
• Current -to-Voltage Converter
• Integrator
• Differentiator
• linearization
Let we need FL = 3kHz
Let we need FH = 1kHz
Therefore,
- F<0.1 kHz and F>30kHz should not pass
- F = 2 kHz should passed

FL = 3kHz = 1/(2RLCL)
FH = 1kHz = 1/(2RHCH)
Let CL=CH = 1 nf
RL= 53.0786 k ohm ≂ 53 k ohm Vout 1 Vout ( f / fc )
= =
RH= 159.236 k ohm ≂ 160k ohm Vin [1 + ( f / fc )2 ]1 / 2 Vin [1 + ( f / fc )2 ]1 / 2
FH= 3kHz and FL = 0.995 kHz

fc = 1/(2RC)
Vin Freq 0.1 kHz Vin Freq= 2 kHz

Vin Freq 30 kHz