NGI Course content for Module 2 o Passive solar heating and cooling: Introduction to thermal comfort in the buildings, Heat control and ventilation for solar heating and cooling, Thermal comfort factors, thermal indices, thermal quantities, heat exchange in buildings, periodic heat flow, mechanical and _ structural means of thermal control. Principles of day lighting in buildings Heat and temperature + Heat is a form of energy, contained in substances as molecular motion or appearing as electromagnetic radiation in space. + Energy is the ability or capacity for doing work and it is measured in the same units. * The derivation of this unit from the basic MKS (m, kg, s) units in the SI.Heat and temperature * Temperature (7) is the symptom of the presence of heat in a substance. * The Celsius scale is based on water: its freezing point taken as 0°C and its boiling point (at normal atmospheric pressure) as 100°C. * The Kelvin scale starts with the ‘absolute zero ’, the total absence of heat. Thus 0°C 273.15 K. + The temperature interval is the same in both scales. By convention, a point on the scale is denoted °C (degree Celsius) but the notation for a temperature difference or interval is K (Kelvin), which is a certain length the scale, without specifying where it is on the overall scale NGI NAGARJUNA Heat flow twgansuna + As water flows from a higher to a lower position, so heat flows from a higher. temperature zone (or body) to a lower temperature one. Such heat flow can take place in three forms: 1 Conduction within a body or bodies in contact, by the ‘spread’ of molecular movement. 2 Conyection from a solid body to a fluid (liquid or gas) or vice versa (in a broader sense it is also used to mean the transport of heat from one surface to another by a moving fluid, which, strictly speaking, is ‘mass transfer * The magnitude of convection heat flow rate depends on a area of contact (A, m 2) between the body and the fluid 2 the difference in temperature ( T, in K) between the surface of the body and the ai c.a convection coefficient (4 ¢) measured in W/m’K, which depends on_the viscosity of the fluid and its flow vel as well as on the physical configuration that will determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent* 3 Radiation from a body with a warmer surface to another which is cooler. Thermal radiation is a wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation, normally taken as 700 —10 000 nm + * short infrared *: 700-2300 nm * ‘long infrared ’: 2.3-10 jm (some suggest up to 70 m) * | nm (nanometre) 10% (-9 )m * 1 um (micrometer) 10% (-6) m Conduction Conduction depends also on a property of the material known as conductiv ity (J), measured as the heat flow density (W/m?) in a 1m thick body (i.e. the length of heat flow path is 1m), with a one degree temperature difference, in units of Wen/m?k = W/mK. As insulating materials are fibrous or porous, they are very sensitive to moisture content. If the pores are filled with water, the conductivity will increase quite drastically. Take a porous, fibrous cement insulating board Density (kg/m?) Conductivity (W/mk) 136 0.051 272 0.144 400 0.203Conductivity is a material property, regardless of its shape or size. The cor responding property of a physical body (e.g. a wall) is the conductance (C) measured between the two surfaces of the wall. For a single layer it is the conductivity, divided by thickness (//b). Itis a rarely used quantity. Transmittance, or U-value includes the surface effects and it is the most frequently used measure. This is the heat flow density (W/m) with 1K temperature difference (AT) between air inside and air outside (see Fig. 1.3), in units of W/m°K. If Tis always taken as To - Ti then a negative value ~ thus also a negative Q— will indicate heat loss, whilst a positive value would mean heat gain Example wall section: C and U and resistances which are additive.If the outside temperature is T, = 10°C and the inside is T; = 22°C, thus AT= 10 — 22 = —12K (the negative indicating a heat loss). Over a 10m” brick wall (U = 1.5 W/m’k) the heat flow rate will be Q=AXxUx AT Q=10x1.5 x (-12) = -180W It is often useful to do a ‘dimensional check’ for such expressions: Ww. m? x —— xK=W mk NGI The reciprocal of the U-value is the sirto-air resistance (R,— 3, in m’KMW) which is the sum of component resistances: resistances of the surfaces and of the body of the element (wall, roof, etc.), e.g. for a wall of two layers: Rag = Ry +R) + Po + Rey (1.2) The R-value of any homogeneous layer is its thickness (b* for breadth) in m, divided by the conductivity of its material: b a (1.3) a A The reciprocal of this resistance is conductance, C in Wim7K.NGI For example Fig. 1.3 shows a 220mm brick wall (4 = 0.84W/mK), witha = “"""""" 15mm cement render (4 = 0.6 W/mK) and surface resistances of A = 0.14 and R.. = 0.06 m?KW (values taken from data sheets D.1.1 and D.1.4): 0.220 | 0.015 = 220), OATS 01287" th ean” on 0.287 thus 1 = 3.484 Wink 0.220 | 0.015 084 * 06 = 2.054 Wim*k + 0.06 — 0.487 thus *'b is used for thickness (breadth) to distinguish it from ‘f for time and ‘T’ for temperature. NGI The resistance to heat flow of a layer of maternal is A = bid, i.e. thickness, divided by conductivity (see Section 1.1.2.1 and eq. (1.3). For a multilayer build- ing element the resistances of all layers must be added. The surfaces provide additional resistances {airto-surface and surface-to-air) which must be added to this sum. Data sheet D.1.4 gives the appropriate surface resistance values (Ry and R,,) for inside and outside surfaces. The reciprocal of this surface resistance is the surface conductance (h), which is itself the sum of convec- tive (h,) and radiative (h,) components. In each case the surface resistance is Re =Wh=%h +h) lnm’)NGI Any cavity or air gap may also offer @ resistance (Ro), thus the airto-sir resist- ance of an element will be (Fig. 1.56) R, Rg +RItR2+ Ao +R3 + Reg where AI, RZ = resistance of material layers Re = the resistance of any cavity. Data sheet D.14 also gives cavity resistance values. The U-value is the reciprocal of this R_. Usvaiues of many elements are given in data sheets D.1.2 and D.13, but it ccan also be calculated from its component resistances. ‘The actual total conduction heat flow rate of the building will be [Oc = gex aT or Qc= HAXU)x AT where T To Ti, the difference between outside and inside air temperature. T and Qc are negative for heat loss, positive for heat gain. Determine the U-value for the following wall section composed of three 1. Hardboard, 1/4-inch thick 2. Expanded polystyrene, 2-inches thick 53. Plywood, 5/4-inch thick Resistances (R) of the materials per inch in FPS units R of inside air = 0.68; R hard board = 018; R of expanded polystyrene = 400 R of Plywood = 1.25; R Outside air = 0.171 A; BK 2 bale, Ta leg, ey he hy DR=Ryu +R: +R, +R; + Ry D R= 0.17+ 0.18 + 4.00 + 1.25 + 0.68 = 6.28 m°K/W re = mes = 0.159 ~ 0.16 W/mK 6.28 >) The U-value of a multi-layered wall assembly of 120mm brick masonry (thermal conductivity = 1.150 W/mk), 5mm air cavity (thermal conductivity 0.037W/mk) 100mm concrete (thermal conductivity = 1.440 W/mK), 25 mm glass wool (thermal conductivity = 0.093 W/mK) and 12 mm cement plaster (thermal conductivity = 0.461 W/mk). Consider internal and external surface air resistance as 0.123 m?K/W and 0.076 m2K/W, respectively. Find the thermal transmittance of the brick masonryThermal resistance= Rso +R1+R2+R3+R4+R5+Rsi Rso= 0.076 RI=0.12/1.15= 0.104 R2=0.05/0.037= 1.351 R3=0.1/1.44= 0.069 R4=0.025/0.093=0.268 R5=0.012/0.461=0.026 Rsi= 0.123 Total resistance =2.017 Thermal transmittance=1/R=1/2.07=0.496W/m?K Using the following values of thermal conductance, Surface conductance and thermal resistance, determine the U value across the given wall cross-section. [Round off to two decimal places] * Thickness: Plaster 10mm; Brickwork 100mm; Cavity 50mm * Thermal conductivity: Brick wall 1.2 W/m°C; Plastering 0.5 W/m°C * Surface conductance: Internal surface 8.0 m?°C/W; External surface 9.5m?°C/W * Thermal resistance: 50mm wall cavity 0.17 m?°C/W.= T 01 or 95° 05 qatoa7+S fe © 0,41+0,02+0.08+0.17+0.125 U = —tae = 198 ~ 2 W/mK Conduction heat flow Conduction heat flow is found as eq. (1.1), except that the sum of Ax U products is found for the whole building envelope. This will be referred to as the envelope conductance (Fig. 1.55) (im? x Wim?k = WIK) (1.25) This is the heat flow rate by conduction through the total envelope of the building with a AT = 1K temperature difference between inside and outside.Convection Convection heat transfer is a function of the convection coefficient, he (in Wim?k): OQ, = AXA, XAT] m2 x W/mK XK = W a4) The magnitude of h, depends on the position of the surface, the direction of the heat flow and the velocity of the fluid, e.g. * for vertical surfaces (horizontal heat flow) h. = 3W/m?K * for horizontal surfaces heat flow up (air to ceiling, floor to room ait) 4.3 W/m?k — heat flow down lair to floor, ceiling to room air) 1.5 Wim?K (as hot air rises, the upward heat transfer is stronger) In the above still air io assumed (ic. air flow is duc to the heat transfor only). If the surface is exposed to wind, or mechanically generated air move- ment (i.e. if it is forced convection), then the convection coefficient is much higher: +h = 58441 where vis air velocity in m/s. CONVECTION Free Convection: Flow of gas or liquid comes from differences in density and temperature - natural or free convection Forced Convection: Flow of gas or liquid is circulated by pumps or fans - mechanical forced convection Convection depends on speed of fluid movementRADIATION Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves Thermal radiation is electromagnetic waves (including light) produced by objects because of their temperature The higher the temperature of an object, the more thermal radiation it gives off RADIATION As the temperature rises, thermal radiation produces shorter-wavelength At 1,000°C the color is yellow-orange, turning to white at 1,500°C Depends on temperature (T) and surface area (A) Short-wave radiation vs. Long-wave radiation — Building ApplicationSurface area (m2) Pr = fam) — P= SATS Stefan-Boltzmann constant Absolute temperature 5.67 x 10 watts/m?K¢) (kK) RADIATION Absorption and Emission Absorptivity (a) and emissivity (e) are properties of a material which determine radiant exchange of a surface with itsRADIATION = Absorptivity is the main factor in determining the temperature response to short-wave (solar) radiation, and is dependent largely by color. = Emissivity is the main factor which determines the response to long wave (thermal) radiation. Generally e = 0.9 for non-metallic surfaces. SU fo Vale 400780mm nie: 70920000 ‘Thera 2005200000 Ma 2008 Raison eA)Thermal Insulation — Types = Resistive = Reflective = Capacitive Tsorair = Tout + (@*1)/ ho Where; Tour Outside temperature in °C a — absorptivity of the surface | global solar irradiance (W/m?) ho — heat transfer co-efficient for radiation and convection (W/m?K)How do we assess the effectiveness of envelop thermal performance ? + Thermal efficiency of envelop at Element level itmeans the it starts from basically the micro structure inherent property of the material at the component level exemple Components ‘thermal efficiency performance of a brick /block/aerated concrete block Assembly level feraninsulated system it means whole system eg whole wall * Hygro-thermal efficiency of overall building enclosure * Air-tightness of building enclosure Element and Component LevelElement level properties Primary idea about thermal resistance to heat flow Eg. Thermal conductivity Component level properties More precise idea about thermal performance Eg. Thermal transmittance Assembly level properties Clear picture of thermal behavior — Resistive, Reflective and Capacitive Eg. Whole wall thermal transmittance,National Building Code of India Recommendations for U-value for the wall Thermal damping based on T, and T,, Thermal Performance Index (TPI) based on T, Thermal Time Constant Building Index Capacitive Insulation: Thermal Mass Refers to materials which have the capacity to store thermal energy for extended periods ge inside wall Pomp Thermal mass can be used effectively to L absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cos cooling load) and release the heat during the night (reducing heat load). massive wallDecrement factor = ————_—— To~max — To-min : AT, — AT, Thermal Damping =—=-— x 100 ° AT, — Outside temperature range AT, — Inside temperature range NGI NAGARJUNA Q. Calculate the decrement factor of a west wall for @ given material, given that the maximum and minimum outside temperature are 46.5°C and 295 °C. The inside maximum and minimum temperature are 38°C and 328°C respectively, DE —qes-295° The Decrement factor of the west wall of aiven material is 0.306.Q Calculate the thermal damping of a west wall for a given material, given that the maximum and minimum outside temperature are 465°C and 295°C. The inside maxim id minimum temperature are 38°C and 528°C respectively. Damping = “== x 100 (465 °C — 29.5°C) ~ (38.0 °C — 32.8°C) (Q7-5.2)°C 118 Damping = as x 100 = X 100==7-x 100 = 69.41% The thermal damping of the west wall of the given material is 69.41%. “GI Measure of the building’s capacity to absorb solar energy coming into the interior of the space, and to release the heat to the interior during the night hours. Particular importance for buildings with direct solar gain. Diurnal Heat Capacity = DHC - a function of building material's density, specific heat, conductivity, and thickness. * Total DHC of a building is calculated by summing the DHC values of each surface exposed to the interior alr.NGI The required heat capacity (Qeq) for walls can be derived taking the outdoor “ temperature range (Tiomax-T(oymin), absorptivity (a) of the surface and the maximum solar intensity (In...) into consideration. Qieg= 2.5" (Tyopmei>Tieymin) * 0.1(2"lpaead Eg. The average Tyomax-T(oymin for Ahmedabad was found to be 13°C and Ina, Was found to be 925 W/m?. Therefore; Qeeq = 2.5 * (13) + 0.1(0.3°925) = 60.25 Whim? The heat capacity of the RC wall is 86.4 Wh/m?C Q. The average Tic)nar-T oimin for Ahmedabad was found to be 15°C and Imax Was found to be 925 W/m’. Calculate the required heat capacity of a wall for Ahmedabad. Qheg = 25 * (Tyopmax-Toymin) + O14" lina) Qreq = 25 * (13°C) + 01(0.3"995 W/m) = 60.25 Wh/mec Thus, the required heat capacity of a wall in Ahmedabad is 6025 Wh/m?*C. Practical Implication: Thus a RC wall having @ heat capacity of 6644 Wh/m®C could be used in Ahmedabad.Thermal Time Constant Thermal Time Constant (TTC) = ye =), (¢ + =) (aos) L, — Thickness k, — Conductiviey Pp — Density Cy — Specific heat Q. Calculate the TTC of a Brick Wall configuration given below with both side Plaster: Thickness (mm) Thermal Conductiviy | Density (Kg/m?) Specific Heat (w/mk) (Ki/Kgk) Dense Cement Plaster | 15 0721 1648) 084 Brick 200 0811 1820 0.88 Dense Cement Plaster | 15 721 1648 0.84(oped + (E442) dred E+b+ E+ 2) God ( 7 =— (ons x 1640°4 x 094 x 10-5 “ WE Oey | (Oo ile ak, 1986 52R 2 x 0.7215R; ‘ot “ A+ ue + Oem 17) (92 x 12042 x 088 x wt) Pere “one nee aonna w. im _ " We ‘Get ae ee ee x 104088 x 094 x 10°07) eR OAR OB aE Tn TTC = (0.05 + 0.010 ™*) (20,7648 +) + (0.05 + 0.021 + 0.123 ais) (3.20320%2) + (005 +0021 +0287 + 0010") (20,7648 = Dente Cement Plaster 15m Ans. TTC = (0.06)(20,7648 s) + (0.194)(3,20,320 s) + (0.328)(20,7648 s) TTC = 1245.89 + 62142.08 + 6810.85 5 TTC = 70198825 70,198.82 Tre == rs TTC = 195 Hre ‘Thus, the Thermal Time Constant of 200mm Brick wall with 1 Smm Pkaster both sides is approximately 19.5 Hours.Thermal Performance Index Thermal Performance Index x 100 (Tin-veax ~ 30) 8 Corrected TPI = (TPI—50) x C +50 (Refer Table 11 in page 55 of SP 41 for C values) TABLE 11 CORRECTION FACTORS (C) FOR ‘THERMAL PERFORMANCE INDEX (TPP) (Cine 53) Cascais Hor Ho Wane = te mee e 1) Matting Component Root= © Calculate the TPI of a a)West and b) North wall in a Naturally Ventilated building in Hot Dry Climate Zone for a given material with Maximum inside temperature as 39.4°C. Ans. a) For West Wall _ Dimas ~30) TP] =—22=— x 100 GACH 30D 5100 = 4S x 100 = 1175 TPI= — b) For North Wall _ G9.4°C- 30°C) T= 94°C % 100 = 5x 100 = 1175 TPleorrected = (TPI~ 50) XC +50 TPlegrrected = (117.5 — 50) x 0.45 + 50 = (67.5) x 0.45 + 50 = 30.38 + 50 = 80.38 NGI Material Design/ Solar: Property Zoning —- Exposure Meee BU ee i eRe ood PAE ITS BU eee Building Index