Dr A.

O Olugbuyi
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Despite the important and key role that packaging plays, it is often regarded as a necessary evil
or an unnecessary cost. Furthermore, in the view of many consumers, packaging is, at best,
somewhat superfluous, and, at worst, a serious waste of resources and an environmental menace.
Such views arise because the functions that packaging has to perform are either unknown or not
considered in full. By the time most consumers come into contact with a package, its job, in
many cases, is almost over, and it is perhaps understandable that the view that excessive
packaging has been used has gained some credence. Packaging has been defined as a socio-
scientific discipline that operates in society to ensure the delivery of goods to the ultimate
consumer of those goods in the best condition intended for their use. The now-defunct Packaging
Institute International (Glossary of Packaging Terms, 1988) defined packaging as the enclosure
of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other
container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection,
preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performed one
or more of these functions, it was considered a package. Other definitions of packaging include a
coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end use,
a means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound condition at optimum cost
and a techno-commercial function aimed at optimizing the costs of delivery while maximizing
sales (and, hence, profits) (Coles and Kirwan, 2011). It is important to distinguish between the
words “package,” “packaging” and “packing.” The package is the physical entity that contains
the product. Packaging was defined in the previous paragraphs and, in addition, it is also a
discipline as in “Packaging Technologist.” The verb “packing” can be defined as the enclosing of
an individual item (or several items) in a package or container. A distinction is usually made
between the various “levels” of packaging. A primary package is one that is in direct contact
with the contained product. It provides the initial, and usually the major, protective barrier.
Examples of primary packages include metal cans, paperboard cartons, glass bottles and plastic
pouches. It is frequently only the primary package that the consumer purchases at retail outlets.
This book will confine itself to a consideration of the primary package. A secondary package, for
example, a corrugated case or box, contains a number of primary packages. It is the physical
distribution carrier and is increasingly designed so that it can be used in retail outlets for the
display of primary packages, in which case it is referred to as shelf ready. A tertiary package is
made up of a number of secondary packages, with the most common example being a stretch-
wrapped pallet of corrugated cases. In interstate and international trade, a quaternary package is
frequently used to facilitate the handling of tertiary packages. This is generally a metal container
up to 40 m in length that can hold many pallets and is intermodal in nature, that is, it can be
transferred to or from ships, trains and flatbed trucks by giant cranes. Certain containers are also
able to have their temperature, humidity and gas atmosphere controlled; this is necessary in
particular situations such as the transportation of frozen foods, chilled meats and fresh fruits and
vegetables. Although the aforementioned definitions cover the basic role and form of packaging,
it is necessary to discuss in more detail the functions of packaging and the environments where
the package must perform those functions.
FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING
Packaging performs a series of disparate tasks: it protects its contents from contamination and
spoilage, makes it easier to transport and store goods and provides uniform measuring of
contents (Hine, 1995). By allowing brands to be created and standardized, it makes advertising
meaningful and large-scale distribution possible. Special kinds of packages with dispensing caps,
sprays and other convenience features make products easier to use. Packages serve as symbols of
their contents and a way of life and, just as they can very powerfully communicate the
satisfaction a product offers, they are equally potent symbols of wastefulness once the product is
gone. Four primary functions of packaging have been identified: containment, protection,
convenience and communication. These four functions are interconnected and all must be
assessed and considered simultaneously in the package development process.
1 CONTAINMENT : This function of packaging is so obvious as to be overlooked by many,
but, with the exception of large, discrete products, all other products must be contained before
they can be moved from one place to another. The “package,” whether it is a bottle of cola or a
bulk cement rail wagon, must contain the product to function successfully. Without containment,
product loss and pollution would be widespread The containment function of packaging makes a
huge contribution to protecting the environment from the myriad of products that are moved
from one place to another on numerous occasions each day in any modern society. Faulty
packaging (or under-packaging) could result in major pollution of the environment. Even today,
the containment function of packaging is not always addressed satisfactorily, as evidenced by the
number of packaged foods that leak their contents, especially around the closures and seals.
2 PROTECTION: This is often regarded as the primary function of the package: to protect its
contents from outside environmental influences such as water, water vapor, gases, odors,
microorganisms, dust, shocks, vibrations and compressive forces. For the majority of foods, the
protection afforded by the package is an essential part of the preservation process. For example,
aseptically packaged milk and fruit juices in paperboard cartons only remain aseptic for as long
as the package provides protection. Likewise, vacuum-packaged meat will not achieve its desired
shelf life if the package permits O2 to enter. In general, once the integrity of the package is
breached, the product is no longer preserved. Packaging also protects or conserves much of the
energy expended during the production and processing of the product. For example, to produce,
transport, sell and store 1 kg of bread requires 15.8 MJ (megajoules) of energy. This energy is
required in the form of transport fuel, heat, power and refrigeration in farming and milling the
wheat, baking and retailing the bread, and in distributing both the raw materials and the finished
product. To manufacture the low density polyethylene (LDPE) bag to package a 1 kg loaf of
bread requires 1.4 MJ of energy. This means that each unit of energy in the packaging protects
11 units of energy in the product. While eliminating the packaging might save 1.4 MJ of energy,
it would also lead to spoilage of the bread and a consequent waste of 15.8 MJ of energy.
3.CONVENIENCE: Modern industrialized societies have brought about tremendous changes in
lifestyles and the packaging industry has had to respond to those changes. Now an ever-
increasing number of households are single person, many couples either delay having children or
opt not to at all and a greater percentage of women are in the workforce than ever before. All
these changes, as well as other factors such as the trend toward “grazing” (i.e., eating snack-type
meals frequently and on the run rather than regular meals), the demand for a wide variety of food
and drink at outdoor functions such as sports events, and increased leisure time, have created a
demand for greater convenience in household products. Products designed to increase
convenience include foods that are preprepared and can be cooked or reheated in a very short
time, preferably without removing them from their primary package, and sauces, dressings and
condiments that can be applied simply through aerosol or pump-action packages that minimize
mess. Thus, packaging plays an important role in meeting the demands of consumers for
convenience. Convenient packages promote sales. Two other aspects of convenience are
important in package design. One of these can best be described as the apportionment function of
packaging. In this context, the package functions by reducing the output from industrial
production to a manageable, desirable “consumer” size. Thus, a vat of wine is “apportioned” into
750 mL bottles; a churn of butter is “apportioned” by packing into 25 g minipats and a batch of
ice cream is “apportioned” by filling into 2 L plastic tubs. Put simply, the large-scale production
of products that characterizes modern society could not succeed without the apportionment
function of packaging. The relative cheapness of consumer products is largely because of their
production on an enormous scale and the resultant savings. But, as the scale of production has
increased, so too has the need for effective methods of apportioning the product into consumer-
sized dimensions.
For a product that is not entirely consumed when the package is first opened, the package should
be resealable and retain the quality of the product until completely used. Furthermore, the
package should contain a portion size that is convenient for the intended consumers; a package
that contains so much product that it would deteriorate before being completely consumed
clearly contains too large a portion. An associated aspect is the shape (relative proportions) of the
primary package with regard to consumer convenience (e.g., easy to hold, open and pour as
appropriate) and efficiency in building into secondary and tertiary packages. In the movement of
packaged goods in interstate and international trade, it is clearly inefficient to handle each
primary package individually. Here, packaging plays another very important role in permitting
primary packages to be unitized into secondary packages (e.g., placed inside a corrugated case)
and secondary packages to be unitized into a tertiary package (e.g., a stretch-wrapped pallet).
This unitizing activity can be carried a stage further to produce a quaternary package (e.g., a
container that is loaded with several pallets). If the dimensions of the primary and secondary
packages are optimal, then the maximum space available on the pallet can be used. As a
consequence of this unitizing function, materials handling is optimized since only a minimal
number of discrete packages or loads need to be handled.
4.COMMUNICATION : There is an old saying that “a package must protect what it sells and
sell what it protects.” It may be old, but it is still true; a package functions as a “silent salesman”
(Judd et al., 1989). The modern methods of consumer marketing would fail were it not for the
messages communicated by the package. The ability of consumers to instantly recognize
products through distinctive shapes, branding and labeling enables supermarkets to function on a
self-service basis. Without this communication function (i.e., if there were only plain packs and
standard package sizes), shopping in a supermarket would be a lengthy, frustrating nightmare as
consumers attempted to make purchasing decisions without the numerous visual clues provided
by the graphics and the distinctive shapes of the packaging. Other communication functions of
the package are equally important. Today, the widespread use of modern scanning equipment at
retail checkouts relies on all packages displaying a universal product code (UPC) that can be
read accurately and rapidly. Nutritional information on the outside of food packages has become
mandatory in many countries. Smart labels that can be read by camera phones are also appearing
on packages But it is not only in the supermarket that the communication function of packaging
is important. Warehouses and distribution centers would (and sometimes do) become chaotic if
secondary and tertiary packages lack labels or carry incomplete details. When international trade
is involved and different languages are spoken, the use of unambiguous, readily understood
symbols on the package is imperative. UPCs are also frequently used in warehouses where
handheld barcode readers linked to a computer make stocktaking quick and efficient. Today, the
use of RFID tags attached to secondary and tertiary packages is revolutionizing the supply chain.
PACKAGE ENVIRONMENTS
The packaging has to perform its functions in three different environments (Lockhart, 1997).
Failure to consider all three environments during package development will result in poorly
designed packages, increased costs, consumer complaints and even avoidance or rejection of the
product by the customer
(i)PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: This is the environment in which physical damage can be
caused to the product. It includes shocks from drops, falls and bumps, damage from vibrations
arising from transportation modes including road, rail, sea and air and compression and crushing
damage arising from stacking during transpotation or storage in warehouses, retail outlets and the
home.
(ii) AMBIENT ENVIRONMENT: This is the environment that surrounds the package. Damage
to the product can be caused as a result of gases (particularly O2), water and water vapor, light
(particularly UV radiation) and temperature, as well as microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, molds,
yeasts and viruses) and macro-organisms (rodents, insects, mites and birds) that are ubiquitous in
many warehouses and retail outlets. Contaminants in the ambient environment such as exhaust
fumes from automobiles and dust and dirt can also find their way into the product unless the
package acts as an effective barrier.
(iii) HUMAN ENVIRONMENT: This is the environment in which the package interacts with
people, and designing packages for this environment requires knowledge of the variability of
consumers’ capabilities including vision, strength, weakness, dexterity, memory and cognitive
behavior. It includes knowledge of the results of human activity such as liability, litigation,
legislation and regulation. Because one of the functions of the package is to communicate, it is
important that the messages are clearly received by consumers. In addition, the package must
contain information required by law such as nutritional content and net weight
 Labelling
Labelling is also part of packaging and consists of printed information appearing on or with the
package. Labels may range from simple tags attached to products to complex graphics that are
part of the package. They perform several functions and the seller has to decide with ones to use.
The label identifies the product or brand. It might also grade the product or describe several
things about the product:
- who made it,
- where it was made,
- when it was made,
- its contents, and
- how it is to be used safely .
Labelling might promote the product through attractive graphics.
Misleading effect of labels
Labels can however mislead customers, fail to describe important ingredients, or fail to include
important safety warnings. As a result, several federal and state laws regulate labelling.
Fair packaging and labelling Act of 1966:
- set mandatory labelling requirements,
- encouraged voluntary industry packaging standards, and
- allow federal agencies to set packaging regulations in specific industries
Now labelling carries:
Unit pricing – stating the price per unit of standard measure,
Open dating – stating the expected shelf-life of the product,
and Nutritional labelling – stating the nutritional values in the product. The Nutritional Labelling
and Educational Act of 1990 requires sellers to provide detailed nutritional information on food
products.