JESUS SCHOOL FOR EXCELLENCE

CBSE-1930747
Vadakangulam-627116
NCERT solution
Biology (Code – 044)
Chapter:17 Breathing and exchange of gases Grade: XI

1. Define vital capacity. What is its significance?

Solution:

Vital capacity can be defined as the maximum volume of air a person can
breathe in post a forced expiration.

Significance of vital capacity:

(i) It depicts the maximum amount of air that can be converted or

renewed in the respiratory system in a single respiration

(ii) The excess quantity of inhaled air represents the maximum amount of
oxygen available for glucose-oxidation. This way more energy is available
for the body.

2. State the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal

breathing.

Solution:

It can be stated by the functional residual capacity (FRC). FRC is the

volume of air that remains in the lungs after a normal expiration. The
functional residual capacity is both the expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
and residual volume (RV).

The expiratory reserve volume is the maximum volume of air which can
be exhaled post a normal expiration which is approximately 1000 ml-1500
ml. The residual volume is the volume of air that remains in the lungs
after maximum expiration which is about 1100 ml to 1500 ml.

Hence,

FRC = ERV + RV

≅ 1500 + 1500 = 3000 ml

Thus, the functional residual capacity of the lungs in human beings is

nearly 2500 ml to 3000 ml.

3. Diffusion of gases occurs in the alveolar region only and not in

the other parts of respiratory system. Why?
Solution:

Alveoli are the small air sacs of the lungs that allow rapid gas exchange.
These structures are specially built for the gas exchange process. The
thickness of the alveolar membrane in total is lesser than a millimeter,
while the outer surface of the alveolar membrane is in close proximity
with the linkage of blood capillaries.

The endothelial membrane of the blood capillaries and the alveolar

membrane is distinguished by a fine basement substance. This fine barrier
facilitates easy diffusion of the gases. The alveolar air that comes in close
proximity with the blood capillaries has higer levels of pO 2 and lower levels
of pCO2 that promote the gas-diffusion. All these structural pluses that are
found in alveoli is not present in any other structure of the respiratory
system. Therefore, the gas diffusion phenomena occurs in the alveolar
region only and not in any other part.

4.What are the major transport mechanisms for CO2? Explain.

Solution:

Carbon dioxide is liberated by a vigorously active tissue in the blood. On

an average, every 100 ml of blood accepts approximately 3.7 ml of
CO2 from tissues.

In blood, carbon dioxide is carried in three forms:

1. Carbon dioxide as a simple solution

Nearly 5-10% of carbon dioxide of the total volume of blood is dissolved in

plasma and is transported as a simple physical solution
2. Carbon dioxide as a bicarbonate ion

The partial pressure of carbon dioxide at the tissue site is high due to
catabolism. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the blood and forms carbonic acid
after reacting with water. This reaction occurs in the presence of the
carbonic anhydrase enzyme. The reaction is as follows:

Carbonic acid dissociates into H+ ions and bicarbonate. Some amount of

bicarbonate ions is required to sustain the pH of blood. The hydrogen ions
are used by the proteins, the remaining bicarbonate ions are picked up by
the plasma.

3. Carbon dioxide as carbamino-haemoglobin

In tissues, when the partial pressure of oxygen is lower and the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide is higher, the carbon dioxide loosely combines
with the globin part of the reduced haemoglobin so as to form carbamino-
haemoglobin. The reaction is as follows:

At the alveolar level, when pO2 is higher and the pCO2 is lower, the carbon
dioxide dissociates from carbamino-haemoglobin. Therefore, carbon
dioxide that is bound to haemoglobin is liberated in the alveoli.

5. What will be the pO2 and pCO2 in the atmospheric air compared
to those in the alveolar air?

(i) pO2 lesser, pCO2 higher

(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser

(iii) pO2 higher, pCO2 higher

(iv) pO2 lesser, pCO2 lesser

Solution:

The pO2 and pCO2 in the atmospheric air compared to those in the alveolar
air will be:

(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser

In a mixture of gases, each gas exerts a pressure known as partial
pressure. These gases always diffuse across the pressure gradient.
Oxygen permeates easily into the lungs when the level of pO 2 is higher in
the atmosphere. Likewise, carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the body
easily if the pCO2 level is lower in the atmosphere.

6. Explain the process of inspiration under normal conditions.

Solution:

The process by which fresh air enters into the lungs is known as
inspiration. When the intrapulmonary pressure (pressure in the lungs) is
lesser than the atmospheric pressure, inspiration takes place. The
muscles of the diaphragm, external intercostal muscles and abdominal
muscles are referred to as the inspiratory muscles which bring about the
process of inspiration.

The muscles of the diaphragm contract, pulling the diaphragm downwards

to the abdominal cavity, causing it to become flat which results in an
increase in the thoracic cavity in the anteroposterior direction. The
contraction of the external intercostal muscles lifts up the ribs and the
sternum resulting in the expansion of the thoracic chamber, in a dorso-
ventral orientation.
This overall increase in the thoracic volume increases the pulmonary
volume, which in turn, causes the decrease of pressure in the lungs. The
atmospheric pressure expels air from outwards into the lungs. To
compress the abdominal organs, the abdominal muscles relax that causes
an escalation in the strength of the inspiration.

7. How is respiration regulated?

Solution:

The medulla region of the brain having the respiratory rhythm center, is
chiefly responsible for the regulation process of respiration. The function
performed by the respiratory rhythm center can be altered by the
pneumotaxic center through signals to reduce the inspiration rate. The
chemo sensitive area located near the respiratory centre is sensitive to
hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide. This region then sends signals to alter
the rate of expiration to eliminate compounds.

The levels of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in the blood is detected by
the receptors located in the carotid artery and the aorta. As the carbon
dioxide level increases, the respiratory centre sends nerve impulses for
the required changes.

8. What is the effect of pCO2 on oxygen transport?

Solution:

pCO2 has a crucial role to play in the process of oxygen transport. As a

result of low pCO2 levels in the alveoli, oxygen tends to bind with the
hemoglobin, to form Oxyhaemoglobin. Higher levels of pCO 2 and lower
level of pO2 in the tissues promotes the dissociation of oxygen from
Oxyhaemoglobin. The level of pCO2 is low at the surface of the lungs, here
O2 binds with the haemoglobin and dissociates at the tissue grade, where
the level of pCO2 is higher.

9. What happens to the respiratory process in a man going up a

hill?

Solution:

As we go up higher, the altitude increases. At this altitude, the

concentration of atmospheric oxygen is lesser, which means to say that
the partial pressure of oxygen declines. This situation of inadequate
oxygen-supply, demands more of oxygen. In order to increase the supply
of oxygen to the blood, the man begins to breathe rapidly. Therefore, it
causes an increase in the heart rate to be able to meet the demand of
oxygen supply.

10.What is the site of gaseous exchange in an insect?

Solution:

The respiratory organs of insects is trachea. Trachea has openings known

as spiracles through which air enters. Spiracles are located on either side
of the abdomen of the insect. A pair of spiracles are found on each
segment of the abdomen. Furthermore, the trachea branches into smaller
tubes until they reach the level of tissues. The oxygen that enters the
trachea is exchanged by diffusion with the tissues. Simultaneously, carbon
dioxide that reaches the trachea from the tissues is forced out of the
body.

11.Define oxygen dissociation curve. Can you suggest any reason

for its sigmoidal pattern?

Solution:

A graph attained when the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with

oxygen is plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen.
The affinity of the second molecule of oxygen escalates when the first
molecule of oxygen binds to haemoglobin. This is why the
Oxyhaemoglobin formation is rapid and is represented by the steep slope
of the S-curve as observed. When the formation of Oxyhaemoglobin
comes to a halt, or when haemoglobin molecules are not available for
binding, the curve attains a plateau phase.

12. Have you heard about hypoxia? Try to gather information

about it, and discuss with your friends.

Solution:

Hypoxia is a pathological condition wherein the body on the whole or a

part of the body is not supplied with sufficient oxygen.

Hypoxia is of different types, namely:

1. Cytotoxic hypoxia – caused by cyanide poisoning

2. Anaemic hypoxia – caused by deficiency of haemoglobin

3. Hypoxic hypoxia – caused due to insufficient oxygen in the atmosphere

4. Stagnant hypoxia – caused by reduced pumping activity of the heart or
heart failure

5. Carbon monoxide poisoning – Irreversible binding of CO to haemoglobin

and the reduced oxygen transport.

Symptoms:

1. Shortness of breath

2. Rapid heart rate

3. Rapid breathing

4. Anxiousness

5. Lethargy

6. Difficulty in communicating

7. Confusion

Hypoxia is caused due to the following reasons:

1. The concentration of oxygen is low at higher altitudes which may lead

to hypoxia

2. Hypoxia may also arise due to any of these respiratory disorders such
as bronchitis, emphysema or asthma

3. Hypoxia can also be caused due to anaemia which is linked to a lesser

number of red blood cells

4. It may arise due to heart problems such as tachycardia

13. Distinguish between

(a) IRV and ERV

(b) Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity.

(c) Vital capacity and Total lung capacity.

Solution:

The differences are as follows:

(a) IRV and ERV

IRV (Inspiratory reserve volume) ERV (Expiratory reserve volume)

 It is the volume of air that a person can It is the volume of air that a person can
additionally inspire through a compelled expire through an expelled expiration
inspiration

For a healthy individual, the IRV is For a healthy individual, the ERV is
approximately 2500ml – 3000 ml approximately 1000 ml to 1100 ml

(b) Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity

Inspiratory capacity (IC) Expiratory capacity (EC)

Inspiratory capacity is the volume of air Expiratory capacity is the volume of air
that can be inhaled post a normal that can be exhaled post a normal
expiration inspiration

It is given by the sum of tidal volume and It is given by the tidal volume and the
the inspiratory reserve volume expiratory reserve volume
i.e., EC = TV + ERV
i.e, IC = TV + IRV

(c) Vital capacity and Total lung capacity

Vital capacity (VC) Total lung capacity (TLC)

After a maximum inspiration, it is the After maximum inspiration, it is the

maximum volume of air that can be exhaled. volume of air in the lungs. It includes ERV,
It includes IC and ERV. IC and residual volume

The vital capacity in the lungs of humans is The total lung capacity in the lungs of
about 4000 ml humans is nearly 5000 ml to 6000 ml

14. What is Tidal volume? Find out the Tidal volume (approximate
value) for a healthy human in an hour.

Solution:

During a normal respiration, the volume of air expired or inspired is

referred to as tidal volume (TV). The tidal volume is approximately 500ml
for a healthy individual. A healthy individual can expire or inspire nearly
6000-8000ml of air per minute or around 12-16 times a minute.

Hence, the tidal volume for a healthy man in an hour approximately can
be between 3,60,000 ml and 4,80,000 ml.