INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

JOHNNY PAUL KOROMA Page 1 of 86

 UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF MASS

COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Contents

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 What is Communication?

3.1.1 Understanding Communication

3.2 Functions of Communication

3.2.1 Functional Meaning of Communication

3.3 What is Mass Communication?

3.4 Features of Mass Communication

3.5 Between Mass Communication and Human Communication

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Assignment

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1.0 Introduction

This introductory unit examines five items that address issues

surrounding the understanding of the concept of communication.

They are:

1. Various Definitions of Communication

2. Various Definitions of Mass Communication

3. Functions of Communication

4. Features of Mass Communication

5. Difference between Mass Communication and Human

Communication

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

➢ Define Communication, either in your own words or by other

scholars who are grounded in the field.

➢ Define Mass Communication.

➢ Identify the main features of communication.

➢ Explain the basic functions of mass communication.

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 ➢ Distinguish mass communication from human communication.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Communication?

Communication is a common phenomenon that cuts across the daily

activities of human being. As food and water are very important to

man’s survival so is communication. It is always a unique feature

that differentiates the living from the dead. Obilade (1989) defines

communication as a process that involves the transmission of

message from a sender to the receiver.

In its simplest form, however, Communication is the transmission of

a message from a source to a receiver or the process of creating

shared meaning (Baran 2004:4).

3.1.1 Understanding Communication

It has been shown that there exist various definitions for

communication, as there are different disciplines. While some

definitions are human centred, others are not. For example,

communication system may incorporate computers, as well as less

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sophisticated reproducing devices such as photocopiers. A

photocopier may see communication as meaning different thing from

the way a marketer perceives it. Similarly, a gospel preacher may

think communication is something, which is of course different from

what a journalist thinks it is.

Therefore, there is no single definition of communication agreed

upon by scholars. Psychologists, sociologists, medical practitioners,

philosophers, and communication specialists, all define

communication based on their orientations and perspectives.

Psychologists define communication as "the process by which an

individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli (usually verbal

symbols) to modify the behaviour of the other individuals

(communicates)." This definition describes what many extension

workers and change agents hope to achieve. Sociologists see

communication “as the mechanism through which human relations

exist and develop."

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Some people define communication rather narrowly, saying

"communication is the process whereby one person tells another

something through the written or spoken words." This definition,

from a book written by a journalist, seems reasonable for those in

that field. So, there are many definitions of communication as there

are various disciplines.

Communication is from a Latin word ‘COMMUNIS’, which means

common or shared understanding. Communication therefore is a

purposeful effort to establish commonness between a source and

receiver (Schramn 1965). Whatever is being shared could be

associated with knowledge, experience, thought, ideas, suggestion,

opinions, feelings etc. We will define communication here as the

process of exchanging or sharing information, ideas and feeling

between the sender and the receiver.

Communication is very central to all human activities; this is

because everything we do and do not, communicate. Man’s

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interaction with other human beings is a result of communication.

Communication is the key around which human life revolves.

Communication is also innate – every man is born with the ability,

from childhood, we learn to communicate by crying, smiling,

kicking etc.

Communication is dynamic, ongoing, and ever changing.

Communication is made up of activities of interrelated elements

which continue to function in the communication process. The fact is

that the word communication is encompassing, ambiguous and

pervasive. These three words capture the universal nature of

communication and make everyone thinks they know something

about communication.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

A. All living animals communicate. Do you agree? Justify your

position. B. What makes human communication different from that

of other animals?

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3.2 Functions of Communication

Communication performs diverse kinds of functions. We will look at

the following functions:

Social Interaction

Human interaction is possible because we can communicate. We

relate with friends, parents, colleagues, etc because we share codes

that make us understand each other. Without communication this

will not be possible.

Business and Trade

Communication provides opportunity to transact business and

engage in trade. We are able to make known what we are offering

for sales and what we want to buy. We also negotiate the prices,

mode of delivery etc. through communication.

Exchange of Ideas and Spread of Knowledge

We express freely our ideas, opinions and feelings on issues

affecting us. We also share knowledge as we engage in discussion

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and write books. In classroom situation, a teacher is able to impart

knowledge into students through communication.

Social-Political Development

Development is made possible through communication.

Communication helps to mobilise people to work together for their

social and political development.

Social-Cultural Integration

Communication enables exchange of culture and values. Through

music, interaction in communities, we are able to learn one another’s

cultures and blend for harmonious co-habitation.

3.2.1 Functional Meaning of Communication

Communication could be defined based on its perceived functions.

Severin and Tankard (1980) highlight some of the basic differences

in the way communication has been perceived. They grouped these

into three major areas:

Definitions that stress sharing

Definitions that stress intentional influence and

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 Definitions that include any kind of influence or response

(with or without intent).

Self Assessment Exercise 2

Give your own definition of communication based on your perceived

functions.

3.3 What is Mass Communication?

Mass Communication is a means of disseminating information or

message to large, anonymous, and scattered heterogeneous/varied

masses of receivers who may be far removed from the message

sources through the use of sophisticated equipment. In other words,

communication is the sending of message through a mass medium to

a large number of people.

Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a

homogeneous (standardised, harmonised, consistent, identical or

uniform) message to a large heterogeneous (varied, mixed, assorted,

diverse or various) audience through the media. Mass

communication studies the uses and effects of the media by many as

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opposed to the study of human interaction as in other communication

contexts.

Stanley Baran defines Mass Communication as the process of

creating shared meaning between the mass media and their audience.

Also, John Bittner defines Mass Communication as messages

communicated through a mass medium to a large number of people.

One needs to underscore the underlying fact that what is common in

every definition of mass communication anywhere in the world is

that it is communicated through a mass medium. In other words, for

any message to be regarded as being mass communicated, it must be

disseminated through a mass medium like Radio, Television,

Newspaper and Magazine.

Mass Communication can also be defined as a device by which a

group of people working together transmits information to a large

heterogeneous and anonymous/unknown audience simultaneously. It

is a process by which information originates from the source to the

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receiver, having been thoroughly filtered and transmitted through a

channel (Sambe 2005:29).

Self Assessment Exercise 3

What makes Mass Communication to be Mass Communication?

3.4 Features of Mass Communication

Mass Communication is distinguished from other kinds of

communication by a number of features or characteristics. They are:

Mass Medium
Presence of Gatekeepers
Delayed Feedback
Limited Sensory Channels
Impersonal Vs Personal Communication

Mass Medium

For a medium to be regarded as mass in communication it must have

acquired fifty million adopters (Kaye & Medoff 2005). Radios,

Television, internet, etc., are examples of media which are regarded

as mass media because they can reach out to no fewer than fifty

million audience at a time. In mass communication, messages reach

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far beyond the immediate proximity of the sender and could even get

to the uttermost part of the world.

Presence of Gatekeepers

In mass communication, sent messages do not reach the audience in

raw form. Messages are usually ‘treated’. The implication of this is

that there is usually no guarantee that what the message receivers get

is exactly the message sent by the source.

In mass media organisations, the gatekeepers are usually the

reporters, sub-editors, editors, producers, writers, etc. The concept of

gatekeeper was first coined by Kurt Lewin who describes

gatekeepers as individuals or groups of persons who govern the

travels of news items in the communication channels.

Gatekeepers could also be defined as any person or formally

organised group directly involved in relaying or transferring

information from one individual to another through a mass medium.

A gatekeeper can be a film producer who cuts a scene from the

original script, a network censor who deletes a scene from a prime –

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time show because it is perceived as being too sexually explicit, a

director who determines what segment of film to use in a

documentary, a newspaper executive who determines the topic for an

editorial, or any other individual in the processing or control of

messages disseminated through mass media (Bittner 1989:12).

In actual sense, a gatekeeper does three major functions:

Limiting the information through editing before

dissemination.

Expanding the amount of information by injecting additional

views or angles.

Reorganising or Re-interpreting the information gathered

before disseminating it.

Delayed Feedback

Unlike in interpersonal communication where reply/feedback is

made almost instantly, the feedback in mass communication is

always delayed, say for a day, week, or month. Burgoon et al 1978

cited in Folarin 1994 says “Feedback is often limited, delayed and

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indirect”. Mass communicators are usually subject to additional

feedback in form of criticism in other media, such as a television

critic writing a column in a newspaper (Baran 2004:7). In other

words, feedback in mass communication is not instant. It is mostly

through letters to the editor or telephone calls or personal calls on the

media.

Self Assessment Exercise 4

What are the distinguishing attributes of Mass Communication?

3.5 Distinction between Mass Communication and Human

Communication

Simply put, Human Communication is a dynamic process of sharing

information between individuals. It encompasses all kinds of

communication that involves man. It must be pointed out that mass

communication is part of human communication. It is one of the

three major parts of human communication. The other parts being

interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.

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The easiest way to distinguish mass communication from other parts

of human communication is to highlights the unique features inherent

in mass communication, which had been discussed earlier in this unit.

Self Assessment Exercise 5

Mass Communication is a subset of human Communication.

Discuss.

Draw out the dichotomy between Mass Communication and

Human Communication.

4.0 Conclusion

Communication traverses every facet of human life. Without

communication nothing can be done. In other words, communication

holds the foundation of every human society. It is the process of

exchanging, transmitting, transferring, expressing or importing ideas,

sentiments, attitudes, feelings, meanings, information or opinion

between individuals, groups or organisations.

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5.0 Summary

In this unit, we have been able to establish that communication is an

essential part of human life, and that human communication and

mass communication are integral part of communication, hence we

cannot study any of them in isolation of the concept of

communication. We also attempted an overview of the concept of

communication, mass communication and human communication, as

well as the similarities and differences between them. The unit also

highlighted the features that distinguish mass communication from

other forms of communication.

6.0 Assignment

Write a three – page essay on why you chose to study Mass

Communication as against Human Communication in the University.

If given the opportunity, would you prefer to study human

communication and not mass communication or you still prefer to

study mass communication?

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 THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

COMMUNICATION

1.0 Introduction

This unit assumes that students have acquired a considerable

knowledge on the concept of communication, as studied in lecture

note one. This second lecture delves more into communication under

two main subheadings, including:

Nature of mass communication

Characteristics of mass communication

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

Discuss the inherent nature of communication.

Specifically highlight and discuss in detail the characteristics

of mass communication.

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3.0 Main Content

3.1 Nature of Communication

Having established the basic concept of communication in lecture

one as the process of sharing meanings or transmitting meanings to

individuals, there isa need to reiterate here that for human beings, the

process of communication is both vital and fundamental. It is vital

and fundamental so far as all human societies, primitive to modern

are founded on man’s ability to transmit his intentions, desires,

feelings, knowledge, and experiences from person to person. It is

vital as the ability to communicate with others enhances an

individual’s chances of survival while inability to do so is generally

regarded as a serious form of personal pathology.

Mass communication got its origin from the fundamental process of

human communication that enables man-to-man discussion and

communicative interactions. This was done chiefly through verbal

and written cues. With the emerging trends in electronic engineering,

people are increasingly aware of how to communicate to many

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people at the same time, ‘one-to-many’. This ‘one-to-many’ concept

is the peculiar nature of mass communication. A man in the

broadcast studio somewhere in Freetown, Sierra Leone can

communicate to billions of people across the globe simultaneously.

The President of Sierra Leone can sit down in the State House or

Presidential Lodge and speak to 8 million Sierra Leoneans at the

same time. This is mass communication in practice. Broadcast

journalists cast news to an audience of millions at the same time;

newspaper editors write on issues of public importance to be read the

next day by all concerned. These are all examples of mass

communication in practice. This unique way of communicating to

countless number of people at the same time is a unique nature of

mass communication. It is very peculiar because no other form of

communication has this attribute.

This brings us to three distinguishing features of mass

communication, which include:

Nature of audience
The communication experience

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 The communicator

Nature of Audience

By nature, mass communication audience has four unique features,

these are:

Large
Heterogeneous (varied/mixed)
Anonymous (unknown/nameless)
Simultaneous

Large

The large nature of the audience of mass communication makes it

very difficult to address mass communication messages to specific

audience or group of people. This presupposes (assumes) the fact

that messages that undergo mass communication process must be

directed to many - many people, like the ones sent through the radio,

TV, newspapers etc.

It must be pointed out that messages meant for very few people or

specific individuals are not regarded as mass communication. For

instance, a love letter sent from a boy to his lover girl; a GSM

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conversation between two or more people (as in conference call) or

telegrams do not belong to the mass communication family. This is

because such messages could be regarded as either one-to-one or

one-to-few as against mass communication which is one-to-many.

Heterogeneous

By heterogeneous, we mean mass communication messages cannot

be segregated. It cannot be directed towards certain people without

others hearing it. Every human being, irrespective of age, creed,

gender, wealth, and affluence get the messages at the same time.

Biblically speaking, mass communication message is not a respecter

of any man. It does not have regard for positions, and class. It is for

all.

Anonymity

Messages sent in mass communication are not to be received by a

named receiver. It is addressed To Whom It May Concern. In other

words, he who receives the messages is not known to the sender. It is

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assumed that messages in mass communication are sent to nobody,

somebody, and everybody.

Simultaneity (simultaneous nature)

This shows that messages of mass communication are at the disposal

of the audience at the same time or simultaneously, or instantly.

The word ‘disposal’ is used because, even though the message is

available to one, the audience might decide not to expose himself to

the message almost immediately, the audience might delay his

exposure to such messages for different reasons. This message is

often associated with the print media of mass communication like

newspapers, magazines, and books. A reader might decide not to

read the pages of a book almost immediately. The same way

someone who got the delivery of fresh news on a daily newspaper

early in the morning might delay reading such news till bedtime.

Hence, the simultaneity in mass communication audience is mostly

applicable to messages sent via the broadcast media, but the fact is

that everybody is disposed to such message instantaneously.

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The Communication Experience

The idea here is that mass communication messages are rapid, public

and transient/temporary. It is public in that the content is for public

good; it is not directed to only selected few but the general public

and that the messages are sent for the consumption of every member

of the public.

Mass communication messages by nature are rapid because the

messages get to audience almost immediately. With the aid of new

communication technologies, it takes seconds to pass across the

globe.

The messages are said to be transient because of its fast ‘moving’

nature. The messages are meant to be consumed almost immediately.

The newscaster does not wait for anybody to be ready before he/she

casts the news, nor does he/she need to wait until the listener is ready

before continuing his job. In the broadcast media, listeners have the

opportunity to hear the messages once.

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Nature of the Mass Communicator

This talks about the particular medium through which the medium

will pass. The media is managed by media organisations and run by

experts. The various media of mass communication have features

peculiar to each and every one of them as they operate within a

complex organisation that may require great expense.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Would you regard a tutorial facilitator in a study centre of FAME

College who uses microphone to communicate to a fairly small

number of students as a mass communicator? Give convincing

reasons for your position.

3.2 Characteristics of Mass Communication

Although some scholars tend to mix characteristics of mass

communication with features of mass communication as discussed in

lecture one, but painstaking/thorough attempts have been made here

to bring out specific characteristics of mass communication. They

include:

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 Impersonality
Portability and mobility
Transportability/proximity
Fidelity
Permanency
Cost
Universality

Impersonality

Messages of mass communication have remained impersonal since

there is no “personal” touch or warmth of a medium. The

impersonality of mass communication is informed by the need to

reach large, diverse, and scattered audiences almost at the same time.

Portability and Mobility

These two terms are mostly used interchangeably to describe the

character of mass communication. Portability has to do with the fact

that messages of mass communication are handy and that the

medium through which the messages are passing could be carried

from one place to another.

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Mobility refers to the ease with which a medium’s paraphernalia

(facilities) of production can be moved from one place to another.

One way of distinguishing between the two terms is to note that

portability concerns the receiver and the geographical location of

message consumption while mobility relates to the source and place

of production.

It needs to be pointed out, however, that while miniaturisation

(smallness) of radio has made it portable and much easier to be

carried around, mobility has been greatly hampered by bureaucratic

nature of media management as well as by media laws of access in

the country.

Transportability/Proximity

By proximity, we mean the power of the medium of mass

communication to carry the recipient over to the scene of an event.

For instance, people in a place like Yoni in Tonkolili District of

Sierra Leone could watch live a football match in faraway Liverpool,

England. In other words, the medium of mass communication is able

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to “take” a recipient to the scene of an event without the recipient

stepping out of his/her bedroom.

Fidelity

One good advantage of today’s electronics especially, TV is hi-

fidelity. Most times, the logo Hi-fi is printed on electronic products

to show that the electronics device is capable of giving the audience

a near the original form of the figure that is being transmitted.

Fidelity refers to the exactitude with which a medium reproduces the

original physical dimensions of images of the messages being sent

across. The original dimension includes:

a) Verbal symbols
b) Picture symbols
c) Colour
d) Sound and
e) Motion.

In actual sense, only television and film can reproduce all the five

dimensions, while radio can only produce speech and sound exactly.

Print media can reproduce pictures, symbols and colours.

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With the emergency of flat screen television and home theatre,

fidelity of the medium is becoming higher by day. It must be pointed

out that aside television; internet communication can reproduce all

the five dimensions with higher fidelity than that of Television.

Cost

Every medium of mass communication requires one to pay before

sending messages through it. A full colour page advert in an average

Sierra Leone newspaper costs no less than SLE 1,500 while a 60

second slot in AYV costs one an average of SLE 1,000. Depending

on the medium being used, the cost of mass communication

messages is on the relatively high side. This is solely because of the

reach of the medium.

Universality

This refers to the extensiveness or commonness of a medium. A

person does not need to be literate in a particular language before he

listens to a radio programme or a watch television programme in that

native language.

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Permanency

This refers to the period for which a medium can hold its message

thereby making the message reviewable. Unlike in the electronic

media which are transitory in nature, a reader of a book, newspapers

and magazines can read and re-read what is there, because what is in

the print media products may be there for a long term if not

permanent.

Self Assessment Exercise 2

Most television users around the world, especially in Sierra Leone

now prefer to use flat screen television and home theatre electronics

gadgets in their homes. What specific characteristic of the media of

mass communication is responsible for such growing interest?

3.3 Attributes of Communication

Six important attributes of communication have been outlined here;

they are briefly presented below:

1. Transactional: Communication is transactional because both

the source and the receiver do have an impact on one other.

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2. Affective: Our emotional responses affect the way we

communicate with others and the way others communicate with us.

This makes communication affective.

3. Personal: This means that the meanings attached to

communication exist in the participants and not in the non-verbal

symbols we employ in communicating. But each participant is able

to understand the other because of the codes of verbal and non-

verbal symbols that they share.

4. Consummatory: That is, communication provides satisfaction

to the communicator.

5. Instrumental: Communication can be used as an instrument

or a tool to control our environments and to affect or influence other

people.

6. Dynamic: Communication is not static. It involves changes

and effects as the elements interact.

7. Continuous: There is no beginning and no end to

communication in a person’s life.

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8. Complex: It occurs at many levels and reflects many

influences.

9. Irreversible: Once a message is sent, it cannot be withdrawn.

Communication process cannot be turned back.

10. Non-sequential: The elements in the communication process

are not rigidly patterned, as in a linear or circular manner.

11. Unrepeatable: A given communication act cannot be

recreated.

Self Assessment Exercise 3

One of the attributes of communication is that given communication

act cannot be recreated. How would you justify this statement using

both the radio and newspaper as two different instances?

4.0 Conclusion

By virtue of its nature, communication takes place in three ways,

namely Mass (one-to-many), interpersonal (one-to-one), and

computing (many-to-one) with a fourth communication mode, many-

to-many, emerging. On the Internet, everyone can be a producer or a

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receiver, individuals can receive and send personal or mass

messages, and information can be provided by many and accessed by

many as a mass audience or stored for individuals to select and

retrieve.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this lecture, we have been able to establish that communication

has peculiar nature and characteristics. The characteristics include

Impersonality, Portability and Mobility, Transportability/Proximity,

Fidelity, Permanency, Cost and Universality. A team of scholars

equally combined about eleven items to be attributes of

communication, which include Transactional, Affective, Personal,

Consummatory, Instrumental, Dynamic, Continuous, Complex,

Irreversible, Non-sequential and Unrepeatable.

6.0 Assignment

Take a brief look at the nature, characteristics and attributes of

communication discussed in this lecture. Do they all apply to all

forms of communication? If no, group them as they apply to forms

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of communication. For example, ‘large nature of audience’ as an

attribute that belongs to mass communication and not inter-personal

communication.

THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1.0 Introduction

This unit takes a vivid look at the process of communication as well

as the elements involved in the communication process. It equally

takes a look at the analysis of the communication process.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

❖ Identify and explain what it takes for good communication to

take place.

❖ Identify and explain elements of the communication process.

❖ Determine various factors that influence the elements of the

communication process.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Process of Communication

Communication as a process is dynamic, recursive, on-going,

continuous, and cyclical. There is no recognisable beginning and

end, neither is there a rigid sequence of interaction. But we may try

to identify how the process begins.

▪ Stimulation: This is the point at which the source sees the

need to communicate. He receives stimulus that triggers him to

communicate.

▪ Encoding: The source processes the message he/she wants to

communicate into a form that will be understandable to the receivers.

This may be a feeling, opinion, experiment etc.

▪ Transmission: The message is passed across to the intended

receiver through a chosen medium or channel.

▪ Reception: The receiver gets the message that is sent from the

source.

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▪ Decoding: The message is processed, understood and

interpreted by the receiver.

▪ Response: This is also known as the feedback; it is the

reaction of the receiver to the message received.

The process of communication can be well understood by the models

that have been designed to explain the process. This will be

explained later under models of communication.

The communication process involves an action, reaction and

interaction:

By Action: it refers to the initiative taken by a sender or source to

share information, observation, or opinion with others. This could be

done through writing, speaking, drawing, or gesturing.

By Reaction: it means a response to the action taken by the sender.

The kind of response determines whether or not the receiver is

willing to be a party to the communication encounter and sets the

tone or atmosphere for it. Reaction in a communication process may

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come by way of reply, rejoinder, answer, acknowledgement, retort,

or defence.

By Interaction: it means that communication is the spontaneous

reciprocity of messages between a sender and a receiver. It is the

stage of exchange of messages between two or more persons sharing

common experiences, codes, or symbols. Interaction as a process of

communication creates an overlap of field of experience between a

source and a receiver. With this, they are tuned to each other

physically, mentally, or psychologically, and provide a basis to carry

on the encounter (interaction) meaningfully and successfully.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Communication is not a singular action, but a set of co-ordinated,

interlinked actions. Explain.

3.2 Elements of the Communication Process

We can identify about seven elements that are involved in the

communication process. They are:

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1. Stimulus: This is the impulse that triggers off the

communication exchange. It takes place at the ideation stage of

communication. We can also call it the reason one has for

communicating, which may be to inform, educate, entertain etc.

2. Source: This is the person who begins the communication

process. He/she is the one triggered by the stimulus and from him

begins the communication activity. He/she could be referred to as

the initiator, encoder, or sender. He/she is the initiator because he

begins the communication process. As the encoder, he/she

packages the message in a way that it can be communicated and as

the sender when he/she passes across the message by himself.

3. Message: This could be an idea, feelings, information,

thought, opinion, knowledge or experience etc. that the

source/sender wants to share.

4. Medium and Channel: Medium and channel are generally

used interchangeably. But here, a distinction is made between the

two. Medium could be regarded as the form adopted by the sender

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of the message to get it to the receiver. It could be oral or written

form. The channel then is the pathway, route, or conduit through

which the message travels between the sender and the receiver e.g.

the channel of radio, television, newspaper, telephone etc. Channel

provides a link that enables the sender and the receiver to

communicate. It may also be seen in terms of the five physical

senses-sights, sound, touch, taste and smell-through which

messages can be sent, received, understood, interpreted, and acted

upon.

5. Receiver: This is the person to whom the message is sent.

He/she is the target audience or the recipient of the message. All the

source/sender’s effort to communicate is to inform or affect the

attitude of the receiver. That is why communication must be

receiver centred.

6. Feedback: This is the response or reaction of the receiver to

the message sent. Communication is not incomplete without

feedback. It confirms that the message is well received and

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understood. Feedback guides the sender in the communication

process and helps him/her to know when to alter or modify his

message if not properly received. Feedback is positive when it

shows that the message has been well received and understood and

it could be negative when it shows that the intended effect has not

been achieved.

7. Noise: Noise is the interference that keeps a message from

being understood or accurately interpreted. It is a potent or powerful

barrier to effective communication. This may be in different forms:

a. Physical Noise: This comes from the environment and keeps

the message from being heard or understood. It may be from loud

conversations, side-talks at meetings, vehicular sounds, sounds

from workmen’s tools etc.

b. Psychological Noise: This comes from within as a result of

poor mental attitude, depression, emotional stress or cognitive

disability.

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 c. Physiological Noise: Results form of interference from the

body in the form of body discomforts, feeling of hunger, tiredness

etc.

d. Linguistic Noise: This is normally from the sender’s inability

to use the language of communication accurately and appropriately.

It may be a grammatical noise manifested in the form of defects in

the use of rules of grammar of a language, and faulty sentence

structure. It may be semantic as in the wrong use of words or use of

unfamiliar words, misspelling, etc. And it could also be

phonological manifested in incorrect pronunciation.

Self Assessment Exercise 2

When is a communication message said to be completed? Why is

feedback in Mass Communication said to be delayed?

3.3 Analysis of the Communication Process

When we attempt to find the meaning of the basic constituents of a

communication situation, it becomes clear that the process is the key

to how humans communicate. For example, you are in a large

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assembly hall awaiting the arrival of a featured speaker. You turn to

the person next to you and begin to converse. In this situation you

have immediately established a dyadic("two-way") communication

relationship, with the source and receiver interdependent. One

defines the other. You may be the immediate source or sender

whereas the other person serves as receiver or vice versa. An

interpersonal communication situation is set up between the two of

you.

Suppose you want to establish communication contact with your

neighbour. You feel the need; the message is transmitted by your

central nervous system to your speech mechanism. At that point the

part of the brain responsible for speech produces a message that

expresses your purpose. You say, "Hello, my name is M. Gbla."

Once this message has been transmitted through time and space (the

only way, so far, that we can adequately communicate with each

other), the receiver's decoder goes to work. In a sense, this may be

viewed as the reverse operation by the speech mechanism in the

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brain. Thus, if there is no interference at the hearing level and none

at the decoding level, the response should be indicative that the

expression "Hello, my name is M. Gbla" had a social contact

meaning for the receiver. A typical response might be "Hi, I'm

Susan." The miracle of communication has occurred again.

Analytically, we notice in this example that the components were all

present in the process –the source, the message, the channel, and the

receiver. Although the source and receiver alternated and the

messages from the two communicators were different, the channel

(soundwaves) through the air remained the same. Possibly, one or

both of the communicators could have written the message in a note

rather than have spoken it.

Communication worked in this instance, but it does not work in all

cases. For example, if you do not know what you want to say, your

encoding mechanism cannot be instructed to transmit a message. A

further difficulty may arise from the way you perceive another

individual in relation to yourself. Suppose you thought that you held

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a higher social or economic status. Your encoder might transmit

something like "Good day, I am Dr. Thullah." Suppose you wanted

to lay the groundwork for future contact. Your encoder might

transmit "Hi, I'm Samuel," a less intimidating statement than the

preceding one. Another problem inherent in the communication

process is the possibility that the encoder, deficient in some way,

might substitute the wrong sounds in the process of transmission.

Your message could come out, "Hello, my game is Ham." This could

lead to embarrassment. But if the receiver's decoding system were

faulty, she might hear, “Hello, my what a dame!” Or the

communication channel might be overloaded with hundreds of other

people speaking simultaneously throughout the assembly hall, and

Susan would not hear you. One other possibility is that the cultural

norms of Susan's society might not permit her to respond to a

stranger. Your communication would be ineffective.

Although we have discussed a fairly uncomplicated situation, the

process analysis approach to communication provides a frame of

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reference for looking at the most complex communication situations,

whether interpersonal or mass.

Self Assessment Exercise 3

Highlight and briefly discuss the major challenges that are militating

against the communication process.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The source is oftentimes referred to as the chief communicator

because without it nothing is done in the communication process.

The source is influenced by its communication skill, knowledge

level, socio-cultural context, and attitude. Equally, the medium is

important. Marshall McLuhan argues that the medium is the

message. A message of the same content and quality that passes

through BBC and SLBC could definitely have different meaning and

impact on the audience. However, the choice of medium is

determined by availability of the medium to the communicator, cost

of using the medium, choice, and audience of the medium,

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credibility of the medium in terms of respect and integrity and

adaptability to message being disseminated.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has explored the nitty-gritty of the communication process,

that is, the process and the elements. The unit equally attempted a

thorough analysis of the communication process, with particular

emphasis on the factors that influence the communication process.

6.0 ASSIGNMENT

What is the impact of the medium on messages communicated? Will

a message communicated through SLBC be much more impactful

than that communicated through BBC? Give convincing reasons for

your answer.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

1.0 Introduction
This unit exposes students to the variety of ways through which

communication could be conceptualised and examined. The models

mentioned in this unit are named after their originators. In this unit,

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students shall see how the models could be used to understand the

concept of communication better. Specifically, the models are

categorized under the following:

1) Aristotle and Lasswell Models

2) Shannon and Weaver’s Model
3) Schramm
4) HUB Model

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

✓ Explain the various models used in understanding or

interpreting the concept and process of communication.

✓ Apply such models to particular situations and issues

surrounding the field of communication.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

A model is a symbolic representation that shows how elements of a

structure or system relate for analysis and discussion purposes.

Communication models help to explain the process of

communication.

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 3.1 Aristotle's Model

Aristotle, writing 300 years before the birth of Christ, provided an

explanation of oral communication that is still worthy of attention.

He called the study of communication "rhetoric" and spoke of three

elements within the process. He provided us with this insight:

Rhetoric falls into three divisions, determined by the three classes of

listeners to speeches. Of the three elements in speech-making —

speaker, subject, and person addressed — it is the last one, the hearer

that determines the speech's end and object. Here, Aristotle speaks of

a communication process composed of a speaker, a message, and a

listener. Note, he points out that the person at the end of the

communication process holds the key to whether or not

communication takes place.

LASSWELL'S MODEL

Harold Lasswell (1948), in proposing a convenient way to describe

communication, came out with the model which was expressed in

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terms of the basic elements of the communication process.

According to Lasswell, communication occurs when:

• A source sends a message

• Through a medium
• To a receiver
• Producing some effect

Lasswell proposed a verbal model to describe the process through

which communication works. The model requires answer to the

following questions:

• Who?
• Says what
• In which channel
• To whom
• With what effect?

The point in Lasswell's comment is that there must be an "effect" if

communication takes place. If we have communicated, we've

"motivated" or produced an effect. It is also interesting to note that

Lasswell's version of the communication process mentions four parts

— who, what, channel, whom. Three of the four parallel parts

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mentioned by Aristotle — speaker (who), subject (what), person

addressed (whom). Only channel has been added.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Identify and discuss the major difference between Aristotle and

Lasswell’s Model?

3.2 Shannon and Weaver’s Model

Claude Shannon developed this model while trying to know what

happens to “information bits” as they travel from the source to the

receiver in telephone communication. In the process, he isolated the

key elements of the Communication process, but missed out

feedback, which was later added by his colleague, Warren Weaver.

Figure 1: SHANNON AND WEAVER’S MODEL

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The elements include:

a) The Communication: All communications are composed of

chains or systems; and a system or chain is no stronger than its

weakest link.

b) The information and communication source: The entity

(individual, group or organisation) that originates the message.

c) The Message: The information itself, which may be verbal or

non-verbal, visual, auditory, or tactile.

d) The Transmitter: The person, establishment (or equipment)

that encodes and transmits the message on behalf of the source; the

transmitter may be the source.

e) The Channel: The avenue through which the message is

transmitted to the receiver.

f) The Destination: the central nervous system (e.g. the human

brain) where the message is processed for final use.

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g) Noise: This is anything added to the information signal but not

intended by the information source, and therefore causing distortion

in the message.

Shannon and Weaver attempted to do two things:

1) Reduce the communication process to a set of mathematical

formulas and

2) Discuss problems that could be handled with the model.

Shannon and Weaver were not particularly interested in the

sociological or psychological aspects of communication. Instead,

they wanted to devise a communication system with as close to 100

percent efficiency as possible.

The "noise" concept introduced by Shannon and Weaver can be used

to illustrate "semantic noise" that interferes with communication.

You will note that the Shannon and Weaver diagram has essentially

the same parts as the one formulated by Aristotle. It's true the parts

have different names, and a fourth component in this case the

transmitter is included.

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Self Assessment Exercise 2

How complementary is the efforts of Warren Weaver to the initial

efforts of Claude Shannon in their bid to know what happens to

“information bits” as they travel from the source to the receiver in

telephone communication.

3.3 Schramm's Model

This model made a clear case for delayed feedbacks in mass

communication.

Fig. 2 SCHRAMM'S MODEL OF MASS COMMUNICATION

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Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communications theorist, developed

a straightforward communications model. In Schramm's model he

notes, as did Aristotle, that communication always requires three

elements — the source, the message and the destination. Ideally, the

source encodes a message and transmits it to its destination via some

channel, where the message is received and decoded.

However, taking the sociological aspects involved in communication

into consideration, Schramm points out that for understanding to

take place between the source and the destination, they must have

something in common. If the source's and destination's fields of

experience overlap, communication can take place. If there is no

overlap or only a small area in common, communication is difficult,

if not impossible.

Schramm also formulated a model that explains the process involved

in mass communication.

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Fig. 3 SCHRAMM'S MODEL OF MASS

COMMUNICATION 2

The figure above depicts in graphical manner the particular aspects

of the mass communication process. This model is different from

other models of mass communication in that while the original

model has ‘message’, the mass communication model offers ‘many

identical messages.’ Besides, the model specifies ‘feedback’. The

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feedback is represented by a dotted line labelled delayed inferential

feedback. (Baran 2002)

Self Assessment Exercise 3

Schramm’s model of communication posits that communication is

interactive and interpretive. Discuss

3.4 The Hub Model

Hiebert, Ungurait and Bohn designed the model. It shows mass

communication process as circular, dynamic and ongoing. It pictures

communication as a process similar to the series of actions that take

place when one drops a pebble into a pool. The pebble causes a

ripple which expands outward until it reaches the shore and then

bounces backward to the centre. The content of communication {an

idea or event} is like a pebble dropped into the pool of human

affairs. So, many factors affect the message as it ripples out to its

audience and bounces back.

The model pictures communication, codes, gatekeepers, media,

regulators, filters and audiences as concentric circles through which

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 the content {or message} must pass. Feedback is the echo that

bounces back to communication while noise and amplification can

both affect the message and the feedback as they travel these steps in

the process.

Audience

Filters
Regulators
Media
Gatekeepers
Codes

Communication
Contents
Media amplification

Feedback

Fig. 4: HUB model of communication HUB

MODEL

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Self Assessment Exercise 4

Give a detailed explanation of the concentric analogy used in the

HBU model.

1.0 CONCLUSION

Communication models are designed to better explain

communication theories and concepts. Models are communication

tools that illustrate communication behaviour. They range from the

very simple to the very complex. The underlying ideas represented

by these models are not anything new or hard to understand. They

are simply the common-sense realities of communication revealed in

a diagram (Black, Bryant & Thompson 1998:22).

2.0 SUMMARY

This unit has examined some models of communication and

established the fact that these models are used to better understand

the process of communication. Models examined include: Aristotle

model, Lasswell model, Shannon and Weaver’s Model, Schramm

model and the HUB model. The unit equally examined the

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weaknesses and strength of each of the models and attempted to use

them to better explain the process of communication.

3.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Examine the various models discussed in this unit, what are their

weaknesses and strength? Make a case for your favourite model and

give reasons for your choice.

FUNCTIONS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

1.0 Introduction
The functions of mass communication in the society are enormous.

This is evident in the different appellations or names the journalists

are called. Names like watchdog, intellectual peeping toms, fourth

estate of the realm and so on. The Press helps sanitise the society of

all forms of corruption by scrutinising the actions, policies, and

performance of those who govern. The press, in its watchdog

function, is the vital communicating link between the concerned or

anxious citizens who want to assess how those who are running

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things are doing and the evidence that can indicate the quality of

their performance. The press checks the potential for inefficient,

irresponsible, unethical, or even illegal behaviour on the part of

those we trust as leaders. The importance of the press as the eyes and

ears of the public in monitoring governmental activities has never

been greater and its task has never been more difficult.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Mention and explain the roles of mass communication in the

society

• Discuss why the Press is so useful and important in every

society

• Identify the perceived negative roles mass communication play

in the society.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The functions and dysfunctions of mass communication are

discussed in this unit under different subsections (3.1-3.7)

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3.1 Surveillance Function

This is otherwise known as the news function of mass

communication. It involves scouting the environment to bring the

evidence essential for information [news] about major happenings in

the society.

The word ‘surveillance’ connotes a careful monitoring of something

done in secret. The idea behind surveillance is to protect things or

someone under watch from falling below public expectation or going

astray. This surveillance concept is synonymous to the ‘watchdog’

role of the press. As a watchdog, the media monitors societal ills and

exposes them. These ills include corruption in any sector of the

society, politics, education, religion, organisations etc.

By exposing corruption, the journalist is sanitising the society and at

the same time, putting public office holders on public scale which

measurement is done by members of the public. By watchdog role,

the journalist owes the public duty of digging out hidden deeds and

untold/unheard dealings. For instance, it was the press that exposed

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the controversial employment of the wife of Clark of the Sierra

Leone House of Parliament that occurred recently, etc.

The surveillance or watchdog function of the press enables the mass

media to beam their searchlight on the three arms of government,

parastatals and the society at large. The surveillance function is basic

responsibility of the press. Any mass media worth its salt must

constantly live up to its social responsibility role which is done

through the watchdog approach.

Let look at a few examples in Sierra Leone where the press in it

surveillance function involved in exposing corruption incidences in

the country:

The press, in living up to its responsibility as surveillance for

society, kept on beaming searchlight on the activities of the Clark of

the House Parliament he was exposed …………….

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Why is the surveillance function of the press regarded as

fundamental to journalistic practice?

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 3.2 Correlation Function

The correlation function of mass communication is otherwise known

as the opinion or editorial function of the press. This refers to the

process of perspective selection, interpretation and prescription

through which the mass media help their consumers to better

understand the information brought to them.

By the correlation function, the media provide the background social

context and critical analyses necessary for that understanding. The

press also helps to monitor public opinion, for example, through

phone-in radio or television programmes.

The correlation function is best illustrated in columns and editorial

pages of news papers where the columnist may compare statements

made by political office holders with conflicting statements made by

other politicians or personal views on a matter. It may also be

observed in broadcast commentaries and editorials in television

documentaries designed to make viewers aware of an issue or

supportive of a prescribed course of action (Sambe 2005:44).

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Self Assessment Exercise 2

As a trainee journalist, invoke the correlation function of the press to

write an interpretative article on the effects of the redenomination of

the Leone by the BSL. Your article must be suitable for publication

in a National daily newspaper.

3.3 Entertainment Function

One of the most popular functions of mass communication is

entertainment. As a matter of fact, higher percentage of audience

prefers entertainment to information. Those in this category include

students, youths, teenagers, sport lovers, kids (cartoons). Except for

very serious-minded individuals who tune the media for information,

quite a number of people consume media products during their

leisure time, and as such see media as a tool of enjoyment and

entertainment.

By nature, entertainment is meant to ease tension and stress. It is

synonymous to relaxation. Through home videos, film comedies,

sports and cartoons, families can be glued to television for hours

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while catching their fun. Besides, viewers catch their fun through

talk shows, advertisement, live matches, television drama etc. The

newspapers and magazines as well entertain through editorials and

satirical/mocking cartoons.

In the contemporary world, pornographic magazines and newspapers

are on the increase and their targeted audiences who are

predominantly the youths are patronising the print media products.

Of all the available media of mass communication, television as a

broadcast medium is rated to be performing the entertainment

function most; this is because it combines sound with sight. In other

words, because it has audio-visual effect; for instance, a Hollywood

video is better watched on TV screen than listened to on radio or

read on the pages of newspapers or magazines. Television stations

like AYV, Star, SLBC, African Magic, Channel O, are must watch

stations for every audience interested in entertainment and

relaxation. While African Magic strictly broadcast African movies

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and drama on a 24-hour basis, Channel O does nothing better than

round the clock musicals.

The growing interest of the public in sports, especially football has

necessitated an unprecedented increase in sport-biased newspapers

and magazines like Soccer Star, Complete Football, Sports World

etc. Besides specialised newspapers on sports, the back pages of

most national newspapers are dedicated to sports where vivid details

about footballers and their teams are showcased for the entertaining

pleasure of sports fans.

Apart from sport newspapers and magazines, there are other soft-sell

media products that are more often than not, regarded as junk

journalism or yellow journalism. They oftentimes engage in writing

stories not well investigated. They carry ‘rumours’, sometimes

‘falsehood’ and half-truths. Their primary aim is not to inform but to

entertain.

Still on entertainment track, there are other specialised magazines on

specific sector of the society, like education, fashion shows etc. For

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instance, Across the Campus and STUDENTS TONIC magazines

focus on true life stories on campuses. Besides, the magazines

showcase and celebrate uncommon faces on campuses - be it

students, lecturers and administrators.

Magazines like Ovation are doing purely photojournalism. The

magazine gained popularity for the way it captures pictures of people

and events. Ovation no doubt is more for entertainment and

relaxation than information.

Radio as a broadcast medium which lifeblood is sound is equally

doing well in entertaining the public through programmes. For

instance, radio drama, talk-back programmes, quiz, riddles and jokes

and storytelling (especially for children) are designed for relaxation

and entertainment. Radio stations like Mercury Radio, Kalleone,

Skyy, etc., were floated primarily to entertain people through sports.

We need to emphasise the entertainment inherent in what is regarded

as the economic life wire of the broadcast media which is

advertisement. Of a truth, most broadcast media houses cannot

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survive without advertisement. Nowadays, advertisers are spending

heavily in the production of highly entertaining advert copies, most

of them unbelievable. Advertisers in the soft drinks companies, beer

producing companies and other manufacturing and product

marketing companies pass across their commercial messages in a

more entertaining way.

Self Assessment Exercise 3

1. Recollect the number of advert messages you have been

exposed to in the television or radio, recall the way any ten of them

entertain you.

2. Apart from the ones mentioned in this unit, list down ten other

print media products that were floated primarily to entertain.

3.4 Cultural Transmission

This function entails the passing on or the transfer of a nation’s or

society’s social heritage from one generation to another. Sambe

(2005) describes the cultural transmission function as the

preservation of past heritage or culture from one ethnic group to

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another, one nation to another and from generation to generation for

the purpose of promoting and even integrating culture. Okunna

(1994) holds that the mass media disseminate cultural and artistic

products for the purpose of preserving the past heritage of the

people; they also help in the development of culture by awakening

and stimulating the creative and aesthetic abilities in individuals,

thus leading to the production of artefacts.

Mass media transmits culture by the way the programmes

transmitted reflect the behavioural norms and standard practice in the

society. If for instance, the contents of media messages emphasise

morals and religious harmony as an acceptable way of survival in the

society, then those who consume such contents are most likely to

pattern their lives accordingly.

Another way of transmitting local culture is the programme policy of

most broadcast media organisations such that 70% will be for local

content and 30% for foreign content. For instance, in SLBC Radio

promotes and transmits Krio culture mostly.

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This cultural transmission function brings us to examine the

relationship between mass communication and culture.

3.4.1 Mass Communication and Culture

Culture defines our realities, but communication constructs and

maintains our culture. So it is in communication that cultural power

resides. The mass media of communication are therefore very

significant, leading to examination of the interaction between mass

communication and culture.

Various thoughts have been put together on the power of the media

and mass communication. We identify three related dichotomies of

the debate on the power of the media in relation to culture.

1) Micro versus Macro-Level of Effects

The micro thought is that the media have relatively few direct effects

at the personal level. The micro-level view is that the media have

little impact because most people are not directly affected. The

macro idea is that the impact of media operates at the cultural level.

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Media have a great impact because they influence the cultural

climate.

2) Administrative versus Critical Research

Administration research asks questions about the immediate,

observable influence of mass communication, critical research asks

larger question about what kind of nation we are building, what kind

of people we are becoming- would serve our culture better. While

administrative concerns itself with direct causes and effects, critical

research looks at larger, possibly more significant cultural questions.

3) Transmission versus Ritual Perspective

Transmission school of thought sees media as senders of

information. The ritual perspective views media not as a means of

transmitting “message in space” but as a central to “the maintenance

of society in time”. Mass communication is not the act of imparting

information but the representation of shared beliefs.

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 3.4.2 What is Culture?

Culture is the learned behaviour of members of a given social group.

Harris says culture is the learned, socially acquired traditions and

lifestyles of the members of a society, including their patterned,

repetitive ways of thinking, feeling and activity. Geertz says culture

is a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in

symbolic forms by means of which people communicate, perpetuate

and develop their knowledge about life and attitudes toward life. The

definitions given above all agreed one thing that is, ‘culture is

learned’. The learning process is of course communication.

Functions and Effects of Culture

Cultures help us categorise and classify our experiences; helps define

us, our world and place in it. These result in a number of conflicting

effects.

1) Limiting and Liberating Effects of Culture

A culture’s learned traditions and values can be seen as patterned,

repetitive ways of thinking, feeling and acting. Culture limits our

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options and provides useful guidelines for behaviour. For example,

when conversing, you do not consciously consider; “Now how far

away should I stand?” You just stand where you stand. Culture

provides information that helps us make meaningful distinctions

about right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, good and bad,

attractive and unattractive, and so on.

This happens through communication. Through a lifetime of

communication, we have learned just what our culture expects of us.

But culture’s limiting effects can be negative, like when we are

unwilling or unable to move past patterned, repetitive ways of

thinking, feeling and acting, or when we entrust our “learning” to

teachers whose interests are selfish, narrow, or otherwise not

consistent with our own. E.g. US culture values thinner women

(compare with Sierra Leoneans) What about Sierra Leone’s culture

of worshipping ‘money’ and that of corruption?

Culture can be liberating as well, because cultural values can be

contested. Liberation from these limitations imposed by culture

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reside in our ability and willingness to learn and use patterned,

repetitive ways of thinking, feeling, and acting, to challenge existing

patterns; and so, create our own.

2) Defining, Differentiating, Dividing and Uniting Effects of

Culture

We are defined by our culture. As citizens of Sierra Leone, we are

Africans, Sierra Leoneans, Sherbros, Themnes, Limbas, Mendes, etc.

This label will conjure up stereotype and expectations in the minds

of those who use and hear it. Culture is also used to differentiate us

from others. Problems sometime arise when this leads to division.

Culture can divide us, but culture also unites us. Our culture

represents our collective experience.

From the above, we can define culture as follows: “Culture is the

world made meaningful; it is socially constructed and maintained

through communication. It limits as well as liberates us; it

differentiates as well as writes us. It defines our realities and thereby

shapes the way we think, feel and act. (Baran 2004)

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Self Assessment Exercise 4

With your limited knowledge of some broadcast media houses in

Sierra Leone, give a brief assessment of how any three of them

perform the cultural transmission function.

3.5 Status Conferral Delivery

This function holds that the mass media confers/delivers higher

status on individuals in the society through the frequency of

reportage done on the individual. Whenever the press beams their

reportage on an individual, he/she automatically acquires a status of

public figure, and the name of such individual becomes a household

name. For instance, individuals like LAJ, Adebayo, etc., became

household names in Sierra Leone because of the high level of

frequency of reportage given to them by the mass media.

The status conferment concept is coined by Lazarsfield and Merton

who posit/speculate that the more someone is featured in the media,

the more one’s status is raised to prominence. The duo also wrote

that mass media audiences apparently subscribe to a secular belief

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that if you really matter, you will be a focus of mass attention and if

you are a focus of mass attention then you surely must matter.

Apart from individuals who get higher status by virtue of the

prominence given to them by the mass media, media men and

women especially those who appear on screen, the newscasters,

reporters, hosts and hostesses of shows and/or programmes get

themselves into public fame by virtue of their work. People get to

see them every time and then make them their models. Samuel Wise

Bangura, Phebean Swill (AYV), Asmiue Bah, Mohamed King

Millan (SLBC) Mabel Kabba of 98.1 Abdulai Gbla of Gbla TV

online, etc. another prominent name is Abdul Fonti Kabia who was

selected to work with the government of Julius Maada Bio, built on

the fame he made as an editor and a broadcaster; added to that could

be Sylvia Blyden who was appointed minister of government in

Ernest Bai Koroma’s government owing to her contribution during

the 2012 electioneering campaign. Other broadcasters turned

celebrities are role models for others. Besides, actors and actresses in

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home videos are becoming celebrities because of their frequency in

film acting and shows.

It must be pointed out however, that the weight of status conferred

on individuals by the medium is a function of the social status or

rating of such medium of mass communication. In other words, the

higher the rating of mass medium in public eye, the higher the status

conferred on such individual. Someone who was shot into

prominence by the western media, say CNN or BBC will have

higher status than someone with a national or local TV like SLBC or

AYV TV. In the same vein, someone who was brought into fame by

Ebony magazine or Wall Street Journal will assume higher status

than someone who was read in Sierra Eye magazine or Awoko

newspaper.

Self Assessment Exercise 5

Mention ten Sierra Leoneans who were shot into prominence by the

mass media. Give reasons for your cases and note that you are not

permitted to repeat any of the cases already cited in this section.

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 3.6 Enforcement of Norms and Cultural Values

The mass media enforce the basic norms and values of the society

through their reportage of cultural issues and events. It is through the

media that people get to know how cultural festivals are being

celebrated, how people dance and sing in the traditional way. These

cultural products are exhibited through Television (documentary,

news coverage); radio (folklore, storytelling); magazines and

newspapers (pictures, write-up/ features).

This function of the media was underscored by MacBride (1980)

when he said that the media promote the dissemination of cultural

and artistic products for the purpose of preserving the heritage of the

past, as well as the development of culture by widening the

individual’s horizon, awakening his imagination and stimulating his

aesthetic/artistic needs, values and creativity.

Akpan (1987) corroborates the enforcement of cultural values

function of the media when he states that the transaction of social

heritage from one generation to the next involves shaping of values,

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notions, traditions, customs etc and passing them on from

generations to generations. Also adding his weight is Emenyeonu

(1992) when he supports the notion that through their coverage, the

mass media help to promote heterogeneous/various cultural groups,

thereby correcting any misconceptions and building a sense of pride

in the citizens.

Succinctly/briefly, the mass media help a great deal to interpret,

define, analyse issues that border on people’s cultures (both past and

present). The media through entertaining and educating programmes

set agenda for the public with regards to which cultural values they

should accept or reject. They can also make citizens appreciate their

indigenous values, norms, and cultural practices and embrace them.

The norms of a society are almost always higher than the personal

practices of the individuals within the society. For instance, most

times we publicly condemn what we privately condone, (like

abortion).

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Public officers are less likely to succumb to temptation when they

know that contemplated trespasses might be discovered by the mass

media. Corporations become concerned about the ethics of their

business practice when they know that these practices will be

observed by their stakeholders, regulatory agencies and the general

public. Contributors towards charity tend to be more generous when

they know that the amount of their contributions will be published,

and that peer approval or disapproval will follow.

Self Assessment Exercise 6

How would you assess the cultural content of programmes

disseminated by SLBC? Would you advocate a ban in the

dissemination of foreign programmes? Give two reasons for your

answer.

3.7 Negative Functions of Mass Communication

Although this unit focuses more on the positive functions of mass

communication, meaning that mass communication performs more

positive functions than negative ones, however attempt must be

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made to highlight the negative role mass communication plays in the

society.

Two negative roles of mass communication in the society are the

propagation of violence and pornography. Researchers have proved

that these two have caused negative behavioural tendencies and

institute false values in the minds of the people especially minors.

More often than not, children who are exposed, to violent act in

films and on television tend to act violently in their day-to-day

affairs. In Sierra Leone, the exposure of school children to

Superman/Spiderman films, some Nigerian films and other related

violent media products have made children behave violently. In

schools, children take on their fellow students in fight similar to

what they have watched in Bruce Lee and Hulk Hogan’s on

television.

Apart from violence, the mass media are used to expose people to

illicit sex. Through blue films or adult films, the mass media corrupt

the moral sanctity/holiness of the youths by increasing their desire to

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have sex even at a tender age. What is more worrisome is the

growing number of websites devoted to sexual activities where

people could watch sex films and pornographic pictures at a near

zero cost. These websites recorded highest hit recently as school

children beseech cyber café to access their sites.

Other dysfunctions of the mass media are: cultural imperialism, and

invasion of individual privacy.

Self Assessment Exercise 7

Write a two-page article to access the functions of mass

communication, show in your write -up whether the negative

functions outweigh the positive ones or vice versa.

4.0 Conclusion
It is appropriate to conclude that the surveillance function of mass

communication is very vital and fundamental to the survival of every

society of man. It is regarded as the most crucial among other

functions of mass communication. Every journalist worth his salt

must strive at all times to survey his society with a view to

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uncovering the ills and corruption in the society. One has to point out

that many other functions of mass communication are closely related

to each other, in that, one cannot be discussed in isolation of others.

5.0 Summary
We have been able to underscore the importance of the functions of

the press in any society. We also pointed out that every journalist

must be able to perform these roles adequately without any fear or

favour because by virtue of the oath of objectivity they swore to as

journalists; they owe the society the reportage needed to uncover the

ills in the society with a view to righting the wrongs.

The media provides essential information (news) on development

projects, political activities, sports, judicial reports, violence,

instability etc. The media provides warnings on dangers and threat to

national stability, on war, rebellion, natural disasters, with

suggestions on how to avert such occurrences.

The unit reiterated that, through its functions, the media also bring

human interest stories, drawing people’s attention to the

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oddities/strangeness and fun of human condition. Besides, the press

owes the public the duty of interpreting issues being reported so that

the readers can better understand the information brought to them.

We need to recap that the functions of mass communication which

are surveillance; correlation; entertainment; culture transmission;

status conferral and enforcement of norms and values must be

constantly performed by the mass media for the betterment of the

society.

6.0 Assignment
Write a two-page essay on the role of media in sustainable

democracy.

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BELOW ARE POSSIBLE EXAMINIATION QUESTIONS

1. a. In your own words and according to your understanding,

define communication.
b. Communication is a common phenomenon that cuts across the
daily activities of human beings. Discuss
2. Communication performs diverse kinds of functions. List
down the five functions you studied and elucidate on any two of the
five functions listed.
3. a. What is Mass Communication?
b. Distinguish between mass communication and other forms
of communication.
4. Mass Communication is distinguished from other kinds of
communication by a number of features; at least five of such features
were discussed. Name the features and write on any two.
5. Clearly analyse the inherent nature of mass communication as
a unique feature different from other forms of communication.
6. Some scholars tend to misunderstand between the
characteristics and features of mass communication, as a
distinguished Mass Communication Student of the FAME discuss
briefly any three of the mass communication characteristics listed
below:

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 a. Impersonality (b) Portability and mobility (c)

Transportability/proximity (d) Fidelity

(e) Permanency (f) Cost (g) Universality

7. The mass media enforce the basic norms and values. Discuss

8. List down the various Functions and Effects of Culture in Mass

Communication and elaborate on any two.

9. Besides journalism as a placement for a mass communication

professional, what other employment positions can they possibly fit-

in?

10. As a trainee journalist, invoke the correlation function of the

press to write an interpretative article on the effects of the

redenomination of the Leone by the BSL. Your article must be

suitable for publication in a National daily newspaper.

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