9 Module 3: Infrastructure Civil Engineering: Societal & Global Impact

2. Danger of enemy attacks- In the periods of war and political hegemony, pipe-lines are more prone to
enemy attacks thus jeopardizing the veins of supply to the entire nation. The production activities are
grinded to halt.
Tunnel
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for
entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have
used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods. A tunnel may be for
foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central portions of a rapid transit network are
usually in the tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or
are sewers. Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables,
as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Secret tunnels are built for
military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons, contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such
as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected
together in tunnel networks. Tunnels can be used for roadways, railways and even as waterways also. In many
cities, underground metro rail networks work inside a tunnel.
Methods of Tunnel Construction
There are various types of construction techniques developed for construction of tunnels which are discussed
below:

Cut and cover method

Bored tunnel method
Clay kicking method
Shaft method
Pipe jacking method
Box jacking method
Underwater tunnels
Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction

Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build shallow tunnels. In this method,
a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some support which can be capable of bearing load on it.
The cutting can be done by two methods. One is bottom up method in which a tunnel is excavated under
the surface using ground support. Another method is top-down method in which side support walls are
constructed first by slurry walling method or contiguous bored piling.
Then roof is located on the top of the walls and excavation is carried out. Finally, base slab is constructed.
Most of the Underground metro rail stations are constructed using cut and cover method.
Bored Tunnel Method

Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring machines are used which
automatically work and makes the entire tunneling process easier. It is also quicker process and good
method to build tunnel in high traffic areas.
Tunnels boring
conditions. These machines can be used in difficult conditions such as below the water table etc.
A special pressurized compartment is provided for TBM to work in below water table conditions. The
workers should not enter that compartment except for repair works.
Care should be taken while TBM is in working conditions. The only difficulty with this TBM is its heavy
weight. So, transportation is difficult and costlier.

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Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction

This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and used for small works
like sewage pipes installations etc.
In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and after some depth tunnel is excavated which is
done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at 45 o angle.
An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that tool is collected by other
workers. This is well famous because it is the method used by Englishmen to put mines under the German
empire during First World War.

Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction

In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. The shaft is built up to the
depth where tunnel is required.
Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with concrete walls. At required depth, tunnels are

Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long. After the construction process, these shafts
can also be used for ventilation purpose as well as emergency exits.

Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like road ways, railways etc. In this
method, specially made pipes are driven into underground using hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter
diameter is allowed for tunnels.

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Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes, specially made boxes are driven
into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the front side of the box. Excavated matter is collected within the box.
Larger size tunnels can be excavated using box jacks up to 20 meters.

Underwater Tunnel Construction

An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way through it. If construction of bridge
is not possible then under water tunnel is good choice.

Under water tunnelling is costly process but have advantages over bridge or ferry links. Immersed tubes or bored
tunnel are two most common methods which are used to construct under water tunnels.

Advantages of Tunnelling
1. The tunneling method gain certain advantages compared with other methods, which are mentioned
below:
2. The tunneling procedure is more economical in nature, compared to open cut trench method when the
depth is beyond a limit
3. The surface life or ground activities like transportation are not disturbed when tunneling is undergone.
4. The method ensures high-speed construction with low power consumption
5. Reduces Noise Pollution
6. These methods have freedom from snow and iceberg hazards, in areas of high altitudes
7. Surface and air interference is restricted for tunnels
8. Provision of tunnels with easy gradients, help in reducing the cost of hauling

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9. For the transportation of public utilities, tunneling method has a remarkable advantage compared to the
bridge.
10. The dangerous open cut to a nearby structure, when it is needed, is solved by the tunneling method
11. The tunneling grant greater protection in aerial warfare and bombing conditions
Tunnelling Disadvantages
1. The tunnelling method gains certain disadvantages, which is due to its complexity and difficulty. Some
of them are:
2. The initial investment cost for commencing the tunnel is high compared to the open cut method.
3. Highly skilled and experienced designers and engineer team only will work best for this operation.
4. Higher and constant supervision from the start to the end of the tunneling project is necessary without
any compromise
5. Highly sophisticated and specialized equipment are necessary to perform the tunneling operations.

Sea Tunnel
An undersea tunnel is a tunnel which is partly or wholly constructed under a body of water. They are often used
where building a bridge or operating a ferry link is impossible, or to provide competition or relief for existing
bridges or ferry links.
Advantages
1. Compared with bridges- One such advantage would be that a tunnel would still allow shipping to pass.
A low bridge would need an opening or swing bridge to allow shipping to pass, which can cause traffic
congestion. Conversely, a higher bridge that does allow shipping may be unsightly and opposed by the
public. Higher bridges can also be more expensive than lower ones. Bridges can also be closed due to
harsh weather such as high winds. Another possible advantage is space: the downward ramp leading to
a tunnel may leave a smaller carbon footprint compared to the upward ramps required by most bridges.
2. Compared with ferry links- As with bridges, albeit with more chance, ferry links will also be closed
during adverse weather. Strong winds or the tidal limits may also affect the workings of a ferry crossing.
Travelling through a tunnel is significantly quicker than travelling using a ferry link, shown by the times
for travelling through the Channel Tunnel (75 90 minutes for Ferry and 21 minutes on the Eurostar).
Ferries offer much less frequency and capacity and furthermore travel times tend to be longer with a ferry
compared to a tunnel.
Disadvantages
1. Compared with bridges-Tunnels require far higher costs of security and construction than bridges. This
may mean that over short distances bridges may be preferred rather than tunnels (for example Dartford
Crossing). As stated earlier, bridges may not allow shipping to pass, so solutions such as the Øresund
Bridge have been constructed.
2. Compared with ferry links- As with bridges, ferry links are far cheaper to construct than tunnels, but not
to operate. Also tunnels don't have the flexibility to be deployed over different routes as transport demand
changes over time. Without the cost of a new ferry, the route over which a ferry provides transport can
easily be changed.

Seikan The Seikan Tunnel is the world's longest tunnel with an

Seikan, Japan 53.8 km
Tunnel undersea segment.

Channel World's longest undersea portion railway tunnel (37.9km

England-France 50.4 km
Tunnel underwater length)

Ryfylke Stavanger-Ryfylke, The longest and deepest undersea tunnel for cars,
14.3 km
Tunnel Norway from Stavanger to Ryfylke

East West Metro Tunnel is an under construction underwater river tunnel of Kolkata Metro in Kolkata, West
Bengal. The river tunnel is constructed underneath Hooghly river. Tunnel length is 10.8 kilometres (6.7 mi) and
width is 5.5 metres (18 ft). A 520m stretch of the tracks will go through a tunnel under the Hooghly. The roof of

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the tunnel would be about 30 metres from the ground level. The tunnel will be completed in 2021. The tunnel will
be first underwater river tunnel in India . The tunnel is used by East West Metro Line for metro rail service and
constructed by Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation.
Canal
Canals are waterways channels, or artificial waterways, for water conveyance, or to service water
transport vehicles. They may also help with irrigation. It can be thought of as an artificial version of a river. In
most cases, the engineered works will have a series of dams and locks that create reservoirs of low speed current
flow. These reservoirs are referred to as slack water levels, often just called levels. A canal is also known as
a navigation when it parallels a river and shares part of its waters and drainage basin, and leverages its resources
by building dams and locks to increase and lengthen its stretches of slack water levels while staying in its valley.
In contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide atop a ridge, generally requiring an external water source above
the highest elevation. Many canals have been built at elevations towering over valleys and other water ways
crossing far below. Canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination such as a city
where water is needed. The Roman Empire's aqueducts were such water supply canals.
A ship canal is a canal especially intended to accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas or lakes to which it is
connected, as opposed to a barge canal intended to carry barges and other vessels specifically designed for river
and/or canal navigation. Because of the constraints of accommodating vessels capable of navigating large bodies
of open water, a ship canal typically offers deeper water and higher bridge clearances than a barge canal of similar
vessel length and width constraints.
Ship canals may be specially constructed from the start to accommodate ships, or less frequently they may be
enlarged barge canals, or canalized or channelized rivers. There are no specific minimum dimensions for ship
canals, with the size being largely dictated by the size of ships in use nearby at the time of construction or
enlargement.
Ship canals may be constructed for a number of reasons, including:

To create a shortcut and avoid lengthy detours.

To create a navigable shipping link between two land-locked seas or lakes.
To provide inland cities with a direct shipping link to the sea.
To provide an economical alternative to other options.
Structures used in artificial waterways
1. Both navigations and canals use engineered structures to improve navigation:
2. weirs and dams to raise river water levels to usable depths;
3. looping descents to create a longer and gentler channel around a stretch of rapids or falls;
4. locks to allow ships and barges to ascend/descend.
Aqueducts: water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human
consumption, municipal uses, hydro power canals and agriculture irrigation.
Here are 10 innovations that will revolutionize transportation in the near future.
1. Self-driving drone taxis-Autonomous drone taxis that drive themselves are currently being tested before
being released on the market. The drones, which look much like a regular helicopter, have 18 propellers.
They can carry 2 passengers and are expected to be in service by July 2018.
2. Maglev trains- Magle
and are propelled by electrically-charged magnets. Riders claim the trains are exceptionally comfortable
and stable. Maglev trains have been recorded to travel at a rate of 375 miles per hour (mph). Maglev
trains are already in operation in China and Germany and are expected to become a common mode of
transportation throughout the world by 2030.
3. Hyperloop transportation systems- This transportation concept, conceived by Elon Musk, founder of
Tesla Motors and SpaceX, is currently being designed and developed. Hyperloops are essentially
transportation tubes that run pods of passengers or freight through a pressurized track at high speeds.
Hyperloops run at an average of 600 mph; their top speed is 760 mph. There are several companies
currently working to advance the technology. One company hopes to launch its first passenger service in
2021.
4. Satellite-based air traffic control systems- Air traffic control systems in operation today are ground-
-based control systems allow air traffic

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controllers to be more efficient. The U.S. is currently working on NextGen, a satellite-based air traffic
control system that is being implemented in stages through 2025. GPS technology will be used to increase
accuracy and shorten routes. NextGen is expected to save time and fuel, reduce air traffic delays, increase
flight capacity and permit air traffic controllers to monitor aircraft with improved safety margins. Once

-off. NextGen
will reduce aircraft gridlock, both in the sky and in airports.
5. Self-driving electric buses-Automated city buses and shuttles will be in operation in the near future.
Autonomous vehicles use cameras, radars and GPS systems to recognize and communicate with traffic
lights and have impressive safety records. These buses of the future will reduce the impact on the
environment because they are electric. Self-driving buses are already in operation in China and Germany,
and are being tested in the U.S. Autonomous buses have a back-up mode where a human can take control
of the vehicle if needed.
6. Elevated buses- While self-driving electric buses are making strides worldwide, China is working on a
bus system that will reduce traffic congestion. The elevated bus is a vehicle t
runs on a special track that allows regular vehicles to drive underneath. The Transit Elevated Bus (TEB)
system is currently being designed in China and is expected to reduce traffic congestion by 30 percent.
7. Flying hotel pods0- A fleet of drones that are portable hotels are being designed by a company in Canada.
The hospitality concept, Driftscape, is a mobile, self-sustaining hotel that uses drone
technology. Driftscape allows guests to travel while sleeping, roam or touch down in diverse locations.
It is made up of several modular units that include food and beverage elements. Driftscape offers 360-
degree views of the outside world and is particularly suited to have minimal impact on the environment,
allowing the guest to travel to locations that are sensitive while preserving the integrity and authenticity
of the location.
8. Smart roads- Roads are the foundation of the future of transportation, providing society with smart
mobility. A typical smart road will be more animated, able to communicate with vehicles and people
using sensors, data capture abilities and the ability to be responsive to changes in the environment. Roads
will literally talk to traffic signs, bicycles and vehicles. Roads will virtually be alive.Smart roads will be
able to store solar energy and transfer that energy into electricity for vehicles and the infrastructure. They
will glow in the dark using photo-luminescent powder that charges during the day. Smart roads will use
motion-sensor lights to light up only the sections of road that are being used, providing night visibility
while going dim when not in use. Smart roads of the future will be able to melt snow and ice using
electricity or hot water, reducing traffic accidents that cause injury and death. In addition, federal, state
and local governments spend billions of dollars on the operation, maintenance and repair of highways
and drivers lose billions of dollars annually due to corrosion-related repair costs and depreciation linked
to chemicals used to treat roadways during the winter.
9. Ground level pedestrian lights- There has been a rise in the number of accidents involving foot traffic
since the use of smartphones has increased. An innovation in transportation technology is a system that
can be installed at pedestrian traffic lights that would light up the pavement in red or green to signal when
it is safe or not safe for pedestrians to cross the street safely.
10. Bicycle share programs- Bicycle share programs allow riders to pay a small fee to ride a bike from one
point to another, leaving the bike at the ride share station. This is a helpful program in urban areas where
traffic can make it easier and faster to ride a bike than drive a car. Bicycles are good for the
environment as they do not emit harmful emissions; bikes are an eco-friendly mode of transportation as
well as giving riders the opportunity to get healthy exercise. Bicycle share programs are already in
operation in several major metropolitan areas, and are expected to be become more common in the future.
These ten innovations are in addition to electric vehicles and driverless cars, both of which are growing in
popularity and pervasiveness. Electric cars are an excellent solution to the issue of the damage to the environment
that current fuel sources create. Autonomous vehicles are reported to be safer and increase efficiency.
The future will bring dramatic technological improvements to the transportation sector, many of which are in
unchartered terrain. The government may need to get involved and cooperate more closely with private investors,
innovators and other stakeholders as an agent of public interest. Transportation has a rich history of both technical
and policy innovation, a history that is likely to persist. Transportation is in an upheaval as it struggles to continue
to support the prosperity and quality of life of our nation and others on the planet.
From a policy perspective, there are three approaches that other officials should replicate:
1. Focus on system-wide mobility, rather than individual pieces of infrastructure-For it to function well,
the Washington-area economy requires all parts of its transportation to work together. New projects in

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the region take that same approach they consider how one action can affect and work with other parts

applications that provide a wealth of system wide information to users. DDOT is using its parking pilot
to balance demand on the transit and roadway network, and at the same time developed a larger

variable pricing provides drivers with information on the entire toll road system in order to foster better
route planning. Overall, empowering users to make informed decisions will help to reduce the stress
placed on the existing system and may help alleviate congestion throughout the region.
2. Optimize existing assets rather than expanding them-As more information becomes available, either
through existing sources or new, agencies have an unprecedented opportunity to become better managers
of public assets (parking spaces, roads, sidewalks, etc.). Theoretically, access to more and better
information on how their resources are used could boost the ability of agencies to manage these resources.
For example, the I-270 RFP in Maryland demonstrates how the contracting method can be a useful way
to identify alternative and potentially more efficient and cost-effective solutions instead of resorting to
the default method of adding another lane.
3. Flexible pricing is one of the biggest innovations in transportation- Projects like the electronic variable
tolling and dynamic pricing for parking spots are changing the way agencies manage infrastructure. This
coincides with dynamically-priced ride hailing services, where companies like Uber and Lyft adjust their
prices to match demand. The concept of dynamic pricing has been around for a long time, as have parking
meters, toll roads and taxis. But now technology has enabled efficient and accurate pricing of these
services. With a shift to variable pricing, agencies are better able to manage their resources and demand.
While these projects illustrate different paths for innovation in transportation, together they serve as
shining examples of how the area is championing new methods and approaches. The National Capital
region continues to be a leader, focusing on mobility throughout the entire system, operating existing
resources more effectively, and using innovation to improve transportation options for all of its residents.

Energy Infrastructure
Energy in India describes energy and electricity production, consumption and import in India. Energy policy of
India describes the policies and strategies of India for achieving sustainable energy security to its
people. Electricity sector in India is the main article of electricity in India. The Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy provides data regarding progress in the non-conventional energy sector.
Since 2013, total primary energy consumption in India has been the third highest in the world (see world energy
consumption) after China (see energy in China) and the United States (see energy in the United States).[1][2] India
is the second top coal consumer in the year 2017 after China. India ranks third in oil consumption with 221 million
tons in 2017 after the United States and China. India is net energy importer to meet nearly 45% of its total primary
energy.
Installed capacity of Energy production in India as on 31 January 2020

Coal: 204,724.5 MW (55.6%)

Large Hydro: 45,399.22 MW (12.3%)
Small Hydro: 4,671.56 MW (1.3%)
Wind Power: 37,505.18 MW (10.2%)
Solar Power: 33,730.56 MW (9.2%)
Biomass: 10,001.11 MW (2.7%)
Nuclear: 6,780 MW (1.8%)
Gas: 24,955.36 MW (6.8%)
Diesel: 509.71 MW (0.1%)

Thermal Power plant

A thermal power station is a power station in which heat energy is converted to electric power. In most places
the turbine is steam-driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. After it passes through the turbine the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was

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heated. This is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to
the different heat sources; fossil fuel power generation, though nuclear heat energy, solar heat energy, biofuels,
and waste incineration are also used. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert
forms of heat energy into electrical energy.

Advantages:
1. Fuel cost of thermal power plant is relatively low.
2. We can produce thermal energy almost everywhere in the world.
3. Heat production System is simple compared to other system.
4. Overall system cost effective.
5. Easy mechanism.
6. Same heat could be reused.
7. Easier Maintenance of power station.
8. Use of water is prominent here, therefore, any places with ample supply of water is a perfect location for
installing a thermal power station.
9. Thermal power plant requires comparatively small space to be installed.

Disadvantages:
1. huge production of Carbon-di-oxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
2. Exhausted gases harms outside environment badly.
3. Low overall efficiency.
4. Thermal engines requires huge amount of lubricating oil that is very expensive.
5. Nuclear thermal power plant demands excessive amount of water for cooling purpose.
6. Coal type thermal power plant requires comparatively larger duration before it supply generated power to the
grid.
7. This type of power station ultimately responsible for raise in sea water level.
Hydro Power Plant
Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling or fast-running water, which may be
harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds of watermills has been used as
a renewable energy source for irrigation and the operation of various mechanical devices, such
as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills. In the late 19th
century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity. Cragside in Northumberland was the first house
powered by hydroelectricity in 1878.
Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts the kinetic energy
of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into
electrical energy.

Here are the basic components of a conventional hydropower plant:

Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back water, creating a large reservoir. Often, this
reservoir is used as a recreational lake, such as Lake Roosevelt at the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State.

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