Chapter 3: Integral Calculus

1
Learning outcome
 explain the nature of an integral and use the integral function in engineering
applications

Learning contents
 concept and basic techniques of integral calculus;
 standard Indefinite integrals
 concept of definite integral
 properties of definite integral
 integration by substitution, partial fraction and by part.
 applications of integration

2
INTEGRATION

Introduction
The process of integration reverses the process of
differentiation.

𝑑𝑦
Suppose 𝑦 = 𝑥3 then = 3𝑥 2 .
𝑑𝑥

Thus the integral of 3𝑥 2 is 𝑥 3 and the integral of 3𝑡 2

is 𝑡 3 .

3
We use  to replace the words ‘the integral of ’.
Hence, ‫ ׬‬3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 and ‫ ׬‬3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡 3 .

However, there are lots of functions we can differentiate

to give 3𝑥 2 .

e.g. 𝑥 3 + 8 , 𝑥 3 +500 , 𝑥 3 −0.9

All these functions have the same derivative 3𝑥 2 .

4
To allow for the possible presence of a constant,
whenever the process of integration is performed, a
constant ‘C’ is added to the result.

2 3
i.e . ‫ ׬‬3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥

5
A table of integrals

Function f (x ) Indefinite integral  f ( x)dx

c o nsta nt, k kx  C
2
x x C
2
n 1

x
n x C
n 1
n  1

x 1 ln x  C

6
Function f (x ) Indefinite integral  f ( x )dx

sin kx  cos kx  C
k

cos kx sin kx  C
k
1
tan k x ln sec k x  C
k
kx
kx e C
e k

7
Some rules of integration

 kf ( x ) dx  k  f ( x ) dx

 [ f ( x )  g ( x )]dx   f ( x ) dx   g ( x ) dx

8
e.g.1 Evaluate  ( x  2 x  3) dx
3 2

Solution:

  x dx   2 x dx   3dx
3 2

4  2 1
x 2x
   3x  C
4  2 1
4
x 2
   3x  C
4 x
9
 e.g.2 Evaluate
Solution:
 sin( 2 x)dx
 cos 2 x
 C
2

© VTC 2012
10
 3t


e.g.3 Evaluate e dt2

Solution:
3 3t
t
2 2
e 2e
 C  C
3 3
2

2 )du
e.g.4 Evaluate  
5u
(3e
u
Solution:

3e 5 u
  2 ln u  C
5

© VTC 2012
11
DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Introduction
b
The quantity  a f ( x)dx is called the definite integral of

from a to b where a and b are known as the lower and

upper limits of the integral f (x) .

When we evaluate a definite integral, the result will

usually be a number.

12
If f (x) is continuous on the interval a  x  b and if F (x)
is any indefinite integral of f (x) , then
b

 f ( x)dx  F ( x)  F (b)  F (a)

b
a
a
e.g. 1 Evaluate 1
.
 (x  3x  2)dx
3 2
Solution: 0
1
 x 3x
4
3

   2 x
4 3 0
1 3   0 3(0) 
4 3
    2(1)     2(0)
4 3  4 3 
5

4 13
  /2
e.g. 2 Evaluate  sin( 2x)dx .
Solution: 0

  2 
 cos   cos 2(0) 
 cos 2 x  2
2
         
 2 0  2   2 
 
1 1
 ( )  (  )
2 2
1 1
 
2 2
1

14
 1

 e dx
e.g. 3 Evaluate x .
Solution: 0

1
e 
x
e e 1 0

   
 1 0 1 1
1
 1
e
e 1

e
15
Properties of definite integrals
If f (x) and g (x) are continuous on the interval of integration
a xb : a
1.
a
 f ( x)dx  0
b a

2.  f ( x)dx   f (x)dx
a b
b b

3.  cf (x)dx  c f (x)dx
a a
for any constant c
b b b
4.  [f ( x)  g ( x)]dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
a a a
c b b

5.  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

a c a
where a  c  b

16
Integrals with infinite limits of integration


 e dt .
t
e.g.4 Evaluate e 
t
e  e 0
0
   
 10 1 1
1
  1
e
 0 1
1

17
INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Introduction

The technique known as integration by parts is used to

integrate a product of two functions, e.g. ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥.

You can think of this as a product rule for integrals.

18
The integration by parts formula states:
dv du
For indefinite integrals:  udv  uv   vdu  u( dx
)dx  uv   v( )dx
dx
b b b b
For definite integrals:
 udv   vdu
b dv du
 [uv]a a dx
u ( ) dx  [uv]b
a  a dx )dx
v (
a a

To apply the formula to a particular example, we must

- let one function in the product be equal to u and be able to
du
differentiate this function to find ,
dx
- let the other function in the product be equal to dv and be able
to integrate this function to find v.

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 e.g.1 Find ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. .
Solution:
𝑑𝑣
Let u = x Step 1 Let = cos 𝑥 Step 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=1
𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = sin x
dv du
 u ( dx )dx  uv   v( dx )dx
න 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= x sin x − න sin x dx.

= x sin x + cos x + C
20
 e.g.2 Find ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. .
Solution:
Step 1 𝑑𝑣
Let u = x2 Let = cos 𝑥 Step 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = sin x
dv du
 u ( dx )dx  uv   v( dx )dx
න 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= x 2 sin x − න sin x (2x)dx.

= x 2 sin x − 2 න x sin x dx. The remaining integral must

be integrated by parts again. 21
Consider ‫ ׬‬x sin x dx

𝑑𝑣
Let u = x Let = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
=1 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cos x

න x sin x dx

= x(−cos x) − න −cos x dx

= −x cos x + න cos x dx
= −x cos x + sin x + C
22
Therefore,

න 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= x 2 sin x − 2 න x sin x dx.

= x 2 sin x − 2(−x cos x + sin x) + C

= x 2 sin x + 2 x cos x − 2sin x + C

23
e.g.3 Find
Solution:
 ln xdx.
𝑑𝑣
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 = 1,
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑥
= v = ‫ ׬‬1𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
v=x

න 𝑙𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ∗ 1 𝑑𝑥

1
= 𝑙𝑛𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 ∗ 𝑥 ׬‬
𝑥
= x𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

24
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Introduction
The use of substitution in integration is to simplify an integral
or make it more amenable to integration. We often let a new
variable, say u , equal a more complicated part of the function
we are trying to integrate. The choice of which substitution to
make often relies on experience.

25
e.g.1 Find න(7𝑥 + 6).3 𝑑𝑥
Step 1
Solution:
𝐝𝐮 Let u = 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟔
Step 3 න 𝐮𝟑
𝟕
𝒅𝒖
𝟏 𝒖𝟒 =𝟕
= × +𝑪 𝒅𝒙
𝟕 𝟒
𝒅𝒖
𝒅𝒙 = Step 2
𝒖𝟒 𝟕
= +𝑪
𝟐𝟖

(𝟕𝒙+𝟔)𝟒
Step 4 = +𝑪
𝟐𝟖

26
 x 1  x .dx
2
e.g.2 Find the integral
Solution: Step 1
du
Step 3  u let u  1  x 2
2
1 du d
1 u 2
1
 (1  x 2 )
 C dx dx
2 1 1
du
2  2 x
3 dx
u 2
 C  du Step 2
3 xdx 
3 2
Step 4  (1  x ) 2 2
 C
3 27
Substitution and definite integrals
When dealing with definite integrals, it is important to note that the
limits of the integration.
𝟐 Step 1
e.g.3 Find ‫𝒙𝒅 𝟐)𝒙(𝐬𝐨𝐜 𝒙 𝟎׬‬ .
Let u = 𝒙𝟐
Solution: Step 3
𝟒
𝒅𝒖 𝟐
𝒅𝒖
න 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙
𝟐 න 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙)𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝟎
𝟎
𝒅𝒖
𝒙𝒅𝒙 = Step 2
𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏(0) Step 4
𝟐

= -0.378

28
 2𝑥+3
e.g.4 Find ‫׬‬ 2 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑥 +3𝑥+5

Solution:
Let u = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 Step 1

𝒅𝒖 2𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑢
= 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 න 2 𝑑𝑥 = න
𝒅𝒙 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 5 𝑢
Step 3
Step 2
𝒅𝒖 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 𝐝𝐱 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒖 + 𝑪
Step 4
= 𝒍𝒏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 + 𝑪

29
 3
e.g.5 Find the integral .x 2 dx
 x 1
Solution: 0

u  x  1 Step 1
du d
 ( x  1)
dx dx
du
1
dx
du  dx Step 2

30
Step 3

du

Step 4

31
INTEGRATION USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Introduction
It is helpful to break down a complicated fraction into the sum
of simpler fractions. For example,
4x  7  1  3 .
x  3x  2 x  2 x  1
2

We say that the partial fractions of 4x  7

x  3x  2
2
1 3
Are x  2 and x 1 .

32
 Proper and improper fractions

Consider the following ratio of two polynomials,

x  x  3x  7 3x  2x  5
3 2 2
x
(a) x 1
2 (b) x  7x  2
2 (c) x4  1
If the highest power occurring in the denominator is greater
than the highest power occurring in the numerator, then the
fraction is said to be proper, otherwise, it is said to be improper.
Therefore,

(a) improper (b) improper (c) proper

33
 Proper fractions with linear factors
A linear factor ax+b produces a partial fraction of the form
A .
ax  b
e.g.1 Express 72 x  10 as its partial fractions.
2 x  5x  3
Solution:
7 x  10 A B 1 3
 
(2 x  3)( x  1) 2 x  3 x  1 
A( x  1)  B(2 x  3) 2x  3 x 1

(2 x  3)( x  1)

7 x  10  A( x  1)  B (2 x  3)
 A  3B  10 A  1
 Ax  A  2 Bx  3B  
 A  2B  7 B  3
 A  3B  ( A  2 B ) x
34
Proper fractions with quadratic factors

A linear factor of the form ax 2  bx  c produces a partial fraction of the

Ax  B
form 2 .
ax  bx  c
e.g.2 Express 2 3x  1 as its partial fractions.
( x  x  10)( x  1)
Solution:
3x  1 Ax  B C
Let  
( x 2  x  10)( x  1) x 2  x  10 x  1
3x  1  ( Ax  B)( x  1)  C ( x 2  x  10)

-1
Equating coeff. of x , 0  A  C  A 
2

3
7
Equating coeff. of x, 3   A  B  C  B =
3
1 3x  1 x7 1
When x  1, 4  12C  C =   
3 ( x 2  x  10)( x  1) 3( x 2  x  10) 3( x  1)

35
Improper fractions
An additional term is included taking the form of a polynomial
of degree n - d where n is the degree of the numerator and d is
the degree of the denominator. For example
x3  A  B
x2 x2
,

2
2 x  7 x  7  A  Bx  C
and
x2 x2
3 2
x  2 x  5x  1  A  Bx2  Cx  D
x3 x3

36
 2 x  x  2 as partial fractions.
2
e.g.3 Express
x 1
2 x 2
 x  2 A
Solution:Let   ( Bx  C )
x 1 x 1

2 x2  x  2  A  ( Bx  C)( x  1)
2 x 2  x  2  A  ( Bx  C )( x  1)
when x  1, 1  A  A = 1
Equating coeff. of x 2 , 2  B  B = 2
Equating coeff. of x,  1  B  C  C = 3
2 x2  x  2 1
   2x  3
x 1 x 1
37
 23  x
e.g.4 Express ( x  5)( x  4) as the sum of its partial
23  x dx .
fractions. Hence, find  (x  5)(x  4)
Solution:
23  x A B
 
( x  5)( x  4) x  5 x  4
23  x  A( x  4)  B( x  5)
23  x  Ax  4 A  Bx  5B
23  x  4 A  5B  ( A  B) x

23  4 A  5B 23  x 2 3

 1  A  B  ( x  5)(x  4) dx   x  5  x  4 dx
A  2

 B  3  2 ln x  5  3 ln x  4  C
38
APPLICATION (I)
THE AREA BOUNDED BY A CURVE

Introduction
Integration is a process of summation. The definite
b

 f ( x)dx
x b
integral is defined as lim  f ( x) x .
a  x 0
xa

For example, the area under the graph between x  a and x  b

can be calculated by dividing the area into an infinite number of
rectangles, followed by finding the area of each rectangle, and
then adding all these individual areas up.

39
The following figure shows the area approximated by n
rectangles. The following URL is recommended for your
reference.

40
The area bounded by a curve lying above the x axis
e.g.1 Find the area bounded by the curve y  sin x
and the x axis between x  0 and x   .
Solution:



0
sin xdx

  cos x 0


  cos  ( cos 0)
 (1)  1
2
41
The area bounded by a curve lying below the x axis
e.g.2 Find the area bounded by the curve y  sin x
and the x axis between x   and x  2 .
Solution:
2
The evaluation of the area yields a
 sin xdx negative value. There is no such thing
as a negative area. The negative sign
is an indication that the area lies
  cos x 
2
below x-axis

  cos 2  ( cos )
 1  (1)
 2 -ve value ?
42
The area bounded by a curve and the x axis
e.g.3 Find the area bounded by the curve y  cos x
and the x axis between x  0 and x  2 .
Solution: 2

 cos xdx  sin x

2
0  sin 2  sin 0  0
2 0 WRONG !!!
 cos xdx
0
 3
2 2 2
  cos xdx   cos xdx   cos xdx
0 3
2 2

 3  3
 (sin  sin 0)  (sin  sin )  (sin 2  sin )
2 2 2 2
 1   2  [ ( 1)]
 1 2 1  4
43
 The area bounded by two functions
e.g.4 Find the area bounded by y  x and y  x .
2

Solution: y

 y  x 2
y = x2


y  x y = x1/2
2
x2  x 1
x4  x  0
0 x
x ( x  1)  0
3
1 2
x  0 or x  1

44
1 1

 x  x 2 dx  
2
x x dx
0 0
1 1
 1
1   x3 3

x 2x
x3   
2
2
 
    3 3 
1
 1 3   0
2 0
1 2
1  
 2 32 x3  3 3
 x  
3 3 0 1

2 1 3
 
3 3 1

1 3

3

45
e.g.5 Find the total area enclosed by the curve
y  x  5x  4 x and the x axis between x = 0 and x
3 2

= 4.
Solution: 4
 x 5x 4 x 
4 3 2 4

0 x  5x  4 xdx   4  3  2   ......
3 2

y  x3  5x 2  4 x WRONG !!!

when y  0 x  5x  4x  0
3 2

x3  5x 2  4 x  0
x( x  5 x  4)  0
2

x( x  1)( x  4)  0
x  0 or x  1 or x  4
46
4

x  5 x  4 xdx
3 2

0
1 4
 x 5x 4 x 
4
 x 5x 4 x 
3 2 4 3 2
       
4 3 2 0  4 3 2 1
 0.583   10.67  0.583
 0.583   11.25
 11.833

47
48
Solution
This question can be interpreted as the area between two curves.

49
50
APPLICATION (II)
Work by a Variable Force

The work (W) done by a constant force (F) acting on

a body by moving it through a distance (Xm) is given
by: W = F × Xm

51
If the force varies, we need to use calculus to find the
work done. The work done by the force, F(x) (a function
of x) along the x-axis from 0 to Xm is:

𝑋𝑚
W= ‫׬‬0 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

52
Hooke's Law for Springs

The force (F) that it takes to stretch (or compress) a

spring Xm units from its normal length is proportional
to x.
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙

where k is the spring constant. This spring constant is

also called the stiffness of the spring.

Workdone on the spring = W =‫𝒙𝒅𝒙𝒌 ׬‬

53
Example
Find the work done on a spring when you compress it
from its natural length of 1 m to a length of 0.75 m if
the spring constant is k = 16 N/m.

Solution
We start compressing the spring at its natural length (0 m) and
finish at 0.25 m from the natural length, so the lower limit of the
integral is 0 and the upper limit is 0.25.
𝟎.𝟐𝟓
W =‫𝟎׬‬ 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒅𝒙
𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐
W = = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑵𝒎
𝟐

54
Example
A force of 1200 N compresses a spring from its natural
length of 18 cm to a length of 16 cm. How much work
is done in compressing it from 16 cm to 14 cm?.

Solution
F = kx
1200 = k(2)
k = 600 N/cm
∴ F = 600 x
𝟒
W =‫𝒙𝒅𝒙𝟎𝟎𝟔 𝟐׬‬
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟐
W = = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒄𝒎
𝟐

55
APPLICATION (III)
Motion of an object
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the rate of change of
velocity with respect to time is called the acceleration.
𝑑𝑣
a=
𝑑𝑡
Integrating both sides,

The symbol v0 is called the initial velocity. 56

The rate of change of position is called the velocity of the
object.
𝑑𝑥
v=
𝑑𝑡
Integrating both sides,

The symbol x0 is the initial displacement. 57

e.g. If an object is thrown straight upward and its velocity is
given by v(t)= −9.8 t + 19.6. Calculate the position in the
first 2 seconds.

Solution
Velocity versus time graph
2 25

x = න (−9.8t + 19.6) dt 20

Velocity . m/s
0 15

10
𝑡2
= −9.8 +19.6t 5
2
2 2 0
=−9.8 +19.6(2) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
2 Time, s

= 19.6 m

58
e.g. The acceleration of an object is given by a(t)=cos(πt), and its
velocity at time t = 0 is 1/(2π). Find the velocity function of the
object.

Solution

𝑣 = න 𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න cos 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡

sin(πt)
= +C (1)
π

1
Put t = 0 and v = into (1),
2π
1
C=
2π

sin(πt) 1
∴𝑣= +
π 2π 59
e.g. The velocity v of an object travelling on a straight line is given
by 𝑣 = 2𝑡 − 𝑡 2 m/sec, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4. Find
(a) the distance travelled by the object; and
(b) the displacement of the object.

Solution
Velocity versus time graph
2
(a)
0
0 1 2 3 4

Velocity, m/s
-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
Time, s

60
(b)

61
O R D I N A RY D I F F E R E N T I A L E Q U AT I O N S

The order of a differential equation is the degree

of the highest derivative that occurs in the
equation.

62
Solving simple 1st order differential equation
An equation may be in a form of
dy
= f (t ) g ( y )
dt
and the general solution is 𝟏
න 𝒅𝒚 = න 𝒇 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑪
𝒈(𝒚)
dy f (t )
or =
dt g( y)
the solution is
න 𝒈(𝒚)𝒅𝒚 = න 𝒇 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑪

63
Examples of this type of equation are
dx
Natural Growth = kx (k is a constant )
dt
dN
Radioactive Decay =  kN (k is a constant )
dt
dT
Cooling & Heating = k(A  T )
dt
( A is ambient te mp & k is a constant )

64
 dx
Natural Growth = kx (k is a constant )
dx dt
= kx
dt
dx
= kdt
x
1
 dx =  kdt  C
x
ln x  kt  C
x  e ( kt C )  e C * e kt  Ae kt ( A is a constant)
x (t )  x0 e kt where x (0)  x0
65
e.g.6 A bacteria culture is known to grow at a rate proportional to the amount present.
After 1 hour, 1000 strands of the bacteria are observed in the culture; and after 4 hours,
3000 strands. What is the expression for the number of strands of the bacteria present in
the culture at any time t.

Solution: N (t )  N 0 e kt

After t=1, N=1000 1000  N 0 e k

After t=4,N=3000 3000  N 0 e 4 k

Solving the two equations, 3  e 3k

1 1000
or k  ln3  0.366 and N 0  0.366  694
3 e
Hence N (t )  694e 0.366t

66