UNDERGROUND MINING Factors in the Selection of Mining Method

o Spatial factors of the deposit

Surface Mining o Geologic and hydrologic conditions
- is done by removing (stripping) surface o Geotechnical properties
vegetation, dirt, and if necessary, layers of o Economic considerations
bedrock in order to reach the ore deposits. o Technical factors
- is a type of mining in which soil and rock o Environmental concerns
overlying the mineral deposit (overburden) are
removed. General Classification of Mining Methods
- It is used when deposits of commercially useful
minerals or rocks are found near the surface.

Underground Mining
- a method of extraction of an ore deposit beneath
the surface of the earth located at greater depth
and which can no longer be economically mined
by surface methods.
- it is done by driving vertical and horizontal
openings to reach the deposit.

2 General Categories of Materials

Placer Deposits
o consisting of valuable minerals contained
within river gravels, beach sands, and other General Advantages of UG Mining
unconsolidated materials; o Lower mining cost;
o Labor intensive; more workers can be
o where water has transported and sorted
employed
particles over time; heavy weathering-
o Environmentally-friendly
resistant minerals. o Minimal damage to vegetation and habitat
o the metallic elements here are incorporated o Preserve environmental aesthetics;
into the soil or ground. o Minimal air and water pollution
o Less noise created during mining operation
Lode Deposits
General Disadvantages of UG Mining
o where valuable minerals are found in veins, in o Prone to ground subsidence
layers, or in mineral grains generally o Loss of groundwater sources
distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. o Slopes prone to landslide
(vein deposits or hard-rock deposits) o More risky working environment
o High temperature environment
o deposition of minerals from hydrothermal o Not good location for high-rise structures
fluids.
o the metallic elements here are incorporated Types of Underground Mines
into the rock/ore itself. Drift Mine
o A horizontal, or nearly horizontal opening into
Reasons for the choice of UG over SM the ore deposit that outcrops to the surface at
o very thick overburden materials; the side of hill or mountain;
o an environmentally-friendly method; o The opening into the mine may be directly into
o cheaper cost compared to O/P pit method; the vein or mineralization;
o deep occurrence or deposition of deposit; o Generally the easiest, cheapest because there
o availability of raw materials to be used in will be a simultaneous mine development and
mining operation (timber); mine production at the same time;
o availability of manpower skills. o Have horizontal entries into the ore deposits
from a hillside.
Slope Mine 2 Basic Functions in Extracting Minerals:
o An inclined opening used to go nearer the ore; ➔ Excavation and Handling
o It may follow the vein that dips inclined, overlying
or underlying the rock strata (host rock) which is For mineral resources that are hard to break, it
below drainage; requires:
o transportation of ore to the surface can be either  Drilling = rock penetration
by conveyor, track haulage – using a trolley  Blasting = rock fragmentation
locomotive if the grade is gentle or by pulling If both, it is called: Rock Breakage.
mine cars up to the slope using an electric hoist * In softer deposits, the minerals can usually be
and steel rope or slusher if the grade is steep. obtained using mechanical digging devices. A process
called “excavation”.
o Use of Load-Haul-Dump (LHD) are most
prominent nowadays.
Handling (materials handling)
- is ordinarily performed in two steps, loading
Shaft Mine
(excavation) and hauling.
o The ore deposit is covered by deep overburden;
o The thickness and lateral extent of the ore Hauling – horizontal transport of materials.
deposit can justify the cost of driving of shafts; Hoisting – vertical transport.
o The ore deposit can be reached by a vertical
Cycle of Operations
opening from the surface
- the sequence of unit operations used to
o Extracting the ore is more economical than any
accomplish mine development or exploitation.
other development methods to reach the
- The sequence of operations that is repeated
deposit.
over and over to produce the mineral
commodity.

Basic Production Cycle = drill + blast + load + haul

- It is often altered to accommodate the type of
equipment and technology best suited to the
production process.
- Because mechanization is constantly being
increased in mining operations, the unit
operations area often greatly affected by the
machinery used.
UNDERGROUND MINE DEVELOPMENT
Continuous Miners and Rapid Excavation
Types of Underground Openings - can replace drilling, blasting, loading, of the
Primary – main openings (e.g., shaft, slope) production cycle to mine + haul.
Secondary – level or zone openings (e.g. drift,
entry) Mining aims to mechanize and automate the unit
Tertiary – lateral or panel openings (e.g., ramp, operations so that they merge into a unitized process
crosscut) of mining.

Unit Operations
❖ Production Operations
o Operations that are directly involved in
mineral extraction (production)

❖ Auxiliary Operations
o Operations that support production but
are usually not directly part of it unless
they are essential to worker safety or
operating efficiency.
HAULAGE AND HOISTING SYSTEM

VERTICAL

❖ Shafts
o Transfer people, supplies, and equipment.
o The principal benefit of it for human
transport over a drift is the reduced travel
time.
o Transported items are palletized, railed into
the cage, and lowered within the cage.
Drum Type and Multi-rope friction type
- Winders (hoist/drums powered by electricity)
used for shaft transport.

❖ Cage
o Its primary role is to carry people and things
to and from the underground.
o Covered and fitted with gates for safety.
o Its sizes range from single deck to triple deck.
o It is normally equipped with safety devices
for protection in the event of rope failure.

❖ Skip
o are shaft conveyors used to lift minerals or
waste from the underground.
o Usually have bottom-dump configuration.
o Volumetric systems are used primarily for
use of relatively uniform density and where
an occasional waste rock is of lesser density
than the ore. (Also, since the capacity of it is
based on the volume).
o Volume is measured using a cartridge or
pocket and a switching or gate control.
Skip Loading
- Frequently mechanized in combination with
automated slumping and ore hoisting system.

❖ Inclined Shafts or Inclined Drifts

o Are often also used for belt conveyor
transport.
o Inclined @16-18° from the horizontal.

HORIZONTAL

❖ Shafts

f
Unsupported Underground Mining used for other minerals because it's a great way
- Is a term used to describe a specific type of to get them out of the ground when they're in
mining method where the extracted materials flat layers.
are not supported or reinforced with structural o Pillaring or Caving – panel pillars are mined.
elements such as pillars, props, or timber. This o It drives the rooms and crosscuts on
method is sometimes referred to as advance (first mining) and to pillar on
"unsupported" because it relies on the natural retreat (second mining). The caved
strength and stability of the surrounding rock area then becomes known as the gob.
or material to maintain the integrity of the Pillars are not removed if the surface
underground openings. must be supported; pillaring is often
- Can be used in any type of mineral deposits omitted for other reasons as well.
except placers, unless frozen in place. o Two Types of Variations:
❖ "Conventional mining" uses machines
Superincumbent Load – weight of the overlying rock to do different jobs one by one.
plus any tectonic forces. Cyclical, employing mobile
mechanized equipment to carry out
Unsupported Methods: the production unit operations
Room-and-Pillar Mining ❖ "Continuous mining" uses one
powerful machine to do everything.
Stope-and-Pillar Mining
Separate unit operations of drilling,
Shrinkage Stoping cutting, blasting, and loading are
Sublevel Stoping replaced by a single high-performance
continuous miner.
❖ In the US, about 5% of coal is mined
Room-and-Pillar Mining
conventionally, and 48% is mined
o Employ horizontal openings, low opening-to-
continuously.
pillar ratios, and light-to-moderate support in
o Productivity in room-and-pillar mining has
all openings.
been interesting to follow. Today most room-
o A very old method applied to horizontal or
and-pillar mines produce 1 0 0 0 to 2000
nearly horizontal deposits that has been
tons/shift (900 to 1800 tonnes/shift).
adapted and refined over the years.
o Widely used in both coal and noncoal mining.
Methods of Pillar Extraction
o Openings are driven orthogonally and at
regular intervals in mineral deposit—forming
1. Split and Fender
rectangular or square pillars for natural
❖ the basis of this method is to mine
support.
through the pillar center parallel to the
o Development Openings = Entries, and
longer side, creating a split and a
Production Openings = Room.
fender of coal on each side of the split.
o This method is especially good for mining
things like coal, potash, salt, trona, limestone,
and some types of metals that are found in
horizontal layers underground. In the past, it
was mainly used for coal, making up 85% of all
underground coal mining in the United States
in 1987. But by 1998, it dropped to 52%
because a different method called "longwall"
became more popular for coal mining.
However, room-and-pillar mining is still widely
 2. Pocket and Wing Cycles of Operation
❖ is a single pillar extraction method
where two working places are Conventional Mining
extended in the pillar leaving wings or o modified from the basic cycle by insertion of
fenders to support the roof. the cutting operation to improve coal breakage
during light blasting.
Production Cycle = cut + drill + blast + load + haul

Continuous Mining
o is practiced in coal, salt, potash, trona, and
other soft-rock applications.
3. Open Ending Production Cycle = mine + haul
❖ is a method similar to pocket and wing,
but the mining sequence is taken along
the sides of the pillars, breaker posts
being extended at the pillar edge.

4. Outside Lifts
❖ Is a method similar to pocket and wing,
the method is used in shallow mines
that allow the safe use of small pillars.

Sequence:
1. Two main entries, parallel to each other, are driven
parallel to the cleat.
2. Breakthroughs are driven at intervals connecting the
main entries.
3. Butt or side entries are driven perpendicular to the
main entries.
4. From the side entries, rooms are developed
perpendicular to the side entries.
5. A neighboring room is taken off separated by a rib or
Barrier Pillar - refers to a solid block of coal or rock pillar.
intentionally left in place during mining to act as a 6. As the rooms are extended, short drifts or
protective barrier. It ensures the safety and stability of breakthroughs are driven through the ribs for the
the mine by providing support to prevent collapses, purpose of ventilation.
particularly in areas where the removal of pillars could 7. Other rooms are extended in sequence.
pose risks (failure of pillars).
8. As soon as a number of rooms on one entry have Advantages:
reached completion, work is started on the ribs 1. Moderately high productivity
between the rooms, beginning on the ribs between 2. Moderate mining cost (relative cost about 10 to 25%,
rooms 1 and 2. depending on commodity; average is 20%).
9. This is worked back toward the entry and as soon as 3. Moderately high production rate.
it is well advanced, the next rib is started and so on. 4. Fair to good recovery with pillar extraction (70 to
10. The ribs are worked back in echelon. 90%).
5. Low to moderate dilution (0 to 40%).
Auxiliary Operations: 6. Suitable to mechanization.
l. Health and safety: strata gas control (e.g., methane 7. Concentrated operations (although multiple faces
drainage in coal), dust control (rock dusting, water needed to make it work).
sprays, dust collector), ventilation (line brattice or vent 8. Versatile for variety of roof conditions.
fan and tubing), noise abatement 9. Ventilation enhanced with multiple openings.
2. Environmental control: flood protection, water
treatment, subsidence control, remote monitor to Disadvantages:
sense atmospheric contamination 1. Caving and subsidence occur with pillar recovery.
3. Ground control: scaling of roof, roof control (roof 2. Method inflexible and rigid in layout, not selective
bolts, timber, arch, crib, hydraulic jack), controlled without waste disposal.
caving 3. Poor recovery (40 to 60%) without pillar extraction.
4. Power supply and distribution: electric substation, 4. Ground stress and support loads increase with
diesel service station depth.
5. Water and flood control: pump station, drainage 5. Fairly high capital investment associated with
system (ditches, pipelines, sumps) mechanization.
6. Cleanup and waste disposal: scoop, waste storage, 6. Extensive development required in coal because of
hoisting, dumping multiple openings.
7. Material supply: storage, delivery 7. Potential health and safety hazards exist, especially
8. Maintenance and repair: shop facilities, parts in coal mines.
warehouse
9. Lighting: stationary lights (where needed), Applicability:
equipment-mounted lights
Type of orebody - thick or thin beds
10. Communications: radio, phone
11. Construction: haulage, stoppings, overcasts (sedimentary)
12. Personnel transport: man trips, shuttle jeeps, cages Strength of orebody - strong
Strength of walls - strong
Conditions suited for R-&-P Mining:
1. Ore Strength: weak to hard Dip of orebody - flat
2. Rock strength: moderate to strong
3. Deposit shape: tabular
4. Deposit dip: low (< 15°), prefer flat
5. Deposit size: large areal extent; prefer seams with
less than 15 ft (4.5 m) thickness
6. Ore grade: moderate
7. Ore uniformity: fairly uniform, particularly in
thickness
8. Depth: shallow to moderate (< 1500 ft or 450 m for
coal, < 2000 ft or 600 m for non-coal, < 3000 ft or 900
m for potash)
Stope-and-Pillar Mining II. The pillars are irregular in size and do
o openings are driven horizontally in regular or not lend themselves to a systematic
random pattern to form pillars for ground recovery operation, and;
support. III. Caving to the surface would produce
o generally differentiates stope-and-pillar to much in the way of damaging
R-&-P mining if it meets at least two of the subsidence.
following qualifications: o 3 Variations of Stope-and-Pillar Mining:
I. The pillars are irregularly shaped and a) Breast stoping followed by overhand
sized and either randomly located or slabbing
located in low-grade ore. ▪ In this method, ore is
II. The mineral deposit is <20 ft (6 m) in extracted in horizontal slices
thickness, the openings are higher (breasts), and then the
than they are wide, or a benching or overhead rock is removed
slabbing technique must be utilized. (overhand slabbing) to create
III. The commodity being exploited is a open spaces.
mineral other than coal. Although
some noncoal deposits are mined by
the room-and-pillar method, no coal
deposits are mined by the stope-and-
pillar method.
o Was called: open stoping, breast stoping, and
bord-and-pillar stoping.
b) Breast stoping followed by benching,
o Room-and-Pillar = Coal Mining
horizontal drilling
Stope-and-Pillar = Noncoal Mining
▪ Ore is mined in horizontal
o The only exception would be noncoal mines
layers (breasts), and horizontal
with a very regular layout of openings and a
drilling is used to remove
single level of mining within the deposit. These
overlying rock after creating
would be termed room-and-pillar mines.
benches or platforms.
o Partial extraction of pillars is called pillar
robbing or pillar slabbing.
o Pitch Mining - the mining of steeply inclined
coal beds. (Dipping seams)
o Several reasons that the amount of
development in stope-and-pillar mining is less
than that in room-and-pillar.
I. The strict laws requiring multiple c) Breast stoping followed by benching,
openings do not apply to hard-rock vertical drilling
mining unless strata gases are present. ▪ After extracting ore
II. The development openings must often horizontally (breast stoping),
be driven through barren rock, vertical drilling is employed to
increasing the cost of development remove the rock above,
and the desire to avoid unnecessary utilizing benching or platforms
openings. in the process.
o Reasons for less tendency to recover any pillars
in slope-and-pillar mining
I. The pillars are relatively small and
more difficult to recover safely.
Sequence: Advantages:
➢ In stope-and-pillar mining, access openings 1. Moderate to high productivity (30 to 70 tons per
depend on depth. Shallow mines may use belt employee-shift or 27 to 64 tonnes per employee-shift).
conveyors and slopes, while deeper ones use 2. Moderate mining cost (relative mining cost about
hoists and vertical shafts. Diesel equipment 10%).
might require ramps. Secondary openings 3. Moderate to high production rate.
connect shafts to production areas. 4. High degree of flexibility; method easily modified;
Regulations may require parallel drifts and operate several levels at one time.
crosscuts. Discontinuous deposits on different 5. Lends itself readily to mechanization; suitable for
levels may favor truck haulage and ramps for large equipment.
flexibility. 6. Not labor-intensive; extensive skills not required.
7. Selective method; permits lean ore or waste to be
Cycles of Operation left in the pillars.
- Primarily uses conventional mining, therefore: 8. Multiple working places easy to arrange.
Production Cycle = drill + blast + load + haul 9. Early development not extensive.
o The cycle of operations consists of the following: 10. Fair to good recovery (60 to 80%) without pillaring.
Drilling: Hydraulic or pneumatic drill jumbos are 11. Low dilution (10 to 20%).
heavily favored; rotary drill rigs can be used in
softer rocks. Disadvantages:
Blasting: Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO), 1. Ground control requires continuous maintenance of
gels, or emulsions; charging by hand or by back if rock is not strong; high back difficult to scale and
pneumatic loader; firing by electric, nonelectric, or support; ground stress on pillars and openings
detonating fuse. increases with depth.
Secondary blasting: Drill and blast; impact 2. Large capital expenditure required for extensive
hammer; drop ball. mechanization.
Loading: A load-haul-dump (LHD) device and front- 3. Difficult to provide good ventilation because of large
end loader are very common; shovel, overhead openings.
mucker, and slusher occasionally used. Haulage: 4. Some ore lost in pillars.
Truck, LHD, belt conveyor, shuttle car. 5. Recovery of pillars difficult or impossible.

Auxiliary Operations: Applicability & Variations:

- The same as room-and-pillar mining. o Stope-and-pillar mining is a versatile method
widely used for metallic and nonmetallic minerals.
Conditions suited for S-&-P Mining: o This method is adaptable, with different
1. Ore strength: moderate to strong exploitation plans and suitability for moderately
2. Rock strength: moderate to strong dipping seams.
3. Deposit shape: tabular, lens-type deposit o Pitch mining is used for steeper deposits, typically
4. Deposit dip: preferably flat; dips < 30° mineable between 15° to 30°. For thicker deposits exceeding
5. Deposit size: any, preferably large areal extent, 20 ft, bench mining is applied.
moderate thickness or bench if greater (maximum of o Its adaptability makes it cost-effective and favored
300 ft or 90 m) by mining companies working with horizontal or
6. Ore grade: low to moderate, most commonly nearly horizontal mineral deposits.
7. Ore uniformity: variable; lean ore or waste left in
pillars if possible
8. Depth: up to 2000 ft (900 m) in competent rock, up
to 3000 ft (1450 m) in very strong rock.
Shrinkage Stoping Secondary breakage: drill and blast, packaged boulder
o is an overhand method in which the ore is charge, impact hammer
mined in horizontal slices from bottom to top Loading: gravity flow, front-end loader, LHD, overhead
and remains in the stope as temporary support loader, slusher
to the walls and to provide a working platform Haulage: LHD, truck, rail
for the miners.
o Because of its simplicity and small scale, this Auxiliary Operations:
method was formerly a very popular method of - The same as room-and-pillar mining.
noncoal mining for veins of modest size.
o Some classified this as supported method Conditions suited for Shrinkage Stoping:
because broken ore is left in the stope to 1. Ore strength: strong (should not pack, oxidize, or be
provide ground support, but this does not subject to spontaneous combustion)
support much to the hanging wall that’s why it 2. Rock strength: fairly strong to strong
is still designated as unsupported method. 3. Deposit shape: tabular to lenticular, regular dip and
o Normally, either finger raises or boxholes are boundaries
used at the bottom of the stope to allow flow 4. Deposit dip: fairly steep (>45°; prefer 60 to 90° to
to the haulage level. facilitate ore flow)
5. Deposit size: narrow to moderate width (3 to 100 ft
Sequence: or 1 to 30 m), fairly large extent
1. Drive shaft and crosscuts to reach the orebody. 6. Ore grade: fairly high
2. Drive drifts along the vein. 7. Ore uniformity: uniform, blending not easily
3. Drive raises at intervals connecting the lower drift to performed
the upper drift. 8. Depth: shallow to moderate (<2500ft or 750m)
4. Drive a sublevel above the lower drift.
5. From the sublevel, drive winzes at intervals Advantages:
connecting to the lower drift and develop these into 1. Small-to-moderate-scale operation.
chutes with funnel shaped opening. 2. Ore is drawn down by gravity.
6. From the lower sublevel, drill holes on the roof/back 3. Method conceptually simple, can be used for a
and blast. small mine.
7. Withdraw a portion of the broken ore to provide 4. Low capital investment, little equipment required
room for workings. Drill and blast. for the basic method.
8. Repeat the above procedure until it reaches the 5. Little ground support is required in stope.
upper sublevel. The back forms an arch during advance 6. Stope development is moderate.
to make it more self-supporting. 7. Works very well in veins with widths of <8 ft (2.4m)
8. Fairly good recovery (75 to 85%)
Cycles of Operation 9. Low dilution (10 to 20%)

- revolve around working on an uneven floor that is

Disadvantages:
periodically disturbed and lowered by drawing
1. Low to moderate productivity range.
operations in the haulage drift below.
2. Moderate to fairly high mining cost (relative cost
Production Cycle = Drilling + Blasting + Secondary
about 45%)
Breakage + Loading + Haulage
3. Labor intensive; not easy to mechanize.
o Operations in shrinkage stopes employ the
4. Rough footing in stope, dangerous working
following steps in the production cycle:
conditions.
Drilling: pneumatic airleg drill or stoper; small
5. Most of the ore (<60%) tied up in stope.
hydraulic drill jumbo
6. Ore is subject to oxidation, packing, and
Blasting: ANFO, gels, or emulsions; charging by hand,
spontaneous combustion.
pneumatic loader, or pumping system; firing
7. Selectivity is only fair.
electrically or by detonating cord
Applicability: Sublevel Stoping
Type of orebody - wide or narrow vein o is a vertical mining method in which a large
Dip of orebody - steep open slope is created within the vein.
Strength of orebody - strong o This open stope is not meant to be occupied by
Strength of walls - strong the miners; therefore, all work of drilling and
blasting must be performed from sublevels
within the ore block.
o 3 Different Variations of Sublevel Stoping:
 Blast hole method
 Open-ending method
 Vertical Crater Retreat
Blast Hole Method
- the miners must create a vertical slot at one
end of the stope. They then work in the
sublevel to drill radial patterns of drill holes and
blasted into the open stope.
- After a set of these holes are loaded, blocks of
the ore body are blasted into the open stope.
The blast should be carefully planned, as it is
virtually impossible for miners to go into the
slope to correct problems.

Open-Ending Method
- Production is then achieved by drilling parallel
holes from the top to the bottom of the
designated stope using a sublevel at the top of
the stope that is the width of the stope.
- This method generally permits larger drill
holes to be used and may be more efficient in
terms of explosive consumption.
 Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) Method The cycle of operations follows the basic production
- drilled holes are similar to the open-ending cycle:
method, however ore is blasted in horizontal Drilling: Normally done with (1) large-hole pneumatic
slices using loading and blasting from the percussion drills, (2) large-hole rotary drills, or (3)
sublevel at the top of the slope. This requires small-diameter pneumatic percussion drills. The
that drillholes first be sealed with plugs that emphasis today is on the large-hole rigs and long
can be put in place from above. holes.
- The VCR method id patented by a Canadian Blasting: ANFO, emulsions, or gels; charging by
Explosives firm 0that developed the crater pneumatic loader, pumping system, or by cartridges;
testing method that ensures that the blasting firing electrically, with detonating cord, or with non-
procedure is adequate for the rock mass in the electric initiation systems.
stope. Secondary blasting: Drill and blast, mudcapping,
impact hammer.
Loading: Gravity flow to drawpoints; loading with
front-end loader, LHD, shovel loader, slusher, belt
conveyor (diesel equipment now highly favored).
Haulage: LHD, truck, rail, belt conveyor (rare).

Auxiliary Operations:
- The same as room-and-pillar mining.

Conditions suited for Sublevel Stoping:

1. Ore strength: moderate to strong, may be less
competent than for stope-and-pillar mining
2. Rock strength: fairly strong to strong
3. Deposit shape: tabular or lenticular, regular dip and
boundaries helpful
Sequence: 4. Deposit dip: fairly steep (>45°, preferably 60 to 90°)
1. Drive shaft and crosscuts to reach the ore. 5. Deposit size: moderate to thick width (20 to 100 ft or
2. Drive drifts along the deposit. 6 to 30 m), fairly large extent
3. Drive raises connecting the lower and upper 6. Ore grade: moderate
drift. 7. Ore uniformity: fairly uniform
4. Drive sublevel above the lower drift. 8. Depth: varies from fairly shallow to deep (once used
5. Drive winzes from the sublevel connecting to at 8000 ft or 2.4 km at Homestake)
the lower drift to develop a chute.
6. Drive succeeding sublevels up to the upper
drift leaving crown pillars and winzes at the Advantages:
upper drift as ventilation. 1. Moderate to high productivity.
7. Mine the lowest slice. 2. Moderate mining cost (relative cost: 20%).
8. After advancing several meters, take the next 3. Moderate to high production rate.
slice above. 4. Lends itself to mechanization; not labor-intensive.
9. Repeat the above procedure until the 5. Low breakage cost; fairly low handling cost.
uppermost slice is mined. 6. Little exposure to hazardous conditions; easy to
ventilate.
Cycles of Operation 7. Unit operations can be carried on simultaneously.
Production Cycle = Drilling + Blasting + Secondary 8. Fair recovery (about 75%).
Blasting + Loading + Haulage 9. Modest dilution (about 20%).
Disadvantages:
1. Fairly complicated and expensive development.
2. Inflexible in mining plan.
3. Longhole drilling requires precision (<2% deviation)
4. Large blasts can cause significant vibration, air blast,
and structural damage.

Applicability:
❖ Type of orebody - wide or narrow vein
❖ Dip of orebody - steep
❖ Strength of orebody - weak or strong
❖ Strength of wall - strong
Supported Underground Mining o is applied in rocks that are relatively strong,
- are those methods that require some type of which will allow the stope to remain open with
backfill to provide substantial amounts of only bolting of the roof or bolting combined
artificial support to maintain stability in the with mesh.
exploitation openings of the mine o Starts excavating from the bottom to the top.
- used when production openings will not o Called: breast stoping or back stoping
remain standing during their life and when 2. Drift-and fill Stoping
major caving or subsidence cannot be o Is a method of mining used for ground
tolerated. conditions that are worse than those for the
traditional overhand cut-and-fill stoping.
Artificial Support o The mining strategy involves creating small
o refers to structures or materials used to openings to reduce rock failure risk.
reinforce underground tunnels and prevent Mechanized equipment removes horizontal
collapses. They include roof bolts, mesh, and slices, and each slice is backfilled with hydraulic
props. These supports enhance safety by fill, supporting the rock. This method is used for
stabilizing the surrounding rock or soil, crucial vein mining, enhancing support and reducing
in underground mining and tunnel rock failure probability. Various sources
construction to protect workers and maintain describe drift-and-fill mining procedures.
tunnel integrity. 3. Underhand Cut-and-fill Stoping
o Artificial support in the form of pillars of o Likewise used in poorer quality rock.
backfill material is therefore used to control o Taking horizontal slices from the top to the
the rock mass and make mine output safe and bottom of the stope area.
productive. o To stabilize the surrounding rock after each
slice or group of slices, the void is then filled
Cut-and-fill and stull stoping are usually applied to with a material, typically by cemented
moderately competent rock, and square-setting is hydraulic fill.
normally used only for the least competent rock.
Sequence of Development:
Cut-and-Fill Stoping 1. Drive shaft and crosscuts to reach the ore.
o the ore is extracted in horizontal slices and 2. Drive drifts along the deposit.
replaced with backfill material. Backfilling 3. Drive raises connecting the lower and upper drift.
operation is normally performed after each 4. Drive sublevel above the lower drift.
horizontal slice is removed. 5. Drive winzes from the sublevel connecting to the
o is a mining method where ore is extracted in lower drift to develop a chute.
horizontal slices. Miners cut tunnels into the 6. Drive sublevel below the upper drift.
ore body, remove ore, and then backfill the 7. From the upper drift, drive winzes connecting to the
void with waste rock or other materials. This sublevel to form crown pillars.
provides stability and safety while extracting 8. Take a slice above the lowest sublevel.
valuable minerals from narrow, steep, or 9. After the slice is mined out, fill the stope with waste
irregular ore deposits. leaving sufficient working headroom in which to drill
o It uses four fill materials: waste fill, pneumatic the ore and blast.
fill, hydraulic fill with diluted slurry, and high- 10. Take the next slice above.
density with hydraulic fill. 11. Repeat steps 9 and 10 until the uppermost slice is
mined.
3 Variations of Cut-and-Fill Stoping:
1. Overhand Cut-and-fill Stoping Cycle of Operation:
o in the stope area, the miners work under the Production Cycle = Drilling + Blasting + Secondary
roof and generally have sufficient head room to Blasting + Loading + Haulage
move their equipment easily through the stope
Stope Preparation: Advantages:
• Haulage drift along the ore body at the lower main 1. Moderate productivity (rather low with slushers;
level. much better with diesel equipment).
• Undercut the stope, usually 5-10m above the 2. Moderate production rate.
haulage drift. 3. Permits good selectivity.
• Short raises for manways and ore passes from 4. Low development cost.
haulage drift to undercut 5. Moderate capital investment; adaptable to
• Raise from undercut to the level above for mechanization.
transport of filling material and for ventilation. 6. Versatile, flexible, and adaptable (at least eight
• Provision of sufficient water and filling material and variations have been identified).
arrangement for their storage and transport. 7. Excellent recovery if pillars are recovered (90 to
• Adequate pumping capacity underground to pump 100%).
out water overflowing from the filled stope. 8. Low dilution (5 to 10%).
9. Surface waste can be used as fill.
BACKFILLING 10. Moderately good safety record.
o is the process of filling underground voids or
mined-out areas with waste materials or Disadvantages:
specially designed mixtures, like tailings or 1. Fairly high mining cost (relative cost about 55%);
cemented backfill. It provides support to quite high with slushers, much lower with diesels.
underground structures, prevents subsidence, 2. Handling of fill may be up to 50% of mining cost.
and enhances safety. This method optimizes 3. Filling operations interfere with production.
resource extraction while ensuring stability and 4. Must provide stope access for mechanized
minimizing environmental impacts. equipment.
o can also be used to insulate foundations or 5. Tends to be labor-intensive; requires skilled miners
improve drainage. and close supervision.
o the slope is filled up to within 2-3 m of the back 6. Compressibility of fill may cause some ground
before the next slice is mined. settlement.
o 3 types: hydraulic backfill, paste backfill, and
rock backfill Applicability:
Type of orebody – wide or narrow vein
Conditions:
Strength of orebody - weak or strong
1. Ore Strength: moderately weak to strong (can be
quite weak with drift-and-fill; must be stronger for Strength of walls - weak
other variations) Dip of orebody - steep
2. Rock strength: weak to fairly weak
3. Deposit shape: Tabular; can be irregular,
discontinuous
4. Deposit dip: moderate to fairly steep (>45°); can
accommodate flatter deposit if orepasses are steeper
than the angle of repose
5. Deposit size: narrow to moderate width (6 to 100ft
or 2 to 30m), fairly large extent
6. Ore grade: fairly high
7. Ore Uniformity: moderate, variable (can sort waste
in stope)
8. Depth: moderate to deep (typically 1.2 to 2.4 km)
Stull Stoping 7. Ore uniformity: moderate; can sort ore and waste in
o is infrequently used and relatively unimportant the stope
today as a method. 8. Depth: moderate (<3500ft to 1.1 km)
o is a mining method used in narrow, steeply
dipping ore bodies. It involves creating Advantages:
horizontal and vertical (sub-horizontal) 1. Simple method; adaptable to small, irregular ore
openings within the ore to extract valuable bodies.
minerals. Miners drill holes into the ore, place 2. Requires little mechanization; low capital cost.
support structures called "stulls" to prevent 3. Low development cost
collapses, and remove ore safely. It's a safe and 4. Selective; versatile for thin tabular deposits at any
efficient method for ore extraction. angle.
o It is identified as overhand stoping when 5. Good recovery if pillars are mined (>90%).
systematic or random timbering, coupled with 6. Low dilution (5 to 10%)
pillars of fill, are used to support the hanging
wall. Disadvantages:
o The timbers are usually called posts (in a near 1. Low productivity
horizontal deposit) or stulls (in a pitching 2. Low production rate
deposit) 3. High mining cost (relative costs about 70%).
o applies best to thin, pitching, tabular deposits 4. Labor-intensive and slow.
with moderately weak wall rock. 5. Heavy timber requirements and cost.
o the timbers can also provide as a working 6. Limited applications are available.
platform for miners.
Applications and Variations:
Sequence of Development: o Stull stoping is limited
o Development for stull stoping follows the o “Breast and Pillar Mining”
conventional sequence for vertical stoping o Stull stoping may be more significant in regions
methods but is kept minimal and simple. with lower labor cost elsewhere in the world.
Because it is a small-scall method, elaborate
development is neither wanted or necessary.
After essential level development is carried out
and access to the stopes is provided, raises are
driven between levels. Orepasses are formed
as the stope advances, so bells and drawpoints
are unnecessary.

Cycle of Operation:
Production Cycle = Drilling + Blasting + Secondary
Blasting + Loading + Haulage

Conditions:
1. Ore Strength: fairly strong to strong, more
competent than for C&F stoping
2. Rock strength: moderate to fairly weak
3. Deposit shape: approximately tabular; can be
irregular
4. Deposit dip: works best at <45°, can accommodate
flatter deposits at higher cost
5. Deposit Size: relatively thin (<12ft or 3.6m)
6. Ore grade: fairly high to high
Square-Set Stoping Cycle of Operation:
o Is probably the least used mining method, as it Production Cycle = Drilling + Blasting + Secondary
is the most expensive Blasting + Loading + Haulage
o is a mining method where a network of timber
or steel sets (square frames) supports the Conditions:
underground excavation. This method is used 1. Ore strength: weak to very weak
in hard rock mining to create large open 2. Rock strength: weak to very weak
spaces, reducing the risk of collapses. Sets are 3. Deposit shape: any, regular to irregular
placed at regular intervals, forming a stable 4. Deposit dip: any, preferably >45° so that gravity flow
grid, allowing safe and efficient ore extraction. can be used
o Small blocks of ore are systematically extracted 5. Deposit size: any, generally small
and replaced by a prismatic framework of 6. Ore grade: high
timber sets, framed into and integrated 7. Ore uniformity: variable (can sort in the stope)
support structure and backfilled level by level 8. Depth: deep (up to 8500 ft or 2.6 km)
to provide substantial support to the
surrounding rocks. Advantages:
1. Flexible, versatile, adaptable to a wide variety of
conditions.
2. Suitable for the worst ground conditions when caving
and subsidence are not permitted.
3. Selective for irregular deposit and variable ore
occurrences; waste can be sorted and left as fill.
4. Excellent recovery (nearly 100%)
5. Requires little mechanization; low capital cost.
6. Low development cost.

Disadvantages:
Girt 1. Very low productivity.
o Horizontal timber beams that connect the 2. Very low production rate.
posts and provide lateral support to the walls. 3. Highest mining cost (relative cost = 100%).
Cap 4. Most labor-intensive underground mining method.
o Horizontal timber beams placed at the top of 5. Very high timber costs.
the set, supporting the roof of the stope. 6. Fire hazards are high.
Post
o Vertical timber beams that connect the caps to Applicability:
the floor, providing vertical support. Type of orebody – narrow or wide, massive,
Floor
irregular, faulted, high grade and erratically
o serves as the base upon which the square
timber sets (also known as "caps") are placed distributed.
to support the stope's roof and walls. Strength of orebody - weak
Sequence of Development: Strength of walls - weak
1. Drive shaft and crosscuts to reach the orebody.
2. Drive drifts along the orebody and timbered. Dip of orebody - steep
3. Drive raises connecting the lower drift to the upper
drift and timbered.
4. From the lower drift, take a slice above and have it
timbered.
5. Take the next slice above and timbered.
6. Repeat step 5 until the upper drift is reached.
C O N D I T I O N S (UNSUPPORTED):

R-&-P Mining S-&-P Mining Shrinkage Stoping Sublevel Stoping

Ore Strength Weak to hard Moderate to strong Strong Moderate to Strong
(less comp to SnP)
Rock Strength Moderate to Strong Moderate to strong Fairly Strong to Fairly Strong to
Strong Strong
Deposit Shape Tabular Tabular, lens-type Tabular to Lenticular, Tabular or Lenticular,
deposit Regular Dip &
Boundaries
Deposit Dip Low (<15*), prefer Preferably flat; Dips Fairly Steep (>45*; Fairly Steep (>45,
flat <30* mineable 60 to 90 to facilitate preferably 60 to 90*)
ore flow)
Deposit Size Large areal extent, Large areal extent Narrow to moderate Moderate to thick
prefer seams with (max 90m) width (1 to 30 m); width (6 to 30 m),
<15ft or4.5 thickness fairly large extent fairly large extent
Ore Grade Moderate Low to moderate Fairly High Moderate
Ore Uniformity Fairly uniform, Variable, lean ore or Uniform, blending Fairly Uniform
particularly in waste left in pillars not easily performed
thickness
Depth Shallow to moderate 900 m in comp. rock Shallow to Moderate Varies from fairly
(<450m in coal, 1450 m in very (<750m) shallow to deep
<600m in noncoal strong rock (once 2.4 km in
<900 in potash) Homestake)
C O N D I T I O N S (SUPPORTED):

Cut-and-Fill Stoping Stull Stoping Square-set Stoping

Ore Strength Moderately weak to Fairly strong to strong; Weak to very weak
strong (can be weak more competent than
with D&F, but strong for C&F stoping
the other variations)
Rock Strength Weak to fairly weak Moderate to fairly weak Weak to very weak

Deposit Shape Tabular, can be Approximately tabular, Any, regular or irregular

irregular, discontinuous can be irregular
Deposit Dip Moderate to fairly steep Works best at <45 Any, preferably >45
(>45*), can degrees, can degrees so that gravity
accommodate flatter accommodate flatter flow can be used
deposits if orepasses deposits at higher cost
are steeper than the
angle of repose)
Deposit Size Narrow to moderate Relatively thin (<12ft or Any, generally small
width (2 to 30m), fairly 3.6m)
large areal extent
Ore Grade Fairly high Fairly high to high high
Ore Uniformity Moderate, variable (can Moderate, can sort ore Variable (can sort in the
sort with waste in and waste in the stope stope)
stope)
Depth Moderate to deep (1.2 Moderate (<3500 ft or Deep (up to 8500 ft to
to 2.4 km) 1.1km) 2.6 km)
Underground Mining Terms Mucking—The process of loading and transporting
broken ore from the point where it is excavated to an
orepass or haulage vehicle. Mucking generally
Back—The roof or overhead rock surface of an involves the use of a wheel or track-mounted digging
underground opening vehicle such as an LHD or an air-powered overshot
loader.
Breast—The vertical end or face of a horizontal cut.
The breast is a mining face that is generally as wide as Posts—Timbers that are placed vertically. When used
the ore body and as high as the cut height individually for roof support in a flatly dipping ore body,
they serve the same functions as stulls. When part of a
Caps—Round or square timbers generally greater timber set, posts support caps vertically.
than 8 in. (203 mm) in diameter, placed perpendicular
to the vein for wall and back support. Caps are part of Pugmill—A horizontal bed mixer with a pair of
a timber set. counter-rotating axles that carry multiple paddles; also
called a paddle-mixer or twin-screw mixer.
Chute— The loading arrangement that utilizes gravity
flow in moving broken rock from a higher level to a Raise—An opening driven upward generally on the
lower level. A gate is used to control flow. Chute often vein. A raise is an accessway to a stope. A raise
refers to the wooden tube extending upward into the consists of one or two chutes, a manway, and a
stope. timberslide
Concrete Admixture—An additive to concrete or Ramp—An inclined underground tunnel generally
backfill that modifies the setting time or handling driven downward with LHD equipment.
characteristics of the mix.
Slushing—The process of moving broken ore from the
Crosscut—A nominally horizontal tunnel, generally point where it is excavated to an orepass, using a
driven at right angles to the strike of a vein. winch-driven, rope-drawn scraper bucket.
Culm—Waste from coal cleaning operations. Sparging—Clearing a pipeline or other container by
blowing with air and water.
Cut (and Fill)—That part of the cut and fill mining
cycle that includes drilling, blasting, slushing, mucking, Square Set—A prismatic set of timber comprising a
and ground support. A rapid excavation technique may cap, a girt, and a post.
be substituted for drilling and blasting.
Stope—An opening in which excavation of ore takes
Cut—The volume of the ore body that is mined and place. A stope may be any shape.
filled in one cut and fill mining cycle.
Stulls—Generally round timbers less than 8 in. (203
Cyclone—A conical-cylindrical device with no moving mm) in diameter, placed perpendicular to the vein for
parts, used to size or dewater mill tailings (or other wall support. In a flat-dipping deposit, the same
slurries). The slurry is fed peripherally near the top members are called posts.
end. Coarse material moves downward on the outside
to the apex, and fine material moves up the center to
Timberslide—A compartment in a raise used for
the vortex.
hoisting materials. The hoisting bucket used generally
slides on the footwall.
Dwidag bolts—A German-made, coarsely threaded
rock bolt. The threads are present the full length of the
Tramming—The haulage of broken ore with a train,
bolt.
truck, or LHD from a working place to an orepass.
Girts— A timber, as part of a timber set, that braces
Uppers—In stope mining, the method of drilling
caps or posts. Girts are placed parallel to the vein.
blastholes in the back to excavate the ore.
Heading—The working face of a drift, crosscut, or
Development – is the work of driving openings to and
ramp. In timber sets, a heading is a bundle of wooden
boards placed between a cap and the wall rock. in a proved ore body to prepare it for mining and
transporting the ore.
Grizzly—A grating, usually made of steel bars or rails,
with square or rectangular openings for sizing coarse Exploitation – is the work of mining and marketing
ore and waste the ore.
Load-Haul-Dump (LHD) units—Rubber-tired, front-
end loader-transports designed for efficient tramming Hanging Wall – the wall or rock on the upper side of
of broken rock. an inclined vein. It is called the roof in bedded
deposits. Foot Wall – the wall or rock under a vein. It
Manway—The compartment of a raise or shaft that is is called floor in the bedded deposits.
equipped with ladders and landings.
Shaft - a vertical or inclined excavation in a mine Collar – the term applied to the timbering or concrete
extending downward from the surface or from some around the mouth or top of a shaft.
interior point as a principal opening through which
the mine is exploited. A shaft is provided with a
hoisting engine at the top for handling men, rock and
supplies, or it may be used only in connection with ----------------------------------fin----------------------------------
pumping or ventilating operations.
Hangakkk.. good luck!
Drift – a horizontal opening in or near an ore body
and parallel to the course of the vein or long - Lorens Rey
dimension of the ore body.

Crosscut – a horizontal opening driven across the

course of a vein or in general across the direction of
the main workings. A connection from a shaft to a
vein.

Level – mines are customarily worked from shafts

through horizontal passages or drifts called levels.
These are commonly spaced at regular intervals in
depth and are either numbered from the surface in
regular order or designated by their actual elevation
below the top of a shaft

Sump – an excavation made underground to collect

water, from which water is pumped to the surface or
to another sump nearer the surface. Sumps are placed
at the bottom of a shaft, near the shaft on a level or at
some interior point.

Winze - a vertical or inclined opening sunk from a

point inside a mine for the purpose of connecting with
a lower level or exploring the ground for a limited
depth below a level.

Raise – a vertical or inclined opening driven upward

from a level to connect with the level above, or to
explore the ground for a limited distance above one
level. After two level are connected, the connection
may be a winze or a raise, depending upon which level
is taken as the point of reference.

Stope – an excavation from which ore has been

extracted. The term stoping is commonly applied to
the extraction of ore, but does not include the ore
removed in sinking shafts and in driving levels, drifts
and other development openings.

Tunnel - a horizontal or nearly horizontal

underground passage that is open to the atmosphere
at both ends. The term is loosely applied in many
cases to an adit.

Adit – a horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven

from the surface for the working or unwatering of a
mine. If driven through the hill or mountain to the
surface on the opposite side, it would be a tunnel.