The Chromosome

All living things contain a self-replicating genetic material that directs the
activities and functions of the cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is the genetic
material located inside a chromosome in the nucleus of the cell. The DNA from the
parents is transmitted to the offspring to ensure the continuity of life. The DNA is a
helical structure consisting of two strands as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 also shows
the organization or packaging of DNA molecules by proteins or histones to form
different levels of chromosome packaging. This is necessary so that the long and
numerous DNA molecules can be organized and be accommodated inside the
nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The DNA helix illustration in Figure 1 shows a structure
called nucleosomes which is composed of globular structures known as histones
where the DNA strands are attached, and coiled looking like beads attached on a
string in a form of chromatin measuring up to 11 nm. The next level of organization
is a series of chromatin molecules forming a 30-nanometer chromatin fiber of packed
coiled nucleosomes called solenoid. This solenoid level of packaging becomes
supercoiled forming loops that are visible and are usually called chromatin loops
which further leads to condensation of the chromosomes up to 700 nm. When the
DNA molecules is replicated and undergoes also packaging and coiling, it would form
the entire mitotic chromosome or metaphase chromosome which measures up to
1,400 nm which is illustrated at the bottom of the diagram in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The Organization/Packaging of the DNA into Chromosomes

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

1 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
 Figure 2. Parts of the Chromosome
Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

Parts of the Chromosome

1. Chromatids – two identical halves of a replicated chromosome after the

Synthesis phase or the S phase of the cell cycle.
2. Centromere – the attachment points of the two chromatids of a
chromosome. It is also described as the constriction point which divides
the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.”
3. Short arm – or p arm - upper arms of the chromosome which is usually
shorter.
4. Q arm - lower arms of the chromosome which is usually longer.
The number of chromosomes in a cell is a characteristic of the species to
which it belongs. For example, fruit flies have 8 chromosomes while sunflowers
have 34. Table 1 summarizes the chromosome numbers of some organisms.

Table 1. Chromosome Number of Selected Organisms

Organism Chromosome number

Drosophila melanogaster
(fruit fly) 8
Canis familiaris
78
(dog)
Homo sapiens
46
(man)
Oryza sativa
24
(rice)
Zea mays
20
(corn)

2 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
The Cell Cycle

The chromosomes of a cell change their form as they undergo cell transitions
from one stage to another in a typical cell cycle as shown in Figure 3. The cell cycle
may be divided into two stages: the interphase where the chromosomes are long,
and extended, and the cell division or mitotic phase where the chromosomes
become condensed or thickened.

Interphase is the interval between two cell divisions. During this stage, the
cell is not dividing; it merely grows. The chromosome doubles or replicates itself
because the DNA molecule contained in the chromosome produces a precise copy of
itself.

Figure 3. The Cell Cycle

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

Interphase is the interval

between two cell divisions. During
this stage, the cell is not dividing; it
obtains nutrients and metabolizes,
grows, replicates its DNA in
preparation for mitosis.

The interphase is divided into

three sub-stages, namely:

Figure 4. The Cell in the Interphase Period

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

1. First gap period or G1 where

 cell grows initially
 synthesis of protein and ribonucleic acid or RNA occurs
 mitochondria increase in number

2. Synthesis stage or S phase where

 DNA are synthesized thus replicating the chromosomes in
preparation for the next cell division.

3. Second gap period or G2 where

 cell grows rapidly
 cell prepares for the actual cell division

3 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
Cell Division

Cell division phase occurs every after interphase. In eukaryotic cells, these
types of cell division occur: mitosis and meiosis.

1. Mitosis

Each time a child goes to the doctor, a nurse measures his height and mass.
A child’s height and mass increases because the number of cells in his body
increases as he develops. Our body cells increase its number through the process
known as mitosis.

Mitosis is a cellular process wherein two nuclei and two cells are produced
due to the division of the original nucleus, each of which contains the same
chromosome number as the parent cell. Mitosis is divided into four stages namely:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Figure 5 shows the different stages
of mitosis.

Figure 5. The Stages of Mitosis

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

Prophase Stage

 The repeated coiling of chromosomes occurs resulted to its thicker and

shorter structure. These are made up of two sister chromatids that are
identical to each because of the replication of DNA during the S phase.
 The two chromatids are still attached at the centromere.
 The nuclear membrane breaks down.

Metaphase Stage

 Chromosomes align at the equatorial plane.

 Each spindle fiber from both centrosomes connects to each chromosome
through its kinetochore.

Anaphase Stage

 Spindle fibers begin to contract and become shorter. Continued

contraction causes the separation of the genetically identical sister
chromatids.
 Centromeres divide.
 The single chromatids move towards the opposite poles.

4 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
Telophase Stage

 The chromosomes are now at the opposing poles of the spindle.

 The microtubules disappear.
 Two sets of chromosomes are surrounded by new nuclear membranes,
completing the nuclear division process known as karyokinesis.
 Cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis occurs concurrently, splitting the
cell into two.

What happens after telophase?

Two new nuclear membranes are formed, and two new nuclei are seen.
There are two new daughter cells that are produced from one dividing parent cell.
Thus, mitosis has come to an end.

In animal cells, two grooves or indentations known as cleavage furrows

form at both ends of the metaphase plate during telophase. These grooves
deepen and lengthen and meet, to separate and form the two new daughter
cells. This event is shown in the illustration below in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Formation of two new daughter cells in animal cells

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

Plant cells do not form cell furrows. Instead, a new cell wall known as
cell plate forms between the two new nuclei.

Figure 7 shows the formation of a cell plate in plant cells. During telophase,
membrane-enclosed vesicles from the Golgi complex of the cell move towards the
center where the metaphase plate of the cell is located and become part of the cell
plate.
In telophase, the cell plate continues to grow and gets attached with the cell
membrane. This results to the formation of two daughter cells. Each cell is bounded
with cell membrane. New cell walls form between the two cell membranes at the area
where the cell plate was formed earlier.

5 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
 Figure 7. Cell Plate Formation
Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L.
Pontillo
2. Meiosis

There are two main types of cells possessed by multicellular eukaryotic

organisms: somatic, or body cells and gametes, or sex cells. Majority of the cells are
called somatic or body cells. These consist of two complete sets of chromosomes,
making them diploid in number (2N).

Multicellular eukaryotic organisms that undergo sexual reproduction use

gametes, or sex cells, to produce offspring. Gametes are haploid cells, union of which
result to creation of a new organism with diploid number of chromosomes in all its
somatic or body cells hence, to create new individuals for the species, two parents
are very necessary to provide the gametes.

How are sex cells, the sperms and eggs, formed? Another form of cell division
known as meiosis produces sex cells. In meiosis, the nucleus will undergo two
divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The cell divides twice in these processes.

All human somatic cells have forty-six chromosomes. When human cells
reproduce through mitosis, each new cell will also have forty-six chromosomes. But
in reproductive cells or gametes, each of these cells produced has only twenty-
three chromosomes. Thus, meiosis decreases the chromosome number by half.

Why must meiosis take place to produce sperm and egg?

When a sperm unites with an egg, each of them contributes only one half of
the total number of chromosomes (twenty-three chromosomes) to the new zygote
which is diploid in number of chromosomes (forty-six chromosomes). Meiosis creates
cells that are destined to become gametes (or reproductive cells), this reduction in
chromosome number is critical — without it, the union of two gametes during
fertilization would result in offspring with twice the normal number of chromosomes.

Thus, in humans, a new life originates with the normal diploid number (2N)
of forty-six chromosomes. Then the zygote undergoes the process of mitosis,
producing cells with forty-six chromosomes each.

6 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
 Meiosis involves two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Each follows similar
stages as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase). Before meiosis,
the reproductive cell is in the interphase stage whereby DNA replicates to produce
chromosomes having two sister chromatids. Then, the cell will undergo second
growth phase called interkinesis. This stage happens between Meiosis I and II,
however, DNA does not replicate in this stage.

Meiosis I.

The first meiotic division, also known as Meiosis I, is a reduction division

phase (diploid - haploid). There are two daughter cells produced after Meiosis 1,
each daughter cell is carrying haploid number of chromosomes. This consists of
four stages, namely, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I.

Prophase I Stage

Meiosis starts with this stage and includes the following substages:
leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis. Figure 8 shows the
different substages of prophase I.

Figure 8. Substages of Prophase I

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo
Substage 1: Leptotene
Each chromosome is made up of sister chromatids. These are
long threadlike structures which result from the replication of DNA
during the Synthesis or S phase of the cell cycle.

Substage 2: Zygotene
The homologous chromosomes start to pair off through the
process known as synapsis. Pairs of chromosomes that are similar in
size and shape are called homologous chromosomes or tetrads.

Substage 3: Pachytene
The repeated coiling of chromosomes occurs resulting to its
contraction and thickening making the homologous pair of
chromosomes to be very close to each other. At this stage, the process
called crossing over happens. Here, the exchange of segments between

7 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
 the sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes occurs. The
exchanging process form a cross-linkage called a chiasma. After
crossing over, the sister chromatids of each chromosome may not be
identical with each other based on the genetic material they contain.
Crossing-over is a complicated process that results to genetic
variability.

Figure 9 shows the pairing of two homo-logous chromosomes during synapsis.

The paired chromosome then exchanges DNA segments during crossing over which
results to exchange of genetic material. Chiasma shows the place where the two sister
chromatids of the paired homo-logous chromosomes touched each other.

Figure 9. Crossing Over of Homologous Chromosomes during Meiosis

Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo
Substage 4: Diplotene
The two homologous chromosomes forming a tetrad begin to
repel one another and move apart. They are held only by the chiasma.

Substage 5: Diakinesis
This is the last stage of meiosis prophase 1. Diakinesis stage is
characterized by chiasmata terminalization. After diakinesis, the
dividing cell enters metaphase.
At this stage, bivalents or homologous pair chromosomes
distribute them evenly in the nucleus. The nuclear membrane breaks
down and the nucleolus disappears. Chiasma moves towards the end,
which is called terminalization. Chromatids remain attached only at the
terminal chiasmata and enter the metaphase stage.

Metaphase I Stage
 Spindle fibers from the centrosomes of each pole connect to bivalents or
tetrads through the kinetochores. Homologous chromosomes line up at the
equatorial plane. There is double alignment of the chromosomes.

Anaphase I Stage
 Spindle fibers begin to contract and separate the bivalent or tetrads.
 Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to each pole of the cell.

Telophase I Stage
 Chromosomes decondense.
 Nuclear membranes reform.
 Cytokinesis or the cytoplasmic division occurs and two haploid (N) daughter
cells with chromosomes with two sister chromatids are formed.

8 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
Meiosis II.

The second meiotic division forms four daughter cells, each carrying haploid
number of chromosomes. This consists of the following stages, namely, prophase II,
metaphase II, Anaphase II, and telophase II.

Prophase II Stage
 Chromosomes (chromatids) condense to form metaphase chromosomes.
 Nuclear membrane dissolves and nucleolus disappears.
 Centrosomes move towards each pole of the cell.

Metaphase II Stage
 Spindle fibers attach to chromatids at the kinetochores.
 Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plane. (Single alignment of
chromosomes).

Anaphase II Stage
 Spindle fibers shortened and separated the sister chromatids.
 Chromatids that are now called chromosomes move towards each pole of the
cell.

Telophase II Stage
 Single-stranded chromosomes decondense.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reforms.
 Cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis).
 Four haploid (n) daughter cells are formed.

Figure 10 shows the stages in Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In meiosis I, the two
homologous chromosomes separate which results to two haploid (n) daughter cells
with chromosomes with two chromatids each. In meiosis II, four haploid (n)
daughter cells are formed. Each cell is carrying haploid number of chromosomes.

9 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
 Figure 10. Stages in Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Illustrated by: Rosa Mia L. Pontillo

Table 2. Differences in Characteristics between Mitosis and Meiosis

Characteristics Mitosis Meiosis

Location Somatic cells Reproductive cells
Chromosome number of parent cell Diploid (2n) or
Diploid (2n)
haploid (n)
Chromosome number of daughter cell Diploid (2n) or
Haploid (n)
haploid (n)
Number of daughter cells produced Two Four
Number of nuclear divisions One Two
Prophase I, Metaphase
Prophase I, Anaphase I,
Steps required to complete the cell Metaphase Telophase I, Prophase
division phase Anaphase, and II, Metaphase II,
Telophase Anaphase II, and
Telophase II
Occurrence of synapsis None Yes
Occurrence of crossing over None Yes
Presence of chiasma Absent Present
Kind of reproduction associated with Asexual Sexual

10 CO_Q4_Science 8_ Module 2
Table 3. Roles of Mitosis and Meiosis in the Cell Division

Mitosis Meiosis
1. For somatic or body cell 1. For gametes or sex cell production
production - The diploid parent sex cells divide twice
- The repeated cell division through resulting to four genetically different haploid (N)
mitosis increases the number of daughter cells.
somatic cells which is important for
the growth of organisms.
2. For asexual reproduction 2. For sexual reproduction
- Unicellular (single-celled) orga- - Most multicellular organisms start as a single
nisms reproduce fast and easily by cell – a fertilized egg known as zygote. This
mitosis that will result to the produc- zygote is the result of fertilization or the union of
tion of genetically identical offspring. a female gamete, an egg, with a male gamete, a
Among plants, reproduction is also sperm that are produced through meiotic cell
possible through cloning, grafting and division.
marcotting, all of which do not involve
gametes.
3. For genetic stability 3. For genetic diversity
- During mitosis, the resulting two - Complex or multicellular organisms produce
daughter cells have the same type and gametes that contain only one half of the
number of genes as the original parent information carried by the parent gamete. During
cell, thereby preserving and fertilization, these gametes unite allowing genes
maintaining the genetic composition of from each parent to combine which results to
a particular population. differences in the DNA sequences of offspring.
4. For the repair of damaged cells/ 4. Aids in the repair of genetic
tissues defects
- Mitosis helps in the repair of - Meiotic recombination is also used in DNA
worn-out body cells and replaces repair, whereby pieces of DNA are broken and
damaged cells and tissues through recombined to produce new combination of alleles
repeated cell division. (form of gene). Recombination replaces defective
gene with the healthy allele giving way to healthy
offspring.