SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT

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 CHAPTER - 24

AGRICULTURE
“A man without food
For three days will quarrel,
For a week will fight and
For a month or so will die”

24.1 AGRICULTURE • Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using min-

• The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words eral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil.
ager or agri meaning soil and cultura meaning cultiva- • Terrestrial plants may also be grown with their roots
tion. Agriculture is a broad term encompassing all as- in the mineral nutrient solution only or in an inert me-
pects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, dium, such as perlite, gravel, mineral wool, expanded
forestry etc. clay or coconut husk.
• Silviculture is the art of cultivating forest trees. • Geoponic in farming practice, refers to growing plants
• Sericulture is the rearing of silkworms for the produc- in normal soil
tion of raw silk.
• Apiculture is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, Scope and Importance of Agriculture
commonly in hives, by humans • With a 17.2 per cent contribution to the gross domestic
• Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing product (GDP), agriculture provides livelihood support
with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for to about two-thirds of country’s population.
food.
• The sector provides employment to 56.7 per cent of
• Viticulture is the science, production and study of country’s work force and is the single largest private
grapes sector occupation.
• Floriculture is a discipline of horticulture concerned
• Agriculture accounts for about 14.7 per cent of the total
with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants
export earnings and provides raw material to a large
for gardens
number of Industries (textiles, silk, sugar, rice, flour
• Arboriculture is the cultivation, management, and study mills, milk products).
of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial
woody plants • The agriculture sector acts as a bulwark in maintaining
food security and, in the process, national security as
• Pomology is a branch of horticulture which focuses
well.
on the cultivation, production, harvest, and storage of
fruit, etc. • The allied sectors like horticulture, animal husbandry,
dairy and fisheries, have an important role in improving
• Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or
mist environment without the use of soil or an aggre- the overall economic conditions and health and nutri-
gate medium tion of the rural masses.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Problems of Indian Agriculture Classification based on climate
• Fragmentation of land holding. 1. Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g.
• Existence of small and marginal farmers. Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc
• Regional variation. 2. Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g. Wheat,
Oats, Gram, Potato etc.
• Dependence of seasonal rainfall.
• Low productivity of land. Classification Based on growing season
• Increasing of disguised unemployment. 1. Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in
• Disorder in marketing of Agricultural products. monsoon months from June to Oct-Nov, Require warm,
• Weak land reformation. wet weather at major period of crop growth, also re-
quired short day length for flowering. E.g. Cotton, Rice,
Revolutions in Agriculture Jowar, bajara.
2. Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: The crops grown in
Revolution Related with winter season from Oct to March month. Crops grow
Green Food grain Production well in cold and dry weather. Require longer day length
for flowering. E.g. Wheat, gram, sunflower etc.
Golden Fruit Production
3. Summer/Zaid crops: crops grown in summer month
Grey Fertilizer Production from March to June. Require warm dry weather for
Blue Fish Production major growth period and longer day length for flower-
ing. E.g. Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.
Black Petroleum Production
Pink Prawn Production Agronomic Classification of Crops
Round Potato Production Cereals
Red Meat/Tomato Production • Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for their edible
starchy grains. Larger grains used as staple food are
Silver Egg/Poultry Production cereals. Rice, wheat, maize, barley and oats. The impor-
White Milk Production tant cereal of world is rice.
Bread wheat
Yellow Oil seeds Production
Macaroni wheat
Emmer wheat
Do you know? Dwarf wheat
The Rajasthan government has decided not to set up Millets
any windmills for wind power projects in the areas
inhabited by the Great Indian Bustard (GIB). A major-
• They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But
they are grown in less area or less important area
ity of wind power projects in Rajasthan have come up whose productivity and economics are also less.
in and around the desert town of Jaisalmer which is
also one of the main areas for these birds. • These are staple food of poor people. In India pearl mil-
let is a staple food in Rajasthan
• 1) Major millets and 2) Minor millets
24.2 CROP AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS • It is based on area production and productivity and
grain size.
• Agronomy is a Greek word derived from agros meaning
‘field’ and nomos meaning management. It is a special- Major millets
ized branch in agriculture dealing with crop production 1. Sorghum /Jowar
and soil management. Crops refer to plants that are
grown on a large scale for food, clothing, and other 2. Pearl Millet /Bajra/cumbu
human uses. 3. Finger millet or ragi

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Minor millets • Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation
1. Fox tail millet • Bagasse for paper making and fuel
2. Little millet •
Pressmud used for soil amendment
3. Common millet •
Trash (green leaf + dry foliage) – the waste is used
4. Barnyard millet for cattle feed
5. Kodomillet 2. Sugar beet – Tuber for extraction of sugar

Pulses or Grain Legumes

• Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed

• Pulses are major source of protein in Indian diet and Starch Crops or Tuber Crops
providing most of the essential amino acids to a certain 1. Potato
degree. Economically, pulses are cheapest source of pro- 2. Tapioca or cassava
tein.
3. Sweet potato
• It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual
moisture and to give revenue in a shorter period. Fibre Crops
Red gram • Epidermal hairs of seed coats is the economic portion
Black gram • Lint (cappas – seed) has industrial value (fibre)
Green gram • Stalk is of fuel nature, garment purpose, seed for cattle
feed and Oil is edible
Cowpea
Bengalgram Cotton
Horsegram • Karunganni
Dewgram • Uppam cotton
Soyabean • American cotton or Cambodium cotton
Peas or gardenpea • Egyptian cotton or Sea island cotton
Garden bean
Stem Fibres
Oil Seed Crops a) Jute
• These crops are cultivated for the production of oil. b) Mesta
Either for edible on industrial or medicinal purpose.
c) Sun hemp
They contain more of fat.
d) Sisal hemp
Groundnut or peanut
Sesamum or gingelly Narcotics
Sunflower • Stimulates Nervous System
Castor i) Tobacco
Linseed or flax ii) Betelvine
Niger iii) Arecanut
Safflower
Rapeseed & Mustard
• 45 – 50% oil content is present in these seeds. Do you know?
Special measures are being initiated in the keoladeo
Sugar Crops
National Park (NP) to eradicate the African catfish
Juice extracted from known locally as the Mangur, this invasive species has
1. Sugar stem used for jaggery or sugar rapidly come to dominate the park’s water bodies and
• Number of by products like Molasses, bagasse, is threatening aquatic and avian fauna here.
pressmud

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Forage and Fodder Crops • Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass,
palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose, jasmine,
Forage Crops
henna etc.
• The entire vegetative part is used as green fodder
• the stalks and leaves are the major economic portion Classification based on life of crops/duration of
for hay making crops:
• Hay is cut into pieces and mixed with concentrated 1. Seasonal crops: A crop completes its life cycle in one
animal feed and is fed to animals season. E.g. rice, Jowar, wheat etc.
Grasses 2. Two seasonal crops: crops complete its life cycle in two
• Napier grass seasons. E.g. Cotton, turmeric, ginger.
• Para grass 3. Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete
• Bermuda grass its life cycle. E.g. sugarcane.
• Guinea grass 4. Biennial crops: Crops requires two year to complete its
life cycle E.g. Banana, Papaya.
• Rhodes grass
5. Perennial crops: crops live for several years. E.g. Fruit
Legumes
crops, mango, guava etc.
Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Classification based on cultural method/water:
Egyptian clover (Bersemm)
1. Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the avail-
Indian clover (Fodder senji)
ability of rain water. E.g. Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc.
Sirato
2. Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irriga-
Stylo
tion water. E.g. Chili, sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.
Subabul
Classification based on root system
Velvet bean
1. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil.
Plantation Crops E.g. Tur, Grape, Cotton etc.
• Plants and its .......... ............ . Fiber rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shal-
• ) Tea – leaf; ) Coffee – seed; ) Rubber – milk exuda- low & spreading into the soil. E.g. Cereal crops, wheat,
tion; 4) Cocoa - seed rice etc.
Spices and Condiments Classification based on economic importance
1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g. Sugarcane,
Do you know? cotton.
The Madhya Pradesh (MP) government’s decision to 2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the popu-
develop Kuno-Palpur as a tiger reserve has brought lation and & fodder for cattle. E.g. Jowar, wheat, rice etc.
relief to officials of the forest department (FD) in Gu-
Classification based on No. of cotyledons
jarat, who had been fighting a long battle in the apex
court over the issue of translocation of lions to Kuno- 1. Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in
Palpur. the seed. E.g. all cereals & Millets.
2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons
in the seed. E.g. all legumes & pulses and almost all the
• Products of crop plants are used to flavor taste and trees.
sometime color the fresh preserved food. E.g. ginger,
garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, Classification based on length of photoperiod
turmeric etc. required for floral initiation
• Medicinal plants includes cinchona, isabgoli, opium • Most plants are influenced by relative length of the day
poppy, senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice. & night, especially for floral initiation, the effect on

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
plant is known as photoperiodism depending on the Types of preparatory tillage
length of photoperiod required for floral ignition, plants 1. Primary tillage
are classified as:
2. Secondary tillage
1. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when
days are short less then ten hours. E.g. rice, Jowar, • Primary tillage: The tillage operation that is done after
the harvest of crop to bring the land under cultivation
green gram, black gram etc.
is known as primary tillage. Ploughing is the opening
2. Long day’s plants: require long days are more than ten of compact soil with the help of different ploughs. Coun-
hours for floral initiation. E.g. Wheat, Barley, etc. try plough, mould board plough, bose plough, tractor
3. Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much and power tiller are used for primary tillage.
influence for phase change for these plants. E.g. Cotton, • Secondary tillage: The tillage operations that are per-
sunflower, etc. formed on the soil after primary tillage to bring a good
soil tilth are known as secondary tillage. Secondary
tillage consists of lighter or finer operation which is
Do you know? done to clean the soil, break the clods and incorporate
The Maharashtra government has proposed setting the manure and fertilizers. Harrowing and planking is
up a tiger research institute in the state. The proposal done to serve those purposes
was submitted to the central government during the • Dry tillage: Dry tillage is practiced for crops that are
‘Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conserva- sown or planted in dry land condition having sufficient
tion’ that was held recently in New Delhi. The location moisture for germination of seeds. This is suitable for
proposed is Nagpur or Chandrapur, as there are 13 crops like broadcasted paddy, jute, wheat, oilseed crops,
tiger reserves with 350 tigers located within a 300-km pulses, potato and vegetable crops.
radius of either of these two places.
• Wet or puddling tillage: The tillage operation that is
done in a land with standing water is called wet or pud-
dling tillage. Puddling operation consists of ploughing
24.3 TILLAGE repeatedly in standing water until the soil becomes soft
• Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and muddy. Puddling creates an impervious layer below
and implements for obtaining conditions ideal for seed the surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water
germination, seedling establishment and growth of and to provide soft seed bed for planting rice.
crops. • Off-season tillage: Tillage operations done for condi-
tioning the soil suitably for the forthcoming main sea-
• Tilth: It is the physical l condition of soil obtained out
son crop are called off-season tillage. Off season tillage
of tillage (or) it is the result of tillage. The tilth may be
may be
a coarse tilth, fine tilth or moderate tilth. Based on the
requirement of crops being grown and the soil where 1. Post harvest tillage
we are cultivating. 2. Summer tillage
• Types of tillage: Tillage operations may be grouped 3. Winter tillage
into 4. Fallow tillage
. On season tillage . Off-season tillage • Special purpose tillage: Tillage operations intended to
• On-season tillage: Tillage operations that are done for serve special purposes are said to be special purpose
raising crops in the same season or at the onset of the tillage. They are, 1) sub soiling, 2) levelling, 3) clean
crop season are known as on season tillage. tillage, 4) blind tillage, 5) wet tillage and 6) zero tillage.

• Preparatory tillage: This refers to tillage operations • Sub soiling: To break the hard pan beneath the plough
layer special tillage operations (chiselling) are per-
that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It
formed to reduce compaction. Sub soiling is essential
consists of deep opening and loosening of the soil to
once in four to five years where heavy machineries are
bring about a desirable tilth as well as to incorporate or
used for field operations, seeding, harvesting, trans-
uproot weeds and crop stubble when the soil is in a
porting etc.
workable condition.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Advantages 24.3 CROPPING
• greater volume of soil may be obtained for cultivation • Cropping intensity: Number of crops cultivated in a
of crops piece of land per annum is cropping intensity. In Punjab
• excess water may percolate downward to recharge the and Tamil Nadu the cropping intensity is more than 100
permanent water table per cent i.e. around 140-150%. In Rajasthan the crop-
ping intensity is less.
• reduce runoff and soil erosion
Cropping pattern
• roots of crop plants can penetrate deeper to extract
moisture from the water table • The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops
and fallow on a given area is called cropping pattern
• Clean tillage: It refers to working of the soil of the
entire field in such a way no living plant is left undis- Cropping system
turbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne path- • The cropping pattern used on a farm and its interac-
ogen and pests. tions with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and
available technology which determine their makeup.
• Blind tillage: It refers to tillage done after seeding or
planting the crop (in a sterile soil) either at the pre – • Multiple cropping: Growing more than two crops in a
emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in piece of land in a year in orderly succession. It is also
the early stages of growth so that crop plants (cereals, called as intensive cropping. It is used to intensify the
production. It is possible only when assured resources
tuber crops etc.) do not get damaged, but extra plants
are available (land, labour, capital and water)
and broad leaved weeds are uprooted.
• Zero tillage (No tillage): In this, new crop is planted
• Double cropping: Growing two crops a year in se-
quence. Example: Rice - Pulse
in the residues of the previous crop without any prior
soil tillage or seed bed preparation and it is possible • Triple cropping: Growing three crops a year in se-
quence. Example: Rice - Rice - Pulse
when all the weeds are controlled by the use of herbi-
cides. • Quadruple cropping: Growing four crops in a year in
sequence
Advantages of Zero tillage
• Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same sole crop
1. Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more in the same land.
number of earthworms • Mono cropping: Continuous production of one and the
2. Organic matter content increases due to less minerali- same crop year after year or season after season is
zation called mono cropping.
. Surface runoff is reduced due to presence of mulch • Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in a pure
stand at normal density.
Disadvantages
Sequential cropping
1. Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for min-
eralization of organic matter in zero tillage • Growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same
field in a year. The succeeding crop is planted after the
2. Perennial weeds may be a problem preceeding crop has been harvested
3. High number of volunteer plants and buildup of pests • The crop intensification is done in time dimension
• Ex: Rice-rice-cotton

Do you know? • Relay cropping Growing the succeeding crop when pre-
vious crop attend its maturity stage-or-sowing of the
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has constituted a next crop immediately before the harvest of the stand-
high-powered committee of government officials to ing crops.
prepare guidelines for the restoration of the environ-
E.g. 1) Paddy-Lucerne.
ment and ecology destroyed as a result of coal mining
in Meghalaya. ) Rice-Cauliflower-Onion-summer gourds.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Ratoon cropping • Groundnut + Redgram 6:1
• Raising a crop with regrowth coming out of roots or • Potato + Mustard 3:1
stocks of the harvested crop • Wheat + Mustard 8:1
• Ex: Sugarcane (8 ratoons in Cuba)
Types of intercropping
• Banana – one plant crop followed by two ratoon
• Strip intercropping
crops normally
• Sorghum and Lucerne fodder- many ratoons Ist cut-
• Parellel cropping
ting 70 DAS and thereafter every 35-40 days. • Synergistic cropping
• Pineapple crop is extensively ratooned. • Additive Series (Paired row intercropping)
Intercropping
• Replacement Series
• Growing two or more crops simultaneously with dis- • Multi storey cropping
tinct row arrangement on the same field at the same • Relay intercropping
time. • Alley cropping
• Base crop: primary crop which is planted/ sown at Strip intercropping
its optimum sole crop population in an intercropping
situation.
• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in strips
wide enough to permit independent cultivation but nar-
• Intercrop: This is a second crop planted in between row enough for the crops to interact each other.
rows of base crop with a view to obtain extra yields
with intercrop without compromise in the main crop
• Ex:6 rows of groundnut and 4 rows of redgram in strips
yields Parellel cropping
• Growing of two crops simultaneously which have dif-
ferent growth habits and no competion among them-
Do you know? selves
Hi-tech patrolling is set to be introduced in the Simili-
pal tiger Reserve (STR) ahead of Maha Vishuva Sank-
• Ex: Blackgram with maize
ranti, a religious function when tribals indulge in a • Soybean with cotton
ritual of mass killing of wild animals in the forests Synergestic Cropping
here.
• Yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crops
on unit area basis

Advantages of Intercropping • Ex: Sugarcane + Potato

• Better use of growth resources including light, nutrients Multi storey cropping
and water • Cultivation of more than two crops of different heights
• Suppression of weeds simultaneously on a piece of land in any certain period
• Yield & stability - even if one crop fails due to unfore- • Ex: Coconut + Pepper + cocoa + pineapple
seen situations, another crop will yield and provides Relay intercropping
some secured income
• In a long duration base crop, growing two sets of inter-
• Successful intercropping gives higher equivalent yields crops one after another is called relay intercropping
(yield of base crop + yield of intercrop), higher cropping
intensity • Ex; Redgram – base crop 180 days

• Reduced pest and disease incidences • Groundnut/onion/coriander-I set of intercrops

• Improvement of soil health and agro-eco system • Samai/ thenai/panivaragu- 2nd set of intercrops
Alley cropping
Examples of Inter cropping
• Ex: Maize + Cowpea 1:1 • Alley cropping is a system in which food crops are
grown in alleys formed by hedge rows of trees or
• Sorghum + Redgram 2:2 shrubs. The essential feature of the system is that hedge

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
rows are cut back at planting and kept pruned during
Inter cropping Mixed cropping
cropping to prevent shading and to reduce competition
with food crops. Main and inter crops are There is no specific row
• Ex: Subabul raised at 6 m row spacing sown in definite row arrangement. Generally
arrangement crop seeds are mixed and
• The space between two rows called alleys
broadcasted
• The intercrops are raised in the alley space
The sowing time of both The sowing time of
• E.g. cotton, sorghum, blackgram the crops may or may component crops is same.
Mixed cropping not be the same.
Sometimes the main
• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously intermin- crops is sown earlier
gled without row arrangement is known as mixed crop-
ping than the inter crop

• It is a common practice in most of dryland tracts in

India
Do you know?
• Seeds of different crops are mixed in certain proportion
and are sown The Union Ministry of Ganga Rejuvenation has en-
trusted a pilot project to the Wildlife Institute of India
• The objective is to meet the family requirement of cere-
(WII) to work towards the restoration of select aquatic
als, pulses and vegetables, it is a subsistence farming
species that thrive in the Ganga. The three year pro-
• Ex: Sorghum, Bajra and cowpea are mixed and broad- ject will cost Rs. 25 crore and a Ganga Aqualife Con-
casted in rainfed conditions (with low rainfall situa- servation Monitoring Centre will also be set up at the
tions) to avoid complete crop failures and with WII as part of it.
ascertaining the minimum yields

Difference between inter cropping and mixed 24.4 FARMING SYSTEMS

cropping
Definitions
Inter cropping Mixed cropping
• Farm – is a piece of land with specific boundaries,
The main objective of The main objective of where crop and livestock enterprises are taken up under
inter cropping is to mixed cropping is common management
utilise the space between insurance against crop
rows of main crop and to failure.
• Farming – is the process of harnessing solar energy in
the form of economic plant and animal products
produce more grain per
unit area • System – a set of components which are interdependent
and interacting
There is no competition There is competition
between main and inter between component crops. Wetland farming
crop (subsidiary crop) Here all crops are given
equal importance and care.
• Wet land – soils flooded or irrigated through lake, pond
or canal and land is always in submerged condition
Hence, there is no
difference between • Wetland farming: is the practice of growing crops in
component crops soils flooded through natural flow of water for most
part of the year
In inter cropping, the Crops may or may not
main crop may be a be of same duration Garden land/ irrigated Dry land farming
long duration one and
the inter crop may be a
• Garden land – soils irrigated with ground water sources
short duration/early • Garden land farming: Growing crops with supplemen-
maturing one tal irrigation by lifting water from underground
sources.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Dry land farming
• Dry land – soils purely depends rainfall for moisture Do you know?
• Dryland farming: is the practice of crop production en- The Institute has selected a river stretch at Narora
tirely depending upon rainfall and the moisture con- near the Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar
served in the soil Pradesh, were by an ideal environment of lesser pol-
lution will be created and a healthy population of spe-
• This is practiced in areas where annual rainfall is less
cies such as the gharial, turtle, otters, and fish species
than 750mm.The crops may face moisture stress fre-
will be rutured. The project will involve the local com-
quently due to erratic distribution or failure of monsoon
munity along with related government departments
such as irrigation and tourism for its execution.
Rain fed farming
• Crop production in areas where rainfall is more than
750mm (i.e assured rainfall areas). Here moisture stress
24.5 CROP ROTATION
will be minimum. Soil conservation is given more im-
portance • Growing of different crops on a piece of land is a pre-
planned succession. The principle of crop rotation is to
Mixed Farming utilise the available resources to the fullest extent in
order to harvest the maximum in a unit land without
• Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a
affecting the soil health.
particular farm which includes crop production, raising
live stock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain • Ex- Rice-Red Gram -Banana
and satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible.
Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming. Principles of crop rotation
While higher profitability without altering ecological • Leguminous crops should be grown before non-legumi-
balance is important in farming system. nous crops because legumes fix atmospheric N into the
soil and add organic matter to the soil.
Advantages:
. It offers highest return on farm business, as the by-
• Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should
be followed by those which have fibrous (shallow
products of farm are properly utilized.
rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system. This
2. It provides work throughout year. facilitates proper and uniform use of nutrients from
. Efficient utilization of land, labour, equipment and the soil.
other resources. • More exhaustive crops should be followed by less ex-
4. The crop by-products such as straw, fodder etc. is used haustive crops because crops like potato, sugarcane,
for feeding of livestock and in return they provide milk. maize etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, more
5. Manures available from livestock to maintain soil fer- fertilizers, greater number of irrigation etc.
tility. • Selection of crop should be based on need or demand
6. It helps in supplying all the food needs of the family • Crops of same family should not be grown in succession
members. because they act as alternate hosts for insect pests and
diseases
Specialized Farming • The selection of crops should suit farmers financial con-
• The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop ditions
production is derived from a single crop is called spe- • The crop selected should also suit to the soil and cli-
cialized farming matic condition
Diversified Farming
24.6 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
• A diversified farming has several production enterprises
or sources of income but no source of income equal as • It is a form of agriculture aimed at meeting the needs
much as 50% of the total income. It is also called as of the present generation without endangering the re-
general farming. source base of the future generations. It is considered
as a system of cultivation with the use of manure, crop

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
rotation and minimal tillage and with minimum de-
pendence on synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and anti- • Eco-farming: Farming in relation to ecosystem.
biotics. It is a balanced management system of • Biological farming: Farming in relation to biologi-
renewable resources including soil, wildlife, forests, cal diversity.
crops, fish, livestock, plant genetic resources and eco-
systems without degradation and to provide food, live-
• Biodynamic farming: Farming which is biologically
organic and ecologically sound and sustainable
lihood for current and future generations maintaining farming.
or improving productivity and ecosystem services of
these resources.
• Sustainable agriculture has to prevent land degradation Organic farming –Components:
and soil erosion. It has to replenish nutrients and con- • The components of organic farming are
trol weeds, pests and diseases through biological and
i) Organic manures
cultural methods.
ii) Non- chemical weed control and
• Degradation of natural resources is the main issue
threatening sustainable development of agriculture. iii) Biological pest and disease management.
Principles:
24.7 ORGANIC FARMING
• The three interrelated principles are
• Organic farming is a production system where all kinds
i) Mixed farming
of agricultural products are produced organically, in-
cluding grains, meat, dairy, eggs, fibers such as cotton, ii) Crop rotation
flowers, and processed food products iii) Organic cycle optimization
• Organic farming avoids or largely excludes the use of
synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and Eco-farming:
livestock feed additives. • It is the farming mutually reinforcing ecological ap-
proaches to food production. It aims at the maintenance
Components of organic farming of soil chemically, biologically and physically the way
• It largely rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal nature would do if left alone. Soil would then take proper
manure, legumes, green manure, on/off farm organic care of plants growing on it. Feed the soil, not the plant
wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks is the watchword and slogan of ecological farming.
and aspects of biological control of pests and diseases
to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant Organic Vs. Inorganic Fertilizers
nutrients.
Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizer
Scope
1. A sustainable agricultural system which maintains and Three common forms: Does not add humus to the
improves soil fertility so as to guarantee for adequate animal manure, green soil, resulting in less
food security in the future. manure and compost. ability to hold water and
support living organisms
2. It relies upon resources from its own area which is not (earthworms, beneficial
depended much on imported resources. bacterial, and fungi, etc.)
3. It helps in maintaining the stability of natural ecosys-
tem Improves soil texture, Lowers oxygen content of
adds organic nitrogen, the soil thereby keeping
Concepts and stimulates beneficial fertilizer from being taken
1. Building up of biological soil fertility bacterial and fungi. up efficiently.
2. Control of pests, diseases and weeds through develop- Improves water-holding Supplies only a limited
ment of an ecological balance within the system and by capacity of soil. number of nutrients
use of bioagents and various cultural techniques. (usually nitrogen and
3. It recycles all wastes and manure within the farm. phosphorus)

284 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizer • It can be applied in any ecosystem, no matter how de-
graded.
Helps to prevent erosion Requires large amounts • It values and validates traditional knowledge and expe-
of energy to produce, rience.
transport, and apply.
Release nitrous • Incorporates sustainable agriculture practices and land
management techniques and strategies from around the
oxide (N O) —a
world
greenhouse gas.
• It is a bridge between traditional cultures and emergent
earth-tuned cultures.

Do you know?
• It promotes organic agriculture, which does not use
pesticides.
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) India, and
Ricoh India, a global technology company recently
• It aims to maximize symbiotic and synergistic relation-
ships between site components.
signed the ‘Project Nature Watch’ partnership to sup-
port conservation activities in India. The project aims • It’s design is site specific, client specific, and culture
at providing need-based infrastructure support to specific
frontline and field staff working in the forest and ma-
rine areas, for monitoring species such as the Red 24.9 INTEGR ATED FARMING SYSTEM
panda, Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhino. Olive rid- • Integration of farm enterprises such as cropping sys-
ley turtle and other threatened fish diversity, coral tems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc. for op-
reefs, cetaceans and marine mammals. timal utilisation of resources bringing prosperity to the
farmer. According to the availability of land, type of
land, water, capital, resources, technical skill of the
24.8 PERMACULTURE farmer, market facilities etc., and the components of
farming system are to be chosen and adopted for better
• Bill Mollison, an Australian ecologist, and one of his
results.
students, David Holmgren, coined the word “permacul-
ture” in 1978. It is a contraction of “permanent agricul- Benefits of Integrated Farming System
ture” or “permanent culture.” • Steady income other than income from regular crop-
• It is defined as a design system for creating sustainable ping
human environments. It uses ecology as the basis for • Risk coverage due to subsidiary allocation in the event
designing integrated systems of food production, hous- of unexpected crop failures
ing, appropriate technology, and community develop-
ment.
• Employment opportunity

• Permaculture is built upon an ethic of caring for the

• Higher productivity
earth and interacting with the environment in mutually • Augmented returns and recycling of organics
beneficial ways. • Easily adopted by marginal and submarginal farmers
• A central theme in Permaculture is the design of eco- • General uplift of farm activities
logical landscapes that produce food. Emphasis is placed • Better utilisation of land, labour, time and available
on multi-use plants, cultural practices such as sheet manures in the farm.
mulching and trellising, and the integration of animals
to recycle nutrients and graze weeds. 24.10 ELEMENTS REQUIRED IN PLANT
Characteristics GROWTH
• It is one of the most holistic, integrated systems analy- . Macronutrients:
sis and design methodologies found in the world. • Based on the relative abundance in plants, viz., Nitro-
• It can be applied to create productive ecosystems from gen (N); Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S),
the human- use standpoint or to help degraded ecosys- Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)
tems recover health and wildness.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
. Micronutrients: . Manures
• Their concentration is very small. They are also referred • Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used
to as minor elements. as source of plant nutrients They release nutrients
• Iron (Fe); Zinc (Zn); Manganese (Mg),Copper (Cu),Boron after their decomposition .Manures can be grouped
(B), Chlorine (Cl) and Molybdenum (Mo) .In some into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic
plants, other than the above, Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co), manures
Vanadium (Va), Nickel (Ni) and Silicon (Si) are consid-
ered as essential micronutrients Fertilizers

Nitrogen (N) • Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemical con-

taining plant nutrients Nutrient content is higher in
a] N is an essential constituent of proteins and is present
fertilizers than organic manures and nutrients are re-
in many other compounds of great physiological impor-
tance in plant metabolism leased almost immediately
b] N is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is primary Role of manures
observer of light energy needed for photosynthesis. 1. Organic manures bind the sandy soil and improve its
c] N also imparts vigorous vegetative growth and dark water holding capacity.
green colour to plants.
2. They open the clayey soil and help in aeration better
• Phosphorus (P) is an essential part of the enzymes root growth.
which help the crop to fix light energy. It forms an in-
tegral part of nucleic acids, the carriers of genetic infor- 3. They add plant nutrients in small percentage and also
mation, and is important in stimulating root growth add micro nutrients which are essential for plant
growth the microbial activity is increased which helps
• Potassium (K) is involved in processes which ensure
in releasing plant nutrients in available for e.g. bulky
carbon assimilation and the transportation of photo-
synthates throughout the plant for growth and the organic manures- FYM, compost from organic waste,
storage of sugars and proteins. The potassium ion is night soil, sludge, sewage, sheep folding, green ma-
also important for water regulation and uptake. Fur- nures, concentrated organic manures- oilcakes (edible,
thermore, the presence of potassium in sufficient non-edible), blood meal, fish meal, bone meal.
amounts ensures resistance to frost, drought and cer- 4. Organic manures should be incorporated before the
tain diseases sowing or planting because of slow release of nutrients
• Magnesium occurs in chlorophyll and is also an activa-
tor of enzymes, Classification of Organic manures
• Sulphur forms part of two essential amino acids which
Farm Yard Manure
are among the many building blocks of protein. It
is also found in vitamin B1 and in several important • This is the traditional manure and is mostly readily
enzymes. available to the farmers. Farm yard manure is a decom-
• Calcium is required for plant growth, cell division and posed mixture of Cattle dung and urine with straw and
enlargement. The growth of root and shoot tips and litter used as bedding material and residues from the
storage organs is also affected by calcium as it is a com- fodder fed to the cattle..
ponent of cell membranes. Calcium is also vital for pol-
Compost Manure
len growth and to prevent leaf fall
• Compost is well rotted organic manure prepared by
decomposition of organic matter. Composting is largely
Do you know? a biological process in which micro-organisms of both
India’s National air-carrier Air India and two other types, aerobic (require oxygen for deep development)
Indian transportation companies, Jet Airways and Ap- and anaerobic (functions in absence of air or free oxy-
eejay Shipping, recently signed the Buckingham Palace gen), decompose the organic matter and lower down the
Declaration to fight criminal wildlife trafficking. C:N ratio of refuse. The final product of composting is
well rotted manure known as compost

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Sheep and Goat droppings objective of increasing the numbers of such micro-or-
• It is also valuable organic manure. It contains about 0.5 ganisms and accelerating those microbial processes
to 0.7 % N, 0.4 to 0.6% P2O5 and 0.3 –1.0% K2O. It is which augment the availability of nutrients that can be
effective to all types of crops easily assimilated by plants. Bio-fertilizers harness at-
mospheric nitrogen with the help of specialized micro-
Concentrated organic manures organisms which may be free living in soil or symbiotic
with plants.
Oil cakes
• There are many varieties of oil cakes which contains Nitrogen fixers
not only nitrogen but also some P and K along with 1. Symbiotic: - Rhizobium, inoculants for legumes.
large percentage of organic matter. These oil cakes are 2. Non-symbiotic: - For cereals, millets and vegetables.
of two types. a) Bacteria:-
i. Edible oil cakes- suitable for feeding cattle. i) Aerobic:-Azatobacter, Azomonas, Azospirillum.
ii. Non-edible oil cakes-not suitable for feeding cattle.
ii) Anaerobic:- Closteridium, chlorobium
• Oil cakes are quick acting organic manure. Though they iii) Facultative anaerobes- Bacillus, Eisherichia
are insoluble in water, their nitrogen became quickly
available to plants in about a week or in 10 days after b) Blue green algae- Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Nostoe
application. A. Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms.
Bone Meal B. Cellulolytic and lignolytic micro organisms.
• Bones from slaughter houses, carcasses of all animals C. Sulphur dissolving bacteria.
and from meat industry constitute bone meal, which is D. Azolla.
the oldest phosphatic fertilizer used. It also contains
some N. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
Fish meal • Judicious combination of organic, inorganic and biofer-
tilizers which replenishes the soil nutrients which are
• Fish manure or meal is processed by drying non-edible removed by the crops is referred as Integrated Nutrient
fish, carcasses of fish and wastes from fish industry. It
Management system
contains 4.0-10.0 % nitrogen, 3.0-9.0 % P and 0.3 to
1.5 % K. Fishmeal is quick acting organic manure and • To sustain the productivity of different crops and crop-
is suitable for application to all crops on all soils. ping systems, efficient nutrient management is vital.
There is a need to develop more efficient, economic and
Green Manuring integrated system of nutrient management for realiz-
• It is a practice of ploughing in the green plant grown in ing high crop productivity without diminishing soil
the field or adding green plants from outside and incor- fertility
porating them into the soil for improving the physical
structure as well as fertility of the soil. E.g.: Sannhemp,
Dhaicha, Pillipesara, Shervi, Urd, Mung, Cowpea, Ber- Do you know?
seem, Senji, etc. The Buckingham Palace Declaration has been devel-
oped by the United for Wildlife International Taskforce
Green leaf Manuring on the Transportation of Illegal Wildlife Products.
• Green leaf manuring refers to adding the green leaf and
green twigs from legume plants or trees to a field and
then incorporating them into the soil by ploughing. E.g.: 24.12 WEEDS
Glyricidia, wild Dhaicha, Karanj (pongamia), leucaena. • Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plant that inter-
Bio-fertilizers fere with utilization of land and water resources and
• Bio-fertilizers are the preparations containing live or thus adversely affect crop production and human wel-
latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phos- fare
phate solubilizing or cellulolyotic micro-organisms used • They are gregarious in nature compared to crop
for application to seed or composting areas with the plants.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Harmful effects of weeds quency. The system has extensive network of pipes at
1. Weeds compete with main crop for space, light, mois- operated at low pressure. At pre-determined spacing
tire and soil nutrients thus causing reduction in yield. outlets are provided for emission water generally known
as emitters.
. Affect quality of farm produce, livestock products such
as milk and skin
Sprinkler Irrigation
3. Act as alternate host for pests and pathogens
4. Cause health problems to human beings eg; Parthe-
• In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed
into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface
nium causes allergy
somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed
5. Increase cost of cultivation due to weeding problem by the flow of water under pressure through small ori-
6. Aquatic weeds transpire large quantity of water, ob- fices or nozzles.
struct flow of water
7. Reduce the land value (if cynodon, parthenium are Drip irrigation:
present in the land ) • Drip irrigation is also called trickle irrigation and in-
8. Some weeds are poisonous to livestock. volves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates
Beneficial effects of weeds from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with
outlets called emitters.
1. Weed as soil binders
2. as manure
• Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the
soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface
3. as human food and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the
4. as fodder whole soil profile.
5. Weed as fuel
Terracing:
6. Weed as mats and screens
7. Weed as medicine: Many weeds have great therapeutic
• “A terrace is an embankment or ridge of earth con-
structed across a slope to control runoff and minimize
properties and used as medicine. Eg.
soil erosion”.
Phyllanthus niruri – Jaundice
Eclipta alba – Scorpion sting
• It reduces the length of the hill side slope, thereby re-
ducing sheet and rill erosion and prevents formation of
Centella asiatica – Improves memory gullies.
Cynodon dactylon – Asthma, piles
Cyperus rotundus – Stimulates milk secretion
8. Weed as indicators: Weeds are useful as indicators of Do you know?
good and bad soils. Colonum occurs in rich soils while The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has suspended
Cymbopogon denotes poor light soil and Sedges are the environment clearance (EC) given to the 780 MW
found in ill-drained soils Nyamjang Chhu hydel power project in Arunachal
• Genetically modified crops (GM crops, or biotech crops) Pradesh.
are plants, the DNA of which has been modified using
genetic engineering techniques, which are then used in
agriculture. 24.13 SOIL
Watershed Management Soils are a thin layer on top of most of Earth’s land surface.
• A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a This thin layer is a basic natural resource and deeply af-
drainage divide within which the surface runoff collects fects every other part of the ecosystem. Soils are composed
and flows out of the watershed through a single outlet of three main ingredients: minerals of different sizes, or-
into a lager river (or) lake. ganic materials from the remains of dead plants and ani-
mals, and open space that can be filled with water or air.
Micro Irrigation A good soil for growing most plants should have about 45%
• Micro irrigation is defined as the methods in which low minerals (with a mixture of sand, silt, and clay), 5% or-
volume of water is applied at low pressure & high fre- ganic matter, 25% air, and 25% water.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
Soils develop in response to several factors: • There are master horizons in the soil profile. Not all
1. Parent material: This refers to the rock and minerals soil profiles contain all horizons; and so, soil profiles
from which the soil derives. The natural of the parent differ from one location to another.
rock, which can be either native to the area or trans-
ported to the area by wind, water, or glacier, has a di-
rect effect on the ultimate soil profile.
2. Climate: This is measured by precipitation and tem-
perature. It results in partial weathering of the parent
material, which forms the substrate for soil.
. Living organisms: These include the nitrogen-fixing
bacterial Rbizobium, fungi, insects, worms, snails, etc.,
that help to decompose litter and recycle nutrients.
4. Topography: This refers to the physical characteristics
of the location where the soil is formed. Topographic
factors that affect a soil’s profile include drainage, slope
direction, elevation and wind exposure.
With sufficient time, a mature soil profile reaches a state
of equilbrium. Feedback mechanisms involving both abiotic
and biotic factors work to preserve the mature soil profile.
The relative abundance of sand, silt, and clay is called the
soil texture.

Soil Components
Clay: very find particles. Compacts easily. Forms large,
dense clumps when wet. Low permeability to water; there- Soil Profile
fore, upper layers become waterlogged.
Gravel: Coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments. • The 5 master horizons are represented by the letters:
Loam: About equal mixtures of clay, sand, slit, and humus. O, A, E, B, and C.
Rich in nutrients. Holds water but does not become water- • O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised
logged. of organic material at various stages of decomposition.
Sand: Sedimentary material coarser than slit. Water flows It is most prominent in forested areas where there is
through too quickly for most crops. Good for crops and the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
plants requiring low amounts of water. • A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely con-
Slit: Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles sists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with appreci-
between the size of sand and clay. Easily transported by able amounts of organic matter. This horizon is
water. predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grass-
• Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constitu- lands and agricultural lands.
ents differentiated into horizons usually unconsolidated, • E: The E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been
of variable depth which differs among themselves as heavily leached. Leaching is the process in which soluble
well as from the underlying parent material in morphol- nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or
ogy, physical makeup, chemical properties and compo- irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color. It is
sition and biological characteristics. generally found beneath the O horizon.
• Soil profile: The vertical section of the soil showing the • B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has ac-
various layers from the surface to the unaffected parent cumulated from the layer(s) above. It is a site of deposi-
material is known as a soil profile. The various layers tion of certain minerals that have leached from the
are known as horizons. layer(s) above.

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least Podzolization:
weathered horizon. Also known as the saprolite, it is • It is a process of soil formation resulting in the forma-
unconsolidated, loose parent material. tion of Podzols and Podzolic soils.
• R: Unweathered rock exists below the parent material. • podzolization is the negative of calcification. The calci-
• Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of parti- fication process tends to concentrate calcium in the
cles or it is the relative percentage by weight of the three lower part of the B horizon, whereas podzolization
soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay or simply refers to leaches the entire solum of calcium carbonates.
the size of soil particles. • The other bases along with calcium are also removed
• Loam: A type of soil texture with good water holding and the whole soil becomes distinctly acidic. In fact,
capacity and drainage suitable for cultivation of variety the process is essentially one of the processes of acid
of crops. leaching.

• Soil structure: The arrangement and organization of

primary and secondary particles in a soil mass is known The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has set up an
as soil structure. eight-member experts’ panel to study various aspects
Saline soils of the proposed Rs.5,242 crore Renuka dam. It would
provide drinking water to Delhi and areas of Haryana
• Saline soils are characterised by higher amount of water and Uttar Pradesh such as Faridabad and Noida. The
soluble salt, due to which the crop growth is affected. project will come up across the Giri river, a tributary
Sodic soils of the Yamuna, in Sirmaur district.
• Sodic soils are characterised by the predominance of
sodium in the complex with the exchangeable sodium Laterization:
percentage exceeding 15 per cent and the pH more • The term laterite is derived from the word later mean-
than 8.5. ing brick or tile and was originally applied to a group
Acid soils of high clay Indian soils found in Malabar hills of Ker-
ala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
• Acid soils are characteristically low in pH ( < 6.0). Pre-
dominance of H + and Al3+ cause acidity resulting in • It refers specifically to a particular cemented horizon in
deficiency of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mo and B. certain soils which when dried, become very hard, like
a brick.
Sandy soils • Laterization is the process that removes silica, instead
• Sandy soils are containing predominant amounts of of sesquioxides from the upper layers and thereby leav-
sand resulting in higher percolation rates and nutrient ing sesquioxides to concentrate in the solum.
losses.
• Alkaline soil: A soil with pH above 7, usually above Gleization:
8.5 are considered alkaline. Alkaline soils often occur • It is a process of soil formation resulting in the develop-
in arid regions that receive less than 25 inches of rain ment of a glei (or gley horizon) in the lower part of the
per year. soil profile above the parent material due to poor
drainage condition (lack of oxygen) and where water-
• Calcariuos soil- Soils with kankar nodules in the plough
logged conditions prevail. Such soils are called hydro
zone and subsoil.
orphic soils.
• Alfisol: Soils with grey to brown surface horizons, me-
dium to high supply of bases and B horizons of illuvial Salinization:
clay accumulation. These soils formed mostly under • It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sul-
forest or savanna vegetation in climates with slight to phates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium
pronounced seasonal moisture deficit. and potassium, in soils in the form of a salty (salic)
• Aridisol: Minerals soils that have an aridic moisture horizon.
regime. These are desert soil. • It is quite common in arid and semi arid regions.

290 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
• It may also take place through capillary rise of saline • Remediation: Take land out of production for a while;
ground water and by inundation with seawater in ma- and/or install underground perforated drainage pipes;
rine and coastal soils. flush soil with freshwater into separate lined evapora-
• Salt accumulation may also result from irrigation or tion ponds; plant halophytes (salt-loving plants) such as
seepage in areas of impeded drainage. barley, cotton, sugar beet and/or semi-dwarf wheat.

Desalinization: Water logging

• It is the removal of excess soluble salts by leaching from • Definition: Saturation of soil with water resulting in a
rise in the water table.
horizons or soil profile (that contained enough soluble
salts to impair the plant growth) by ponding water and • Symptoms: Saline water envelops deep roots killing
improving the drainage conditions by installing artifi- plants; lowers productivity; eventual destruction of
cial drainage network. plant life.
• Remediation: Switch to less water-demanding plants in
Solonization or Alkalization: areas susceptible to water logging; utilize conservation-
• The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions tillage farming; plant water logging-resistant trees with
on the exchange complex of the clay, resulting in the deep roots; take and out of production for a while; and/
formation of sodic soils (Solonetz). or install pumping stations with drainage pipes that
lead to catchment-evaporation basins.
• All cations in solution are engaged in a reversible reac-
tion with the exchange sites on the clay and organic • Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus
matter particles. than sandy soils, have better infiltration and drainage
than silty soils and are easier to till than clay soils.
Solodization or dealkalization: • If the topsoil is brown or black, it is rich in nitrogen and
• The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the ex- is good for crops. If the topsoil is gray, yellow, or red, it
change sites. This process involves dispersion of clay. is low in organic matter and poor for crops.
Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become hydrated.
• Much of the dispersion can be eliminated if Ca++ and or Do you know?
Mg++ ions are concentrated in the water, which is used The Pench Tiger Reserve (PTR) has launched a project
to leach the soonest. These Ca and Mg ion can replace to involve people in saving tigers and forests under its
the Na on exchange complex, and the salts of sodium are jurisdiction. Large-scale public participation is being
leached out. sought from villagers around five protected areas —
the Umred-Karhandla, Mansinghdeo, Tipeshwar,
Desertification Painganga Wildlife Sanctuaries and the Bor TR. The
• Definition: Productive potential of arid or semiarid land project, an inititative of the Pench Tiger Conservation
falls by at least 10% due to human activity and/or cli- Foundation, includes sensitization of women’s self-help
mate change. groups in 40 vulnerable villages around these PAs.
• Symptoms: Loss of native vegetation; increased wind
erosion; salinization; drop in water table; reduce surface
water supply. 24.14 STAGES OF SOIL EROSION
• Remediation: Reduce overgrazing; reduce deforestation; Splash erosion
reduce destructive froms of planting, irrigation, and • Splash erosion is the first stage of the erosion process.
mining. Plant trees and grasses to hold soil. It occurs when raindrops hit bare soil. The explosive
impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil
Salinization particles are ‘splashed’ onto the soil surface.
• Definition: Water that is not absorbed into the soil and
Sheet erosion
evaporates leaves behind dissolved salts in topsoil.
• Symptoms: Stuned crop growth; lower yield; eventual
• Sheet erosion refers to the uniform movement of a thin
layer of soil across an expanse of land devoid of vegeta-
destruction of plant life.
tive cover. Raindrops detach soil particles, which go into

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 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
solution as runoff occurs and are transported down- • Cover crops: crops which are grown to cover the soil
stream to a point of deposition. in order to reduce the loss of the moisture from the soil
due to leaching and erosion.
Rill erosion
• When sheet flows begin to concentrate on the land sur- • Critical stage of irrigation: the period or the stage of
development of lifecycle of the crop when it is most
face, rill erosion occurs. While sheet erosion is gener-
sensitive to moisture stress, results in yield loss
ally invisible, rill erosion leaves visible scouring on the
landscape. This type of erosion occurs when the dura- • Hard pan: It is a hard and impermeable layer formed
tion or intensity of rain increases and runoff volumes in the soil profile by accumulation of materials such as
accelerate. salts, clay etc which impedes drainage
• Growth regulators: Organic substances which in min-
ute amount may participate in the control of growth
Do you know? processes Ex:Auxins, Cytokinins
The Satkosia Wildlife Sanctuary has witnessed an in- • Heliophytes: Plants of sun loving species, require in-
crease in crocodile population with about 123 gharials tense light for normal development Ex: Rice, Wheat,
and muggers found inhabiting the Mahanadi river Cotton, Sugarcane
gorge.
• Sciophytes: Plants which are shade loving and require
less light intensity
Gully erosion • Heliotropism: It is the movement of the plant parts
towards the sun Ex: Sunflower
• Rill erosion evolves into gully erosion as duration or
intensity of rain continues to increase and runoff vol- • Geotropism: A growth movement in response to grav-
umes continue to accelerate. A gully is generally defined ity. Eg Groundnut peg penetration into the soil
as a scoured out area that is not crossable with tillage • Herbicide: A chemical used for killing or inhibiting the
or grading equipment. growth of unwanted plants Ex: Atrazine
• Ammonification: Production of ammonia as a result of • Insecticide: It is the chemical used for killing the in-
the biological decomposition of organic nitrogen com- sects: Endosulfan
pounds.
• Hidden hunger: Is the condition where plants do not
• Border cropping: is growing of crops on the border exhibit visual symptoms of deficiency for the short sup-
areas of the plot or field ply of particular nutrients but will result in yield losses
• Ex; Safflower as border crop in potato • Humus: A brown or black organic substance consisting
• Border strip irrigation: It is an efficient method of of partially or wholly decayed vegetable or animal mat-
irrigation close growing crops. In this method the field ter that provides nutrients for plants and increases the
is divided by low flat levels into series of strips, each of ability of soil to retain water
which is flooded separately. • Mulching: Practice of covering the soil surface with
• Allelopathy: is defined as direct or indirect harmful materials like plant residues, straw, leaves or plastic film
effect of one plant over the other crop species through to reduce evaporation, restrict weed growth and main-
the exudation of toxic substances from the roots or the tain the soil temperature
decomposition of crop residues • Puddling: It is the ploughing operation carried out in
• C:N ratio: The ratio of the weight of organic C to the stagnated water conditions to create an impervious
weight of total N in the soil. layer below the plough pan
• Check basin: It is a method of irrigation with beds and • Shifting cultivation: It is the old practice of cutting
channel for retaining water to form a pond and clearing of forest for cultivating crops for a certain
• Heaving: Injury to plants caused by lifting upward of period of time as long as the soils having fertility
the plant along with soil from it’s normal position in • Subsidiary farming: Settled Farming in river banks
temperate regions where snowfall is common and streams in addition to gathering & hunting
• Contour farming: is the farming practice of ploughing • Subsistence farming: Raising the crops only for family
across a slope following its elevation contour lines. needs and not for commercial: “Grow it and eat it”

292 All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing.
 SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ENVIRONMENT
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) creased with less water and with reduction in chemical
• System of Rice Intensification (SRI) emerged in the inputs.
1980’s as a synthesis of locally advantageous rice pro- Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI)
duction practices encountered in Madagascar by Fr
Henri de Laulanie
• Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) is an innovative
set of agronomic practices that involves using less seeds,
• SRI is a combination of several practices those include raising seeds in a nursery, and following new planting
changes in nursery management, time of transplanting, methods, with wider seed spacing, and better water and
water and weed management. It emphasizes altering of nutrient management to increase the cane yields sig-
certain agronomic practices of the conventional way of nificantly.
rice cultivation. All these new practices are together
known as System of Rice Intensification (SRI).
• SSI methods can increase sugarcane yields by at least
20% with 30% less water and a 25% reduction in
• Principle - ‘More with Less’ chemical inputs.
• SRI is not a fixed package of technical specifications, but • The SSI method of sugarcane cultivation was evolved
a system of production with four main components, viz., from the principles of ‘More with Less’ followed in SRI
soil fertility management, planting method, weed con- (System of Rice Intensification) and introduced in India
trol and water (irrigation) management. Rice yield in- by the WWF-ICRISAT collaborative project in 2009.

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