WISDOM
Uploaded by
Mehma KaurWISDOM
Uploaded by
Mehma KaurName:MEHMA KAUR ANAND
Roll no:PSY/22/58
Course:BA(hons) Psychology
Subject:Positive Psychology sem 4 NEP
Topic:WISDOM
WISDOM
INTRODUCTION TO WISDOM:(ASHMEET KAUR; PSY/22/43)
sychologists tend to agree that wisdom involves an integration of knowledge,
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experience, and deep understanding,as well as a tolerancefor theuncertainties of life.
leadingtheory,developedbypsychologistsPaulBaltesandothers,defineswisdom
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as “expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of lifethatpermitsexceptional
insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters.”
isdom is most generally understood to mean a philosophic understanding of what
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matters in life and the practical knowledge of how to conduct a life that matters
(Baltes & Freund, 2003b; Peterson & Seligman, 2004;Robinson,1990).Theoretical
wisdom and practical wisdom are thus wedded together and assumed to produce a
happy and satisfying life.
isdom involves identifying and pursuing the deeperandenduringpurposesoflife,
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beyond individual happiness. Wisdom is the ability to balance your needs and
happiness with those of others(Sternberg, 1998).
ternberg (1985) asked a group of college professors and lay-persons to list
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characteristics they associated with wise people. Researchers then took the top 40
wisdomcharacteristicsandaskedcollegestudentstosortthemintopiles,accordingto
“which behaviors[were]likelytobefoundtogetherinaperson.”Basedonstudents’
sortings, Sternberg identified six groupings of attributes that characterize a wise
person:
. Reasoning ability: Uncommon ability to look at a problem and solve it through
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good logical reasoning ability, by applying knowledge to particular problems, by
integrating information and theories in new ways, andbypossessingahugestoreof
knowledge.
. Sagacity: A keen understanding of human nature, thoughtfulness, fairness, good
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listeningabilities,knowledgeofself,andplacingvalueontheadviceandknowledge
of others.
. Learning from ideas andtheenvironment:Placesvalueonideas,isperceptive,
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and learns from others’ mistakes.
.Judgment:Hasgood,sensiblejudgmentatalltimes,takesalong-termratherthan
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a short-term view, and thinks before acting and speaking.
. Expeditious use of information: Learns andretainsinformationfromexperience
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(both mistakes and successes), willingness to change one’s mind based on new
experience.
.Perspicacity:Demonstratesperceptiveness,intuition,abilitytoseethroughthings,
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read between the lines; and discern the truth and the right thing to do.
I n his analysis of wisdom in philosophical writings, Baltes (1993) identified seven
properties describing the nature of wisdom (taken from Baltes & Staudinger, 2000,
Appendix A, p. 135)
. “Wisdom addresses important and difficult questions and strategies about the
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conduct and meaning of life.”
. “Wisdom includes knowledge about thelimitsofknowledgeandtheuncertainties
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of the world.”
3. “Wisdom represents a truly superior level of knowledge, judgment, and advice.”
. “Wisdom constitutes knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth, measure, and
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balance.”
.“Wisdominvolvesaperfectsynergyofmindandcharacter,thatis,anorchestration
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of knowledge and virtues.”
.“Wisdomrepresentsknowledgeusedforthegoodorwell-beingofoneselfandthat
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of others.”
. “Wisdom is easily recognized when manifested, although difficult to achieveand
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specify.”
isdom, then, is not the same thing astechnicalknowledge,“booklearning,”fame,
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or intelligence as measured by an IQ test. Havinglotsofeducation,beinga“smart”
person,orbeinganexpertinagivenarea(likecomputertechnologyorfinance)does
notbyitselfqualifyapersonaswise.Manypeopleareclever,intelligent,orexpertsin
their field,butfarfewerarewise.Wisdomembodiesaparticularkindofknowledge,
intelligence,andjudgmentfocusedontheconductofavirtuouslife.Wisepeoplehave
learnedlife’smostimportantlessons.Thebroadscopeoftheirunderstandingincludes
the uncertainties of life— that is, knowing what cannot be definitively known. Two
prominent theories attempt to capture wisdom’s essential elements: Sternberg’s
balancetheoryandtheworkofPaulBaltesonwisdomasexpertiseintheconductof
life (often referred to as the Berlin wisdom model).
IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT THEORIES
Distinctions are made between implicit and explicit theories of wisdom.
Implicit theories:I mplicit theoretical approaches to wisdom aim to articulatefolk
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conceptionsofthenatureofwisdom.Thatis,psychologistsconductstudiestofindout
what the man in the street thinks wisdom is.
In studies of implicit theories of wisdom, participants are asked to rate the sorts of
words that characterize wise people and these words are then collapsed into
dimensions using multidimensional scaling techniques (e.g. Clayton and Birren,
1980). The results of these studies show that people have aclearunderstandingthat
wisdom is relatedtoexcellenceanddifferentiatedfromotherconceptssuchassocial
intelligence, maturity and creativity.
isdom involves an exceptional level of personal and interpersonal competence
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includingtheabilitiestolisten,evaluateandgiveadviceandisusedforthewellbeing
of self and others.
~Explicittheories:Explicittheoriesofwisdomincludethosethatdefinewisdomasastageof
p ersonality development (Erikson et al., 1986); a stage of cognitive development (Basseches,
1984; Riegel, 1973); or a high level of skill development that entails both personality and
cognitive processes.
WISDOM: THE FINAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
Mehma Kaur Anand (PSY/22/58)
rik Erikson, a Jewish psychoanalyst addressed the issue of wisdom within the
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contextofhislifecyclemodelofpersonalitydevelopment.Withinthismodel,thelife
cycle is divided into a series of stages each of which involvesfacingachallengeor
crisis that requires resolution. If resolution occurs, a particular personal strength or
virtueevolvesandifnot,apersonaldifficultyorvulnerabilityisengendered.Theease
withwhichsuccessivedilemmasaremanagedisdeterminedpartlybythesuccesswith
which preceding dilemmas were resolved. Erikson’s psychosocial stage model
consists of the following stages:
. TRUST V MISTRUST- ( 0-18 Months)
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The main psychosocial dilemma to be resolved during the first 18 months of life is
trustversusmistrust.Ifparentsrespondtoinfants’needsinapredictableandsensitive
way,theinfantdevelopsasenseoftrust.Ifthechilddoesnotexperiencetheparentas
asecurebasefromwhichtoexploretheworld,thechildlearnstomistrustothersand
this underpins a view of the world as threatening.
2. AUTONOMY V SHAME AND DOUBT- (18 Months- 3 years)
The main psychosocial dilemma in the pre-school years (18 months to 3 years) is
autonomyversusshameanddoubt.Duringthisperiodchildrenbecomeawareoftheir
separateness and strive to establish a senseofpersonalagencyandimposetheirwill
on the world.If parents patiently provide the framework for children tomastertasks
androutines,autonomydevelops.Asadultssuchchildrenarepatientwiththemselves
and have confidence in their abilities to master the challenges of life. If parents are
unable to be patient with the child’s evolving willfulness and need for mastery and
criticize or humiliate failed attempts at mastery, the child will develop a sense of
self-doubt and shame.
3. INITIATIVE V GUILT- (3-6 Years)
I nthepre-schoolyears(3–6years)themainpsychosocialdilemmaisinitiativeversus
guilt. When children have developed a sense of autonomy in the pre- school years,
they turn their attention outwards to the physical and social world and use their
initiative to investigate and explore its regularities with a view to establishing a
cognitive map of it.The child finds out what is allowed and what is not allowed at
home and at school. Many questions about how the world works are asked. The
initiative versus guilt dilemma is resolved when the child learns howtochannelthe
need for investigation into socially appropriate courses of action. This occurs when
parentsempathizewiththechild’scuriositybutestablishthelimitsofexperimentation
clearly and with warmth.
4. INDUSTRY V INFERIORITY- (6-12 Years)
In middle-childhood (6–12 years) the main psychosocial dilemma is industryversus
inferiority. Having established a sense of trust, autonomy and initiative, the child’s
needtodevelopskillsandengageinmeaningfulworkemerges.Childrenwhohavethe
aptitudetomasterskillsthatarerewardedbyparents,teachersandpeersemergefrom
thisstageofdevelopmentwithnewskillsandasenseofcompetenceandself-efficacy
about these. Youngsters who fail and are ridiculed or humiliated develop a senseof
inferiority and in adulthood lack the motivation to achieve.
5. IDENTITY V ROLE CONFUSION- (12-20 Years)
The establishment of a clear sense of identity—that is, a sense of who Iam—isthe
majorconcerninadolescence.Theadolescentavoidstheproblemsofbeingaimlessas
in the case of identity diffusion. Rather they develop a strong commitment to
vocational, social, political and religious values—a virtue Erikson refers to as
fidelity— and usually have good psychosocial adjustment in adulthood.
6. INTIMACY V ISOLATION- ( 21-34 Years)
The major psychosocial dilemmaforpeoplewhohaveleftadolescenceiswhetherto
developanintimaterelationshipwithanotherormovetoanisolatedposition.People
who do not achieve intimacy experience isolation. Difficulties with establishing
intimate relationships typically emerge from experiences of mistrust, shame, doubt,
guilt, inferiority, and role-confusion associated with failure to resolve earlier
developmental dilemmas in a positive manner.
7. PRODUCTIVITY V STAGNATION- (34-60 Years)
The midlifedilemmaisthatofproductivityversusstagnation.Peoplewhoselectand
shape a home and work environment that fits with their needs and talents are more
likely to resolve this dilemma by becoming productive. Productivity may involve
procreation, work-based productivity or artistic creativity. Those who become
roductive focus their energy into making the world a better place for further
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generations.Thosewhofailtoselectandshapetheirenvironmenttomeettheirneeds
and talents may becomeoverwhelmedwithstressandbecomeburnedout,depressed
or cynical on the one hand or greedy and narcissistic on the other.
8. INTEGRITY V DESPAIR- (60+ Years)
Inlateradulthoodthedilemmafacedisintegrityversusdespair.Thosewhoavoidthis
introspective process or who engageinitandfindthattheycannotaccepttheevents
of their lives orintegratethemintoameaningfulpersonalnarrativethatallowsthem
to face death without fear develop a sense ofdespair.Thisdespairentailsasenseof
self-rejection for one’s past failures and current frailties. The positive resolution of
thisdilemmainfavorofintegrityratherthandespairleadstowisdom.So,peopleare
more likely to develop wisdom if they alreadyhavedevelopedvirtuesofhope,will,
purpose,competence,fidelity,loveandcareinresolvingpsychosocialdilemmasfaced
at earlier stages of the life cycle.
orErikson,wisdomistheacceptanceofimperfectioninone’sself,one’sparentsand
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one’s life. Wisdom is an acceptance of oneself with all one’s achievements and
failures, without major regrets; acceptance of one’s parents as people who did their
best, and so deserve love, but were not perfect; acceptance of one’s own life as the
bestonecouldhavelived;andacceptanceoftheinevitabilityofdeath.FromErikson’s
theoreticalperspective,wisdomisthefinalstageofpersonalitydevelopment,andhas
little todowithintelligence,althoughpresumablyaminimumlevelofintelligenceis
required to resolve all of the lifecycle dilemmas.
REIGEL’S THEORY OF WISDOM
(by- Samridhi Mishra; PSY/22/13)
iegel(1973)hassuggestedthatinlateadolescence,afterpeoplehavepassedthrough
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Piaget’s (1976) four stages of cognitive development (P iaget proposed four major stages of
cognitive development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete
operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking.), they enter the stage of dialectical
operations (the ability to view issues from multiple perspectives and to arrive at the most economical and
reasonable reconciliation of seemingly contradictory information and postures.)
he significance of dialectical thinking for problem-solving in adulthood has been
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explored byBasseches(1984)anditisclearfromthisworkthattheextensiveuseof
dialectical thinking to solve complex human problems in adulthood is one way of
conceptualizing wisdom.
Sensorimotor stage
(birth-2 YEAR OLD)
ccording to Piaget, In the first of these—the sensorimotor period—the child’s
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approach to problem-solving and knowledge acquisition is based on manipulating
objects and trial-and-error learning. The main achievements of this stage are the
development of cause-and-effect sensorimotor schemas and the concept of object
permanence, that is, the realization that objects have a permanent existence
independent of our perception of them.
Pre-operational stage
(2-7 YEAR OLD)
ow, the child moves from the use of sensorimotor schemas as the main
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problem-solving tool to the formation of internal representations of the external
world. This ability can be seen in pre-schoolers. These include increasingly
sophisticated language usage, engagement in make-believe or symbolic play, the
ability to distinguish betweenappearanceandreality,andtheabilitytoinferwhat
other people are thinking.
· easoninginthepre-operationalperiodislargelyintuitive,withthechildlinking
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one particular instance to another rather than reasoning from general to
particular. For example, a pre-operational child will say, I’m tired so it must be
night-time rather than It’s getting dark so it must be nighttime.
· hepre-operationalchild’sattemptstosolveproblemsareinfluencedtoamarked
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degree by what isperceived rather than by what isremembered.
The main limitations of the preoperational period:
o visual perspective of another person,
o difficulty in retelling a story coherently (egocentricspeech),
o a belief that inanimateobjectscanthinkandfeellikepeople(animism),
and
o aninabilitytofocusonmorethanonedimensionofaproblematatime.
For example, if liquid is poured from a short wide glass into a tall
narrowglass,thepre-operationalchildmaysaythereisnowmoreliquid
because the level is higher, without making reference to the decreased
width of the second glass.
iaget referred to the capacity to takeaccountoftwodimensionssimultaneously,as
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conservation of quantity.
Concrete operational stage
(5/7-11/12 YEAR OLD)
onservation of quantity is one of the primary achievements of the concrete
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operational period. During this period the child develops the ability to classify
objects, place objects in series, engage in rule-governed games, adopt the
geographicperspectiveofanotherperson,andmanipulatenumbersusingaddition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. These abilities involve the use of logic
(rather than intuition) to solve concrete problems.
Formal operational stage
(12 YEARS OLD AND UP)
t about theageof12,thechildbeginstouselogictosolveabstractproblems.That
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is,thechildcandevelophypothesesaboutwhatmightbetrueandthenmakeplansto
test the hypotheses out. This is the primary characteristic of theformaloperational
period.
There are many achievements which occur during this period:
· T headolescentcanmanipulatetwoormorelogicalcategoriessuchasspeedand
distance when planning a trip.
· ime-related changes can be projected so the adolescent can predict that her
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relationship with her parents will be different in ten years.
· helogicalconsequencesofactionscanbepredicted,socareeroptionsrelatedto
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certain courses of study can be anticipated.
· headolescentcandetectlogicalinconsistenciessuchasthosethatoccurwhen
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parents do not practice what they preach.
· final achievement of the formal operational period is the capacity for
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relativisticthought.Teenagerscanseethattheirbehaviorandthatoftheirparents
is influenced by situational factors.
iaget’sdevelopmentaltheoryhasbeenpartiallysupportedbyempiricalresearch,but
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itisclearthatsignificantvariabilityoccursinthetemporaldevelopmentofchildren’s
thinking skills and that some children develop sophisticated thinking skills earlier
than Piaget suggested(Chen and Siegler, 2000).
longside the extraordinary achievements that typify thestageofformaloperations,
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some limitations characterize thinking during this period.
o C OGNITIVE EGOCENTRICISM: Just as egocentric pre-schoolers cannot take
another person’s perspective because they do not realize that others occupy a
different geographicallocationfromthemselves,youngadolescentsdonotrealize
that others occupy different (and less logical) philosophical positions from
themselves.
his cognitive egocentrism compromises the adolescent’s capacity to solve
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interpersonal problems that entail logical conflicts.
ut this is overcome in a finalstageofcognitivedevelopmentwhichistheperiodof
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dialectical operations.
DIALECTICAL THINKING-
· Dialectical thinking may involve reasoningabouttime and space.
I. I ndialecticalreasoningaboutproblemsinvolvingdifferent
perspectives in space, there is a recognition that different
people may hold different beliefs.
· W hendialecticalthinkingoccursandinvolvestakingaccountofdifferentpointsin
time, there is a recognition that people’s ideas evolve in an unending process of
thesis-antithesis-synthesis.
II. Ideas thatseemed right at one point in life seem different.
hus, Wisdom, from this theoretical perspective, involves the application of
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dialectical thinking to solving complex problems.
WISDOM AS EXPERT KNOWLEDGE ACCORDING TO
BALTES AND STAUDINGER (2000)
(Avneet Kaur PSY/22/39)
- Definition of Wisdom:
altes and Staudinger (2000) define wisdom as an expert knowledge system
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concerning the pragmatics of life that links mind and virtue. This system includes
knowledgeandjudgmentsaboutthemeaningoflifeandthewaytoconductone’slife
in the pursuit of excellence, with due regard to both personal well-being and the
common good. It encompasses understanding, planning, and managing a good life
while considering personal well-being and the common good. Wisdom covers
knowledge about human development in all its complexity andvariations;aboutthe
multiple biological, psychological, social, cultural, physical and spiritual contexts
associated with the human condition; and about the limits of one’s own knowledge
and expertise in making judgements about complex life events. Wisdom involves
knowledge and judgments about the meaning of life and how to conduct one's life
excellently.
g- Now,imaginesomeonefacingatoughdecisionabouttheircareer,likewhetherto
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take anewjobinanothercityorstickwiththeircurrentone.Beingwisemeansthey
setheirknowledgeandexperiencestoreallythinkthingsthrough.Theyconsidernot
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just what's good for them right now, but also what's right in the long run, both for
themselves and for others. They think about their values,likehonestyandkindness,
andhowtheirdecisionaffectseveryonearoundthem.Wisdomisn'tjustaboutmaking
smartchoicesforyourself,butalsoaboutmakingchoicesthatmaketheworldalittle
better for everyone.
- Criteria for Wisdom:
altes and Staudinger (2000) developed five criteria by which the quality of awise
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judgment or behavior may be evaluated:
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1 Rich Declarative Knowledge: Wisdom entails knowing facts about
development, the human condition, and its contextual nature.
.
2 Rich Procedural Knowledge: It involves knowinghowtoperformskillsand
routines, such as complex decision-making about interpersonal problems or conflict
resolution.
.
3 Lifespan Contextualism: Wisdom involves an appreciation of various life
themesandcontexts,suchasself,family,peergroup,school,workplace,community,
society and culture and the variations and interrelations among these across the
lifespan.
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4 Relativism of Values: Wise individuals recognize and respect differences in
values and priorities, aiming for the common good while acknowledging diverse
perspectives.
.
5 Recognition and Management of Uncertainty: Wisdom involves
understanding and coping with incomplete information,uncertaintyaboutthefuture,
and limited cognitive capacities in decision-making.
g- In facing a career-changing decision, the individual demonstrates wisdom by
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drawing upon a comprehensive understanding of their industry's dynamics (Rich
Declarative Knowledge) and applying practical skills in researching options and
negotiating opportunities (Rich Procedural Knowledge). They acknowledge the
influence of personal values, societal norms, and life circumstances (Lifespan
Contextualism) on their decision-making process, respecting the diversity of career
aspirations and values held by others (Relativism of Values).Embracinguncertainty
with resilience and adaptability (Recognition and Management ofUncertainty),they
navigate the complexities of career transitions with insight and grace, striving to
balance personal growth with the common good.
- Assessment of Wisdom:
altes's research methodology for assessingwisdominvolvespresentingparticipants
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withcomplexlifedilemmasandpromptingthemtoarticulatetheirthoughtprocessin
responsetothesesituations.Thesedilemmasarecarefullycraftedtorepresentreal-life
challenges,suchasdealingwithafriendcontemplatingsuicideorreflectingonunmet
life goals. After participants provide their responses, trained judges evaluate them
based on five specific criteria that Baltes and Staudinger identified as indicative of
wisdom.
hrough this evaluation process, researchers aim to understand the degree to which
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individuals demonstrate wisdom-related knowledge and judgment in their responses
to these dilemmas. This method allows for a nuanced understanding of wisdom,
considering not only the content of participants' responses but also the underlying
cognitive and emotional processes involved.
oreover, Baltes's researchfindingschallengetraditionalassumptionsaboutwisdom
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and aging. While it's commonly believed that wisdom increases with age, Baltes's
studiessuggestamorecomplextrajectory.Wisdomtendstopeakduringadolescence
andyoungadulthood,remainsrelativelystableuntilaroundage75,andthendeclines.
Thisindicatesthatagealoneisnotthesoledeterminantofwisdom;otherfactorssuch
as life experiences and cognitive processes also play significant roles.
urthermore, Baltes's research explores whether certain groups, such as clinical
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psychologists, exhibit higher levels of wisdom compared to non-psychologist
professionals. While clinical psychologists do tend to score higher on wisdom
measures, this finding is nuanced. Factors such as self-selection into the profession
and biases in measurement methods need to be considered when interpreting these
results.
dditionally, Baltes's research sheds light on the relationship between wisdom and
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emotional well-being. While wisdom is not necessarily correlated with personal
happiness, wise individuals tend to exhibit greater emotional regulation and
engagement with their environment. They experience fewer negative emotions and
more feelings related to active involvement and learning, suggesting a deeper
understanding of life's complexities and a capacity for resilience in the face of
challenges.
verall, Baltes's research offers valuable insights into the nature of wisdom, its
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development across the lifespan, and its relationship with cognitive, emotional, and
contextual factors.
- Conclusion:
I n summary, wisdom as expert knowledge involves a deep understanding of life's
pragmatics, encompassing declarative and procedural knowledge, contextual
awareness,relativismofvalues,anduncertaintymanagement.BaltesandStaudinger's
f ramework provides a comprehensive understanding of wisdom, its assessment, and
its relationship with age, expertise, and emotional experiences.
WISDOM AS BALANCE (BALANCE THEORY OF WISDOM)
By ISHITA PUSHKAR (PSY/22/8)
alance theory of wisdom was put forth by Robert J. Sternberg, an American
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psychologist whose research often focuses on human intelligence and creativity.
This theory of wisdom is derived from his triarchic theory of intelligence. It is
briefly described below.
Triarchic theory of intelligence.
he triarchic theory of intelligence (1997) proposes that there are three distinct
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types of intelligence: practical, analytical and creative. Sternberg argues that
effective adaptation to the environment, and hence successful use ofintelligence,
involves combining analytic intelligence with practical intelligence and creative
intelligence.
● Analytic Intelligence.
his consists of three sets of information processing c omponents, namely:
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knowledge acquisition components, performance c omponents and
metacomponents.
nowledge-acquisition components include: selectiveencoding(choosingwhatis
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important from a new set of information) selective combination (arranging new
bits of information into a meaningful whole) and selective comparison (relating
new ideas to what is known).
erformance components include encoding theelementsofaproblem,comparing
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one’s own solution with other possible solutions, justifying one’s solution and
implementing the solution.
etacomponents involve using knowledge-acquisition and performance
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components, include recognising problems, defining problems in solvable terms,
forming mental representations of problems, formulating strategies for solving
problems, allocating resources to implement these problem-solving strategies,
monitoring theimplementationofthesestrategiesandevaluatingtheeffectiveness
of solutions.
● Practical intelligence
I t is theapplicationofanalyticalintelligencetosolvingeverydayproblems.
People use practical intelligence to adapt to their current social
environments; to change or shape current social environments so that they
can adapt to them; or to selectnewsocialenvironmentsinwhichthereisa
better fit between their analytical abilities and the types of problems they
ustsolvetoadapttothoseenvironments.Thisisusefulforsolvingvaguely
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definedproblemswithmultiplepossiblesolutions,forexampleusingamap
to plan out a route.
n important aspect of practical intelligence is tacit knowledge. Tacit
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knowledge is the knowledge one gains through living experience, both in
their personal life and professional development. It is often subjective,
informal, and difficult to share or express because it is affected by the
personal beliefs and values and which is rarely explicitly taught or
verbalized.
● Creative intelligence
I t is one’s ability to use existing knowledge to create new ways to handle
newandunfamiliarproblemsorcopeinnewsituationsandautomatisethese
procedures rapidly, so as tofreeupcognitivecapacitytoprocessmorenew
information.
BALANCE THEORY
ternberg’s balance theory describes the practical intelligence necessary to take
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wise action when confronting difficult and complex life situations. It states that
wisdom is the application of practicalintelligence,andthetacitknowledgethatit
entails,tosolveproblemsinawaythatachievesacommongood.Tacitknowledge
is the action-oriented component of practical intelligence (i.e., knowing “how”
rather than know “what”). Sternberg believes that knowledge of how to live
successfully is learned in the trenches of life experience—not through formal
education or direct instruction from others. Tacit knowledge becomes the
foundation for wisdom when it is used to achieve a common good rather than a
self-interested good, and when it is focused on finding ways to balance the
often-conflicting interests and choices involved in real-life situations.
c cording to this theory, wise people are skillful in balancing three interests and
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three possible courses of actionin arriving at solutionsto life problems.
a) One's own interests and needs (intrapersonal)
b ) The interests and needs of important others like a friend or spouse
(interpersonal)
c ) Those related to community, country, environment or religion.
(extrapersonal)
alancing these multiple interests to achieve a common goodrequiresconsideration
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of three courses of action concerning whether and how much individuals need to
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● hange themselves (adaptation)
● Change their environment, including others (shaping),or
● Select a new environment altogether. (selection)
et’s look at an example. Imagine you and your spouse are in a situation where
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you're juggling the demands of your aging parents and your own children, hence
fitting into the "sandwich generation" category. Both of you have busy careers, and
youhavetwochildren,andretirementisstilladistantprospectbecauseyou'refocused
on funding your children's education. Meanwhile, your parents' health is declining,
andthey'readamantaboutstayingindependent,reluctanttomoveintoassistedliving
like an old age home. What would be the best approach to handle this complex
situation?
ccordingtoSternberg,tomeethiscriteriaofwisdom,youmustfindwaystobalance
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your own interest and those of your family with the increasing need for support
required by your parents’ situation. Questions like ‘How much should your own
familyhavetosacrifice,andhowmuchshouldyourparentshavetosacrifice?’,‘How
can you balance all the interests in this case?’ must be asked.
I n terms of specific actions,thequestionbecomes,whoseenvironmentandlifemust
change the most? Yours? Your family’s or Your parents’? These are obviously not
easy considerations. Finding the right solution in complex situations doesn't always
mean achieving a perfect balance where everyone is satisfied without any need for
adjustment or sacrifice. According to Sternberg, wisdom involves using practical
knowledge to navigate through challenges and arrive at the most suitable solution
that considers various interests and requires adaptation and change. Balancing
different interests contributes to a shared benefit, and taking actions that serve this
common good embodies wisdom.
Wisdom and tacit knowledge.
isdom,asperSternberg'stheory,reliesontacitknowledgewhichcannotbedirectly
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taught, but is gained through personal experience and observation. However,
individualscanstilldevelopwisdombyapprenticingundersomeoneskilledinsolving
complex problems, such as in the case of clinical psychologists or physicians who
learn through supervised clinical practice. Since tacit knowledge is context-specific,
wisdom tends to develop within specific domains and may not transfer universally
acrosscultures.Furthermore,becausewisdominvolvesnavigatingcomplexproblems
with multiple solutions, it's likely that individuals need to progress through various
stagesofintellectualdevelopment,asoutlinedbyPiaget,toreachalevelofdialectical
thinking conducive to wisdom.
Why are some people wiser than others?
ccording to balance theory, individual differences in wisdom may be due to many
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factors.
o Difference in the commitment to the goal of solving problems to achieve a
common good.
o Difference in their values concerning what is good or right. There may be
individualdifferencesinpeople’scapacitytobalancemultipleinterests(intrapersonal,
interpersonal and extrapersonal) and multiple responses (adapting, shaping and
selecting environments).
o Difference in their level of tacit knowledge and the breadth of domains in
which they have tacit knowledge.
llofthesedifferencesinfactorsthatcontributetothebalancingprocessinvolvedin
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making wise judgements may be due to a range of antecedent factors such as age,
experience, motivation, personality, and practical creative and analytic intelligence.
o, wisdom, according to Sternberg’s balance theory, is the use of practical
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intelligence in a way that balances one’s own interests and those of othersinvolved
withtheproblemandthewidercommunitytoachieveacommongoodforall.Usually
the outcome of wisdom isajudgmentoradviceonhowtosolveacomplexproblem
involving multiple competing interests and this usually involves a statement about
somepeopleconformingoradaptingtotheenvironment;somepeopletakingstepsto
shape the environment so they can fit into it with greater ease; and some people
selecting a new environment which suits their skills and interests better.
The (SOC) Model of Effective Life Management
(BY- SUKHMANI KAUR , PSY/22/22)
he SOC (Select, Optimize, and Compensate) model of effective life management,
T
developedbyBalteset.al,isgroundedintheconceptofwisdom.Wisdom,asdefined
intheirearlierwork,encompassesadeepunderstandingofboththeintrinsicpurposes
and meanings of life (the "what") and the practical means by which these purposes
canbeachieved(the"how").Initially,theBerlinwisdommodelprimarilyfocusedon
knowledge-related wisdom, but recent developments have expanded its scope to
include wisdom-related action.
he SOC model emphasizes the application of wisdom in achieving optimalhuman
T
functioning and effective life management. It outlines three general strategies
applicable across the lifespan:
. Selection: Selection involves choosing appropriate goals among various options,
1
which is crucial for personal development and well-being. The definition of
"appropriate" goals depends on individual resources, circumstances, and values.
. Optimization: Optimization encompasses the choices and actions necessary for
2
successful goal achievement. This includes self-regulation, monitoring progress,
belief in personal control and competence, and the willingness to invest effort and
practice in developing skills required for goal attainment.
. Compensation: Compensation involves developing alternative means for
3
achieving and maintaining goals when initial strategies are blocked or ineffective.
This may include finding new resources, activating unused ones, orseekingsupport
from others.
or Instance, a student who loses a summer job might compensate by taking out a
F
loan, using savings, or seeking financial assistance from family.
mpirical studies, such as those conducted by Freund and Baltes, have shown that
E
endorsement of SOC strategies tends to increase with age up to middle adulthood,
thendeclineinlateadulthood.Middleageappearstobeapeakperiodforrefinedskill
in using SOC behaviors for effective life management. Furthermore, SOCstrategies
are positively associated with psychological well-being and higherlevelsofpositive
emotions across various age groups.
he SOC modeldoesnotprescribespecificgoalstopursuebutratherfocusesonthe
T
means to achieve them. Baltes et.al emphasize that wisdom plays a critical role in
determining which goals and means are not only personally meaningful but also
ethically and morally desirable. Wise individuals are expected to pursue goals that
contribute to both their own well-being and the common good.
he SOC model integrates effective life management strategies with the knowledge
T
and virtue of wisdom. It underscores the importance of selecting, optimizing, and
compensating for goals in a manner that aligns with one's values and contributes to
individual and collective flourishing.
Focus on Theory: Wisdom or Self-Control as Master Virtues?
(BY - SUKHMANI KAUR , PSY/22/22)
he debate concerning whether wisdom or self-control should be regarded as the
T
primaryvirtueinvolvesadetailedexaminationthatcombinesphilosophicalreflections
with empirical evidence frompsychology.Althoughwisdomistypicallyviewedasa
foundational virtue that encompasses various other virtuous behaviors, Baumeister
andExlinearguethatself-controlalsodeservesconsiderationforthisesteemedstatus.
They suggest that self-control acts as the driving force behind many virtuous
behaviors, with its absence often leading to vice, while its exercise promotes virtue.
aumeisterandExline'sargumentbeginswithanacknowledgmentoftheimportance
B
of morality and virtue in shaping individuals' identities and influencing their
relationships. They emphasize the significance of virtues such as honesty,
trustworthiness,andfidelityinfosteringpositiverelationships,whichareessentialfor
personal and societal well-being. These virtues, theyargue,oftenrequireindividuals
to prioritize the needs of others over their own, necessitating the exertion of
self-control to restrain selfish impulses.
he connection between self-control and virtue becomes evident when examining
T
specificvirtuesandvices.BaumeisterandExlinenotehowfailuresinself-controlare
implicated intheSevenDeadlySins,eachrepresentingaformofinadequatecontrol.
Conversely, virtues such asprudence,justice,andtemperancerequiretheexerciseof
self-control to prioritize long-term goals, uphold moral standards, and regulate
emotions.
elf-regulation plays a central roleinbothpersonalgoalpursuitandmoralbehavior.
S
Individuals set moral standards for themselves, monitor their behavior against these
standards, and adjust their actions accordingly. This process resembles the
self-regulation involved in pursuing personal goals, wherein self-awareness and
self-control are crucial for maintaining consistency and resisting temptations.
aumeisterandExlinearguethatself-control,asthefoundationformoralbehavior,is
B
integral to the consistent and disciplined practice of virtue. They proposethatwhile
vice signifies a failure of self-control, virtue requires steadfast application of
self-control. Therefore, they suggest that self-control can be seen as a fundamental
virtue, underlying and supporting the manifestation of other virtues.
aumeister and Exline's argument offers a perspective on the relationship between
B
self-control and virtue, suggesting that self-control plays a crucial role in moral
behavior and the cultivation of virtuous traits. While wisdom encompasses a broad
understanding of life and virtue, self-control serves as the practical mechanism
through which virtuous behaviors are enacted and maintained.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT THEORIES
Aspect Implicit Wisdom Explicit Wisdom
Implicit wisdom refers to an
Explicit wisdom is a conscious,
Definition unconscious, intuitive
deliberate understanding.
understanding.
Implicit wisdom is often
Awareness Explicit wisdom is fully conscious.
subconscious.
Implicit wisdom is absorbed over Explicitwisdomislearnedthrough
Acquisition
time through experiences. education, reflection, etc.
Implicit wisdom is expressed Explicit wisdom is communicated
Expression
through actions and behavior. through words and decisions.
Examples of implicit wisdom Examples of explicit wisdom
Examples include intuitive decision-making include reflective problem-solving
and gut feelings. and wise advice.
Developme Implicit wisdom often matures Explicit wisdom can be cultivated
nt with age and experience. through deliberate efforts.
It is difficult to measure implicit Explicit wisdom can be assessed
Evaluation
wisdom objectively. through tests and criteria.
Implicit wisdom shapes behavior Explicit wisdom guides deliberate
Influence
and perceptions indirectly. actions and choices.
References
aumgardner, S., & Crothers, M. (Year of publication). Positive
B
psychology (1st ed.). Pearson.
arr, A. Positive psychology: The science of happiness and human
C
strengths (Pearson New International Edition). Pearson.
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