APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems

This unit introduces the fundamentals of ecosystem interactions, including types of ecosystems (biomes) and
organization of ecosystems, including how matter and energy cycle through ecosystems.

1.1 Introduction to Ecosystems 1.7 The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

1.2 Terrestrial Biomes 1.8 Primary Productivity
1.3 Aquatic Biomes 1.9 Trophic Levels
1.4 The Carbon Cycle 1.10 Energy Flow and the 10% Rule
1.5 The Nitrogen Cycle 1.11 Food Chains and Food Webs
1.6 The Phosphorous Cycle

Textbook Chapters: Chapters 2, 3, 4

Vocabulary

Abiotic Freshwater wetland Positive feedback loop

Algal bloom Groundwater Predator
Ammonification/Decomposition Herbivore Prey
Heterotroph Primary consumer
Aphotic zone
Hydrologic cycle Producer
Assimilation Hypoxic Productivity
Autotroph Intertidal zone Profundal zone
Benthic zone Lake Reservoir (as in “carbon
Biogeochemical cycle Latitude reservoir”)
Biomass Laws of Thermodynamics Resource partitioning
Biosphere Leaching Runoff
Limiting nutrient/factor River
Biotic
Limnetic zone Salinity
Boreal forest (Tiaga) Littoral zone Salt marsh
Carbon cycle Macronutrient Savanna
Carnivore Mangrove swamp Scavenger
Cellular respiration (respiration) Marine biome(s) Secondary consumer
Chemosynthesis Marshland Sediment
Climate Mineralization Sink (as in “carbon sink”)
Mutualism Stream
Commensalism
Open ocean Source (as in “carbon
Community Negative feedback loop source”)
Competition Net primary productivity Symbiosis
Consumer (NPP) Temperate rainforest
Coral reef Nitrification Temperate seasonal forest
Dead Zone Nitrogen cycle Temperate grassland
Decomposer Nitrogen fixation Ten Percent (10%) Rule
Organic compound Tertiary consumer
Denitrification
Parasitism Transpiration
Desert Permafrost Trophic levels
Detritivore Phosphorous cycle Tropical rainforest
Estuary Photic zone Tundra
Evapotranspiration Photosynthesis Turbidity
Food chain Phytoplankton/Algae Woodland/Shrubland
Food web
Freshwater biome(s)
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
 Topic 1.1 Introduction to Ecosystems
Learning Objective Explain how the availability of resources influences species interactions.

Essential Knowledge  In a predator-prey relationship, the predator is an organism that eats another organism.
 Symbiosis is a close and long-term interaction between two species in an ecosystem. Types
of symbiosis include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
 Competition can occur within or between species in an ecosystem when there are limited
resources. Resource partitioning – using the resources in different ways, places, or at
different times – can reduce the negative impact of competition on survival.

Textbook Sections Chapter 6, Module 20

● Systems Feedback Loops

○ Positive Feedback Loops
■ Input and output drive the system further towards one extreme
■ Disrupting
■ Example:

○ Negative Feeback Loops

■ Input and outpt essential neutralize each others’ effects
■ Stabilizing
■ Example:

● Matter and Energy Flow through Ecosystems

○ Energy from sun flow in direction through ecosystem (trophic levels)
■ Arrives as radiation from sun; leaves as heat
○ Matter is and through ecosystem (biogeochemical cycles)
● Species Interactions
○ Competition
■ Organisms that seek the same have relationship called competition
● If one species is stronger competitor and excludes other species – competitive exclusion
● If no single competitor excludes other - species coexist
○ Coexisting species may alter behaviors to minimize competion by altering niche
■ Niche = of species in ecosystem (what it eats, what it does, how
it sues habitat and resources)
○ Resource partitioning – species use shared resource in different ways
■ Example:
○ Predation
■ Individuals of one species (predators) capture, kill, and
consume individuals of another species (prey)
○ Symbiosis
■ Parasitism: one organism (parasite) depends on another
(host) for nourishment
● Pathogens = parasites that cause disease
■ Mutalism: two or more species benefit each other
■ Commensalism: one organism benefits without harming the
other
 Topic 1.8 Primary Productivity
Learning Objective Explain how solar energy is acquired and transferred by living organisms.

Essential Knowledge  Primary productivity is the rate at which solar energy (sunlight) is converted into organic
compounds via photosynthesis over a unit of time.
 Gross primary productivity is the total rate of photosynthesis in a given area.
 Net primary productivity is the rate of energy storage by photosynthesizers in a given area,
after subtracting the energy lost to respiration.
 Productivity is measured in units of energy per unit area per unit time (example:
kcal/m2/yr)
 Most red light is absorbed in the upper 1m of water, and blue light only penetrates deeper
than 100m in the clearest/least turbid water. This affects photosynthesis in aquatic
ecosystems, whose photosynthesizershave adapted mechanisms to address lack of visible
light.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 6

● Energy Converted into Biomass

○ Primary Production: conversion of energy into bonds in sugars through
.
■ Gross Primary Production (GPP) = total chemical energy produced through photosynthesis
■ Net Primary Production (NPP) – energy that remains after respiration is used to generate biomass (leaves,
stems, roots)
● the energy available to the rest of the ecosystem
○ Productivity is the at which energy is converted to biomass
■ Example of units:
● Primary Productivity Calculation
○ Practice: The gross primary productivity of an ecosystem us 3.5 kC/m2/yr, and the energy needed by plants for
their own respiration is 3.0 kC/m2/yr. What is the net primary productivity of this ecosystem?
● Global Pattern of Net Primary Productivity
○ NPP increases with and on land
○ NPP increase with and in aquatic ecosystems
● Factors that Affect Primary Productivity
○ Solar radiation: solar radiation = higher productivity
○ Temperature: in general, temperatures = higher productivity
○ Precipitation: in general, precipitation = higher productivity
○ Nutrient levels: nutrients = higher productivity
● Biome Net Primary Productivity
○ Which biomes are the most productive? .
○ Which biomes are the least productive? .
● Nutrients can Limit Productivity
○ Nutrients = elements and compounds organisms require for survival
■ Nutrients stimulate plant production
■ Most important nutrients for algal growth:
●
●
○ Algal Blooms are often caused by an of nutrients (cultural eutrophication)

Topic 1.9 Trophic Levels

Learning Objective Explain how energy flows and matters cycles through trophic levels.

Essential Knowledge  All ecosystems depend on a continuous inflow of high-quality energy in order to maintain
their structure and function of transferring matter between he environment and organisms
via biogeochemical cycles.
 Biogeochemical cycles are essential for life and each cycle demonstrates the conservation
of matter.
 In terrestrial and near-surface marine communities, energy flows from the sun to
producers in the lowest trophic levels and then upward to higher trophic levels.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 5

Topic 1.10 Energy Flow and the 10% Rule

Learning Objective Determine how the energy decreases as it flows through ecosystems.

Essential Knowledge  The 10% Rule approximates that in the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the
next, only about 10% of the energy is passed on.
 The loss of energy that occurs whenever energy moves from lower to higher trophic levels
can be explained through the laws of thermodynamics.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 6

● Energy and Biomass Decrease at Higher Trophic Levels

○ At each trophic level, most of the energy input is either used for maintenance or lost as heat
○ Trophic levels will only have about percent of the energy, content, organisms, and biomass compared to
the trophic level below them
■ Biomass = collective mass of living matter in a given place and time

Topic 1.11 Food Chains and Food Webs

Learning Objective Describe food chains and food webs, and their constituent members by trophic level.

Essential Knowledge  A food web is a model of an interlocking pattern of food chains that depict the flow of
energy and nutrients in two or more food chains.
 Positive and negative feedback loops can play a role in food webs. When one species is
removed or added to a specific food web, the rest of the food web can be affected.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 6

● Food Chains and Webs

○ Food chains show the flow of energy and feeding relationships between trophic levels; food webs show interlinking
food chains of entire community.
○ Arrows show directions of energy flow! (arrows point from prey to predator)
● Keystone Species
○ Species that are critical for survival of ecosystem
○ Examples:

● Introduced and Invasive Species

○ Introduced species = non-native arrivals to community brought by humans
○ Invasive species = introduced species that survive and out-compete some native species
○ Research an invasive species and write about it here:

Topic 1.4 The Carbon Cycle

Learning Objective Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the carbon cycle.
Essential Knowledge  The carbon cycle is the movement of atoms and molecules containing the element carbon
between sources and sinks.
 Some of the reservoirs in which carbon compounds occur in the carbon cycle hold those
compounds for long periods of time, while some hold them for relatively short periods of
time.
 Carbon cycles between photosynthesis and cellular respiration in living things.
 Plant and animal decomposition have led to the storage of carbon over millions years (in
fossil fuels). The burning of fossil fuels quickly moves that stored carbon into atmospheric
carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 7

Explore the parts of the carbon cycle by clicking on each one. As you explore, describe the role of each of
the following parts of the global carbon cycle.
Full URL: https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/3-carbon-cycle
Part of Carbon Cycle Description of Role in Carbon Cycle

Atmosphere

Vegetation

Ocean Surface

Burning/Combustion of Fossil Fuels

Respiration

Photosynthesis

Decay

Answer the questions below (feel free to use the web/AI to help you out):

1) Carbon dioxide dissolved in water can combine with calcium ions to form

2) Name 2 “sinks” of atmospheric carbon dioxide: and

Note: Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas! Slowing global warming involves finding
 ways to reduce carbon dioxide (and methane) emissions into the atmosphere. Carbon
and Oxygen
Cycles
o Carbon and oxygen are
o , and all play a role in this cycle
 o Chemical formula for photosynthesis:

o Plants and consumers are on each other

 The Carbon Cycle
o take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen through .
o eat producer (taking in carbon-food molecules) and release them as carbon dioxide
and carbon waste products through .
o Decomposers the remains of producers and consumers and return it to the soils. They
also take in and release .
 Human Impact on Carbon Cycle
o Humans the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by:
 oil and other fossil fuels
 forests for lumber
 Burning down to clear a forest
 give off carbon dioxide
o Carbon dioxide is a
 Greenhouse gases hold heat in the atmosphere
o Methane (another carbon compound) is also a
 Methane is produced through , factories, and cars

Topic 1.5 The Nitrogen Cycle

Learning Objective Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the nitrogen cycle.
Essential Knowledge  The nitrogen cycle is the movement of atoms and molecules containing the element
nitrogen between sources and sinks.
 Most of the reservoirs in which nitrogen compounds occur in the nitrogen cycle hold those
compounds for relatively short periods of time.
 Nitrogen fixation is the process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into a form of
nitrogen (primarily ammonia) that is available for uptake by plants and that can be
synthesized into plant tissue.
 The atmosphere is the major reservoir of nitrogen.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 7

Explore the parts of the nitrogen cycle by clicking on each one. As you explore, fill in the chart,
which shows the major steps in the nitrogen cycle.
Full URL: https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/image_maps/14-the-terrestrial-nitrogen-cycle

Chemical Change Performed by Describe the role of this

Name of Process process in the nitrogen
cycle.

Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrification

Assimilation

Decomposition

Denitrification

Answer the following questions about the nitrogen cycle:

1) Roughly percent of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen gas. The chemical formula of this
form of nitrogen:

2) Which type of organisms are “key players” in nitrogen cycle?

3) What nitrogen compound is available to plants for assimilation of amino acids/proteins and DNA?

Note: Nitrogen is a major nutrient for producers!

 The Nitrogen Cycle
o Nitrogen moves from the to the soil, into living things, and back into the air
o Nitrogen gas (N2) is plentiful in the atmpshere ( ) but cannot be used until it is “fixed”
o Most nitrogen is fixed by
 They change free N to useable N
 The Release of Nitrogen
o All living things use nitrogen to build and (DNA,RNA)
o can break down waste (including animal waste) and return nitrogen to the soil and
atmosphere
o Nitrogen fixing bacteria can live on the roots of , such as peanuts and beans
 Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle
o runoff from farms can increase the amount of nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems
o Runoff from areas can increase the amount of nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems
o Eutrophication
 As nitrogen builds up in aquatic ecosystems, it causes growth of
 Algal blooms can:
 Block
 Cause (low oxygen) water as algae is
 Be toxic
 Topic 1.6 The Phosphorous Cycle
Learning Objective Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the phosphorous cycle.

Essential Knowledge  The phosphorous cycle is the movement of atoms and molecules containing the element
phosphorous between sources and sinks.
 The major reservoirs of phosphorous in the phosphorous cycle are rock and sediments that
contains phosphorous-bearing minerals.
 There is no atmospheric component in the phosphorous cycle, and the limitations this
imposes on the return on phosphorous from the ocean to land make phosphorous
naturally scarce in aquatic and many terrestrial ecosystems. In undisturbed ecosystems,
phosphorous is the limiting factor in biological systems.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 7

Read the Phosphorus Cycle article on the Science Facts website and label the illustration below.
Full URL: https://www.sciencefacts.net/phosphorus-cycle.html

Label the illustration with the 5 steps of the

phosphorous cycle:

 Assimilation
 Mineralization/Decomposition
 Sedimentation
 Geologic Uplift
 Weathering

Note: Like nitrogen, phosphorous (in the form of phosphate) is a major nutrient for producers!
Fun fact: The phosphorus cycle is the only biogeochemical cycle without an atmospheric component!

The Phosphorus Cycle
o Phosphorus is most commonly found in and ocean sediments as phosphate salts
o Phosphate salts are released from rocks through , then usually dissolved in soil water and
absorbed by plants
 Phosphorus is a
o Unlike other cycles, phosphorus cannot be found in the atmosphere in a gaseous state
o Phosphorus cycle is the slowest cycle
o Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants and plant-eating animals (assimilation)
 Phosphorous is component of DNA, bones, and teeth
o When animals die, phosphates will return to soils or ocean during decomposition
 Human Impact on the Phosphorous Cycle
o Like nitrogen, increased use of increases phosphorus runoff into aquatic ecosystems and
contributes to
  Phosphate can also be found in

Topic 1.7 The Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

Learning Objective Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the hydrologic cycle.

Essential Knowledge  The hydrologic cycle, which is powered by the sun, is the movement of water in its various
solid, liquid, and gaseous phases between sources and sinks.
 The oceans are the primary reservoir of water at the Earth’s surface, with ice caps and
groundwater acting as much smaller reservoirs.

Textbook Sections Chapter 3, Module 7

Complete the Water Cycle interactive on the USGS website. Hover over each step of the water
cycle to complete the following table.
Full URL: https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle-kids-adv.html

Water Cycle
Description of Process
Process
Groundwater
Storage/Aquifers

Condensation

Precipitation

Infiltration and
Recharge Note: The water cycle involves only
PHYSICAL CHANGES. The chemical
formula of water is always H2O, no
Runoff matter what state of matter it is in!

Evapotranspiration
  Human Impacts on the Water Cycle
o Urbanization
 Shift from rural to urban living
 Increases runoff and risk of flooding in an area because water is unable to be absorbed by soil
 Paved areas such as parking lots and roads are more likely to flood because water is not absorbed
o Factories, cars, and burning trash can pollute the atmosphere and sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which mix
with water to form acid rain

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
 Topic 1.2 Terrestrial Biomes
Learning Objective Describe the global distribution and principal environmental aspects of terrestrial biomes.

Essential Knowledge  A biome contains characteristics communities for plants and animals that result from, and
are adapted to, its climate.
 Major terrestrial biomes include taiga (boreal forest), temperate rainforests, temperate
seasonal forests, tropical rainforests, shrubland/woodland (chaparral), temperate
grassland, savanna (tropical grassland), desert, and tundra.
 The global distribution of non mineral terrestrial natural resources (such as water and trees
for lumber) varies because of some combination of climate, geography, latitude and
altitude, nutrient availability, and soil makeup.
 The worldwide distribution of biomes in dynamic; the distribution has changed in the past
and may shift again as a result of global climate changes.

Textbook Sections Chapter 4, Modules 12

● Distribution of Terrestrial Biomes

○ From the image, what do you notice about the distribution of terrestrial biomes?

● Terrestrial Biomes
○ Include communities of plants and animals that result from,
and are adapted to, its .
○ 2 major biotic factors that characterize terrestrial biomes
(determine climate):
■
■
○ Factors that influence climate (average temp. and precipitation):
■
■
■

● Climatographs
○ Show the average temperature and precipitation by month in an area.
● Shifting Biomes
○ Biomes can shift as a result of climate change.
○ Ex: plant hardiness zones in the United States

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
Major Terrestrial Biomes

Climate
Name of (description of yearly Soil Dominant Dominant
Climate Graph Example
Biome precipitation and Fertility Plants Wildlife
temperature patterns)

Tundra
Arctic and Subarctic

Boreal Forest
(Taiga)

Temperate
Rainforest
(Temperate
Coniferous
Forest)

Temperate
Seasonal/
Deciduous
Forest
Temperate

Chapparal
(Shrubland)

Temperate
Grassland

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
 Climate
Name of (description of yearly Soil Dominant Dominant
Climate Graph Example
Biome precipitation and Fertility Plants Wildlife
temperature patterns)

Tropical
Rainforest
Tropical

Tropical
Grassland
(Savanna)
Tropical or Temperate

Desert

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
 Topic 1.3 Aquatic Biomes
Learning Objective Describe the global distribution and principal environmental aspects of aquatic biomes.

Essential Knowledge  Freshwater biomes include streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. These freshwater biomes are
vital sources of drinking water.
 Marine biomes include oceans, coral reefs, marshland, and estuaries. Algae in marine
biomes supply a large portion of Earth’s oxygen, and also take in carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
 The global distribution of mineral marine natural resources (such as different types of fish)
varies because of some combination of salinity, depth, turbidity, nutrient availability, and
temperature.

Textbook Sections Chapter 4, Module 13

● Characteristics of Aquatic Biomes

○ Abiotic factors:
■ Sunlight Availability
● Influenced by and turbidity
● Turbidity = amount of dissolved , cloudiness
■ Nutrient Availability
● Upwelling occurs where ocean water is forced to the surface by

● Upwelling zones are important for

■ Salinity
■ Temperature
■ Currents
■ Dissolved Oxygen (DO) concentration

● Aquatic Zones Matching Game

○ Lakes and oceans are divided into different “zones” based on differences in abiotic factors. Match the zones with
the description that describes them:
Photic Zone You can also call me the “open ocean.” I am the water past the
continental shelf and will contain different zones based on the
depth. Nutrients may be scarce.
Aphotic Zone I am the open part of a lake beyond the shore. I contain fewer
plant life.
Benthic Zone I am the water typically below 200 meters (depending on
turbidity). I don’t have enough sunlight for photosynthesis to
occur, so I don’t contain as many living organisms.
Limnetic Zone In the ocean, I am also called the intertidal zone. I am closest to
the shore and experience high and low tides. Living things must
adapt to the changing conditions and moving water. In lakes, I
contain many plants.
Neritic Zone You can also call me “the floor.” I contain many decomposers that
break down what falls from above. In the ocean, I will contain
different zones based on depth (like the abyssal zone!).
Oceanic Zone I typically span the top 200 meters of water (depending on
turbidity). I contain enough sunlight for photosynthesis to occur,
so I contain many living organisms.
Littoral Zone I am the ocean water above the continental shelf. I receive
nutrients from the land and adequate sunlight, so I contain many

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
 organisms.

● Aquatic Organisms
○ Organisms in aquatic ecosystems are groups based on adaptation. Write one or two words that will help you
remember each type of organism:
■ Phytoplankton/Algae:
■ Nekton:
■ Benthos:

Freshwater Biomes

● Freshwater Biomes
○ Vital source of drinking water
○ Less than % of water on Earth (most in icecaps and glaciers)
○ Main categories
■ Streams and rivers
■ Lakes and ponds
■ Freshwater wetlands (marshes and swamps)
● Lake Trophic Classification
○ Lake Trophic States
■ Based on the (amount of )
■ Major nutrients:
●
●

Type of Lake/ Dissolved

Nutrient
Trophic Productivity Turbidity Oxygen Drawing or Picture
Level
Classification Level

Oligotrophic

Mesotrophic

Eutrophic

● Freshwater Wetlands
○ Areas of land covered with freshwater at least part of the year
■ Marshes:
■ Swamps:

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
Marine Biomes

● Marine Biomes
○ Majority of water on Earth
○ Marine algae are vital sources of and take in .
○ Many marine biomes, but know these ones:
■ Intertidal zones
■ Estuaries and mangroves
■ Coral reefs
● Intertidal Zones
○ Intertidal zone = narrow strip along coastline that falls between high-tide and low-tide water lines
■ High tide covered with water; low tide exposed to air
○ Dominant feature is regular movement of tides in and out
○ Organisms must have a wide for a variety of abiotic factors, such as:
■
■
■
● Coastal Wetlands
○ Estuaries
■ A bay area in which freshwater from mixes with saltwater from
■ Very productive ecosystem because:
● constantly receive .
● shallow enough for
● enclosed area
■ Many aquatic organisms rely on estuaries for
○ Mangrove swamps
■ Dense growth of mangrove trees in swampy areas
● Coral Reefs
○ ridges built by tiny coral animals (coral polyps) and algae (zooxanthellae) that live inside them
■ Coral polyps secrete skeletons of limestone/calcium carbonate that slowly accumulate and form reefs
○ Most diverse aquatic ecosystem
○ Found in warm saltwater that is shallow and clear ( seas)

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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
 Unit Review

Activities/Labs Summary of Main Objective/Takeaways

AP Classroom Unit Progress Check Scores

MCQ: /33 = %

FRQ: /6 = %

What questions do I have and/or what topics do I need to focus on during study?

Unit Reflection

Test Score: %

Reflection

Topics I felt confident in:

Topics I need to review more:

Describe one way the topic(s) of this unit relate to my life. Draw a smiley face
showing how you felt
about this unit!
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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems
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APES Unit 1: The Living World – Ecosystems