Lecture 6 – part 2 Electronics
2
Oscillators (8022110-4)
Dr. Esam Zafar
Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering & Islamic Architecture
Umm – Al Qura University
eyzafar@uqu.edu.sa
Office: Electrical Engineering Department- Ground floor - 210
Lecture objectives
• The Oscillator
• Feedback Oscillators
• Oscillators with RC Feedback Circuits
• Relaxation Oscillators
• The 555 Timer as an Oscillator
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
• The second major category of oscillators is the relaxation oscillator.
• Relaxation oscillators use an RC timing circuit and a device that changes states
to generate a periodic waveform.
A Triangular-Wave Oscillator:
• The op-amp integrator covered previously can be used as the basis for a
triangular-wave oscillator.
If the switch is thrown back and
forth at fixed intervals, the
output is a triangular wave
consisting of alternating positive-
going and negative-going ramps
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
A Practical Triangular-Wave Oscillator:
• One practical implementation of a triangular wave oscillator utilizes an op-amp
comparator with hysteresis to perform the switching function. The ramp continues in this
direction until the lower trigger
To begin, assume that the output voltage of the comparator point (LTP) of the comparator is
is at its maximum negative level. This output is connected reached. At this point, the
to the inverting input of the integrator through R1, comparator output switches
producing a positive-going ramp on the output of the back to the maximum negative
integrator. level and the cycle repeats.
When the ramp voltage reaches the upper
trigger point (UTP), the comparator
switches to its maximum positive level.
This positive level causes the integrator
ramp to change to a negative-going
direction.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
A Practical Triangular-Wave Oscillator:
• Since the comparator produces a square-wave output, the previous circuit can
be used as both a triangular-wave oscillator and a square-wave oscillator.
• Devices of this type are commonly known as function generators because they
produce more than one output function.
• The output amplitude of the square wave is set by the output swing of the
comparator, and the resistors R2 and R3 set the amplitude of the triangular
output by establishing the UTP and LTP voltages according to the following
formulas:
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
A Practical Triangular-Wave Oscillator:
• The frequency of both waveforms depends on:
➢ R1C time constant
➢ The amplitude-setting resistors, R2 and R3.
• By varying R1, the frequency of oscillation can be adjusted without changing the
output amplitude:
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
Example 1: Determine the frequency of oscillation of the circuit.
To what value must R1 be changed to make the frequency 20kHz?
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
Example 1 solution:
• To find the resonant frequency (frequency of oscillation), we can determine the time constant
R1C and the amplitude-setting ratio separately, or we can do this directly through the formula.
• Time constant:
𝑹𝟏 𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏µ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 µ𝒔
• amplitude-setting ratio:
𝑹𝟐 𝟑𝟑𝒌
= = 𝟑. 𝟑
𝑹𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝒌
• frequency of oscillation:
𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏
𝒇𝒓 = = 𝟑. 𝟑 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
𝟒𝑹𝟏 𝑪 𝑹𝟑 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎 µ𝒔
• To make fr = 20 kHz:
𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟏
𝒇𝒓 = → 𝑹𝟏 = = 𝟑. 𝟑 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟑 𝒌Ω
𝟒𝑹𝟏 𝑪 𝑹𝟑 𝟒𝒇𝒓 𝑪 𝑹𝟑 𝟒 𝟐𝟎𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏µ Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Relaxation Oscillator
A Square-Wave Oscillator :
the op-amp’s inverting 2 The capacitor begins to charge 3 When VC = Vf, the op-amp switches
input is the capacitor toward Vout through R1 to the maximum negative state.
voltage
Operation is based the capacitor begins to
on the charging and discharge from + Vf
discharging of a toward - Vf . Then, the
capacitor (That is op-amp switches back to
why it is considered the maximum positive
as relaxation 4 state. This action
oscillator) continues to repeat.
1 When the circuit is first turned on,
the capacitor is uncharged, and thus
the noninverting input is a the inverting input is at 0 V. This
portion of the output fed back makes the output a positive maximum
through resistors R2 and R3 to
provide hysteresis Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
• The 555 timer is a versatile integrated
circuit with many applications.
• The 555 timer consists basically of:
➢ Two comparators
➢ a flip-flop
➢ a discharge transistor
➢ a resistive voltage divider
Internal diagram of a 555
integrated circuit timer.(IC pin
numbers are in parentheses.)
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
The flip-flop:
• The flip-flop (bistable multivibrator) is a digital device that may be
unfamiliar to you at this point unless you already have taken a digital
fundamentals course.
• Briefly, it is a two-state device whose output can be at either a high
voltage level (set, S) or a low voltage level (reset, R).
• The state of the output can be changed with proper input signals.
• The truth table of SR Flip-Flop
Reset
Set
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
The resistive voltage divider and the two comparators:
• The resistive voltage divider is used to set the voltage comparator levels.
• All three resistors are of equal value; therefore, the upper comparator has a
𝟐
reference of VCC (High trigger voltage), and the lower comparator has a reference
𝟑
𝟏
of V (Low trigger voltage).
𝟑 CC
• The comparators’ outputs control the state of the flip-flop.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
The resistive voltage divider and the
two comparators:
𝟏
• When the trigger voltage goes below 𝟑VCC ,
the flip-flop sets (S is high → Q = 1 = VCC)
and the output jumps to its high level.
• Q1 (discharging transistor) is off and
capacitor charges.
• The threshold input is normally connected
to an external RC timing circuit. When the
𝟐
external capacitor voltage exceeds 𝟑VCC,
the upper comparator resets the flip-flop,
which in turn switches the output back to
its low level (R is high → Q` = 1) and (Q1)
gets ON and capacitor discharges quickly
This basic operation allows the timer to be configured
and retain the status. with external components as an oscillator, a one-shot,
or a time delay element. Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation:
• A 555-timer connected to operate in the astable
mode as a free-running relaxation oscillator (astable
multivibrator).
• Notice that the threshold input (THRESH) is now
connected to the trigger input (TRIG).
• The external components R1, R2, and Cext form the
timing circuit that sets the frequency of oscillation.
• The capacitor C1 connected to the control (CONT)
input is strictly for decoupling and has no effect on
the operation.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation (Initial statues) :
• When the power is turned on, the capacitor Initial statues
Cext is uncharged and thus the trigger voltage
(pin 2) is at 0 V. 0
1
• This causes the output of the lower 1
comparator to be high and the output of the 0V
upper comparator to be low, forcing the
output of the flip-flop, and thus the base of
0
Qd, low and keeping the transistor off.
Off
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation (Cext charging
statues) :
Cext charging statues
• Cext begins charging through R1 and R2.
𝟏
• When the capacitor voltage reaches VCC , the lower
𝟑
comparator switches to its low output state, and 1
𝟐
when the capacitor voltage reaches VCC , the upper
𝟑
0
comparator switches to its high output state.
0
• This resets the flip-flop, causes the base of Qd to go
high, and turns on the transistor. This sequence Vc(charging)
creates a discharge path for the capacitor through R2
and the transistor, as indicated. 1
ON
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation (Cext discharging
statues) :
Cext discharging statues
• The capacitor now begins to discharge,
causing the upper comparator to go low.
0
• At the point where the capacitor
discharges down to
𝟏
V , the lower 1
𝟑 CC
comparator switches high, setting the flip- 1
flop, which makes the base of Qd low and Vc(charging)
turns off the transistor.
• Another charging cycle begins, and the 0
entire process repeats. Off
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation:
• The result is a rectangular wave output whose duty cycle
depends on the values of R1 and R2.
• The frequency of oscillation can be found as:
𝟏. 𝟒𝟒
𝒇𝒓 =
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 )𝑪𝒆𝒙𝒕
• The duty cycle of the output can be adjusted By
selecting R1 and R2.
• Since 𝑪𝒆𝒙𝒕 charges through R1+R2 and discharges only
through R2, duty cycles approaching a minimum of 50
percent can be achieved if R2>>R1, so that the charging
and discharging times are approximately equal.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation:
𝟏
• The time that the output is high (tH) is how long it takes Cext to charge from VCC
𝟑
𝟐
to VCC :
𝟑
𝒕𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟒(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 )𝑪𝒆𝒙𝒕
• The time that the output is low (tL) is how long it takes Cext to discharge from
𝟐 𝟏
VCC to VCC :
𝟑 𝟑
𝒕𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟒𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝒆𝒙𝒕
• The period, T, of the output waveform is the sum of tH and tL:
𝑻 = 𝒕𝑯 + 𝒕𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟒(𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 )𝑪𝒆𝒙𝒕
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation:
• Finally, the percent duty cycle is:
• Example: a duty cycle of 50% corresponds to a system in the "on" state half the
time and off half the time.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Astable Operation:
• To achieve duty cycles of less than 50 percent, we can
modify the circuit so that Cext charges through only R1,
and discharges through R2.
• This is achieved with a diode, D1, connected in parallel
with R2.
• The duty cycle can be made less than 50 percent by
making R1 less than R2.
• Under this condition, the formulas for the frequency
and percent duty cycle are (assuming an ideal diode):
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Example 2: A 555 timer configured to run in the astable mode
(oscillator) is shown in the Figure. Determine the frequency of the
output and the duty cycle.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Example 2 solution:
• The frequency of oscillation can be found as:
𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒
𝒇𝒓 = = = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑯𝒛
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 )𝑪𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟐 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝝁
• The percent duty cycle is:
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌
𝑫𝒖𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟓𝟗. 𝟓%
𝑹𝟏 + 𝟐𝑹𝟐 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟗. 𝟒𝒌
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Operation as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
(VCO):
The 555-timer connected
• A 555 timer can be set up to operate as a VCO by using as a voltage-controlled
the same external connections as for astable operation, oscillator (VCO). Note the
variable control voltage
with the exception that a variable control voltage is input on pin 5.
applied to the CONT input (pin 5).
• The control voltage (VCONT) changes the threshold values
𝟏 𝟐
of VCC and VCC for the internal comparators.
𝟑 𝟑
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Operation as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO):
𝟏
• With the control voltage, the upper value is VCONT, and the lower value is 𝟐VCONT, as you can
see by examining the internal diagram of the 555 timer.
• When the control voltage is varied, the output frequency also varies.
• An increase in VCONT increases the charging and discharging time of the external capacitor
and causes the frequency to decrease.
• A decrease in VCONT decreases the charging and discharging time of the capacitor and causes
the frequency to increase.
• An interesting application of the VCO is in phase-locked loops, which are used in various types
of communication receivers to track variations in the frequency of incoming signals.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The 555 timer as an Oscillator
Operation as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO):
The VCO output frequency varies inversely
with VCONT because the charging and
discharging time of Cext is directly
dependent on the control voltage.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
