1.1.Des Describe how does the heart obtain its nutrients and oxygen?
The heart obtains its nutrient and oxygen through blood vessel that surround the heart. These
blood vessels will supply the blood that contain nutrients and oxygen to heart. The blood
vessels include right coronary artery (in right ventricular groove), anterior cardiac vein,
marginal artery, small cardiac vein, cirumflex artery,left coronary artery(in left
atrioventricular groove), great cardiac vein and anterior interventricular artery (in anterior
interventricular sulcus)
- The right coronary artery mainly supplies the muscle of the right ventricle.
- The left coronary artery quickly splits into two and supplies the rest of the heart
muscle.
- The main coronary arteries divide into many smaller branches to supply all the heart
muscle.
2. State TWO (2) determinants of blood pressure.
a) Cardiac output (heart rate and stroke volume)
b) Total peripheral resistance
3. Describe electrical conduction system in the heart
- SA node polarize and electrical activity goes rapidly to A node.
- Depolarization spreads slowly across atria. Conduction slows through AV node.
- Depolarization moves rapidly through ventricular conducting system or Bundle of His
to the apex of the heart.
- Depolarization wave spread upwards from the apex through Purkinje fibers
4. The rising phase of action potential in contractile myocardium is due to - ion and _Na+_ion
entry, respectively.
Calcium, sodium
5. Describe how our body restored its normal blood pressure when there is an increase in blood
pressure?
- Baroreceptors in carotid sinuses and aortic arch stimulated.
- Inhibit vasomotor center.
- Reduce sympathetic impulse therefore reduce heartrate and contractility
- Increase vessel diameter.
- Reduce cardiac output and resistance therefore reduce blood pressure to its normal
range.
6. How to ensure unidirectional blood flow?
To ensure unidirectional blood flow, the heart has the valves which are mitral valve (Left
AV valve), aortic valve, tricuspid valve (Right AV valve) and pulmonary valve. Mitral valve
nad tricuspid valve prevent the backflow of the blood to left atrium and right atrium
respectively while aortic valve and pulmonary valve prevent the backflow of the heart to left
ventricle and right ventricle respectively.
7. How to minimise friction in the heart?
To minimize friction in the heart, the heart is encased with pericardium which is the
membranous fluid-filled sac. Pericadium consist of fibrous pericardium, pericardial space
and serous pericardium (parietal layer, visceral layer and myocardium).
8. How does the heart contract (cellular & molecular)?
Action potential in cardiac contractile cell will travel down T-tubules. This causes the entry
of small amount of Ca2+ from extracellular fluid (ECF) through L-type Ca2+ channels. The
entry of this small amount of Ca2+ will trigger release of large amount of Ca2+ from
sarcoplasmic reticulum through ryonidine Ca2+ reease channels. These will increase
cystolic Ca2+. Ca2+ will bind at troponin causes troponin to change and shape and
troponin-tropomyosin complex in thin filament to pulled aside. This expose actin (myosin
binding site) to myosin head in thick filament. The binding of actin and myosin will from
cross bridge between thin filament and thick filament. This will leads to thin filament slide
inward between thick filament and cause contraction. The heart will contract.
9.
9. 1) A to B (d)Passive filling and atrial contraction.
B to C (b) isovolumetric contraction
C to D (a) ejection of blood to aorta
D to A (c) isovolumetric relaxation
9 2) A (b), B (d), C (a), D (c)
Describe homeostasis of blood pressure.
Increase or decrease in blood pressure below or above normal will disturb the homoestasis
level in the body. Increase in blood pressure will cause arterial blood pressure to rises above
normal range. Rises of arterial blood pressure above normal range stimulate the carotid sinus
and aortic baroreceptor. Then, carotid sinus and aortic baroreceptor will send impulses that
will stimulate cardio inhibitory centre and inhibit cardio-acceleratory centre as well as
inhibit vasomotor centre in the brain. Stimulation cardio inhibitory center and inhibition of
10. cardio-acceleratory centre in the brain will causes reduce in sympathetic impulses to heart
and thus reduce heart rate and contractility that lead to reduce in cardiac output. The
inhibition of vasomotor centre in the brain will cause reduce in rate of vasomotor impulses
that allow vasodilation which increase vessel diameter and thus reduce peripheral resistance.
Decrease in peripheral resistance and cardiac output will lower the blood pressure to normal
level and restore the homoestasis balance back to normal. Decrease in blood pressure this
will cause arterial blood pressure to drop below normal range. Drops of arterial blood
pressure below normal range stimulate the carotid sinus and aortic baroreceptor. Then,
carotid sinus and aortic baroreceptor will send impulses that will inhibit cardio inhibitory
centre and stimulate cardio-acceleratory centre as well as stimulate vasomotor centre in the
brain. Inhibition of cardio inhibitory center and stimulation of cardio-acceleratory centre in
the brain will causes increase in sympathetic impulses to heart and thus increase heart rate
and contractility that lead to increase in cardiac output. The stimulation of vasomotor centre
in the brain will cause increase in rate of vasomotor impulses that allow vasodilation which
reduce the vessel diameter and thus increase peripheral resistance. Increasein peripheral
resistance and cardiac output will increase the blood pressure to normal level and restore the
homoestasis balance back to normal.
11. Describe ion movements and state of ions channels in the action potentials of autorhythmic
and cardiac cells.
Autorythmic cell Cardiac cell
Action potential Phase
Depolarization Ca2+ channel opens and If Voltage –gated Na+
channel closes. Ca2+ enter channels open. Na= enter
the cell. the cells.
Repolarization Ca2+ channel close and K+ Initial Repolarization:Na+
channels open. Ca2+ cannot channel closes and K+
enter the cells and K+ move channels open causing Na+
out from cell. That why the cannot enter the cells and
membrane potential drop K+ move out from cell.
until hyperpolarization
occur. Plateau: Ca2+ channel
opens and K+ channel close
causes Ca2+ enter the cells
and K+ do not move out
from cell. This lead to
plateau in membrane
potential.
Rapid Repolazation Ca2+ channel close and K+
channels open. Ca2+ cannot
enter the cells and K+ move
out from cell.
12. Describe how heart rate can be reduced and increased.
Heart rate can increased be sympathetic nerve stimulation. Sympathetic nerve stimulation
will stimulate B1 receptor and causes influx of Ca2+ and Na+ into autorythmic cells. This
will lead to increase in depolarization and thus increase heart rate. Heart rate can be reduced
by parasympathetic nerve stimulation. Stimulation of paraysmthetic nerve will stimulate
muscuranic receptor. Thus will cause efflux of K+ into autorythmic cell and causes
hyperpolarization. This will reduce rate of depolarization and lead to reduce in heart rate.
13. By using this figure, explain how conduction system is physically represented as an ECG.
P wave indicate atrial depolarization, P-R segment indicate conduction of impulse to AV
node and AV bundle. QRS complex indicate ventricular depolarization and T wave indicate
ventricular repolarization.
14. How ECG can be used to detect problems in the conduction system
Problems in conduction system include second degree heart block, atrial fibrillation and
ventricular fibrillation. In second degree heart block, conduction of atrial impulse through
the AV node and/or His bundle is delayed or blocked. The patient ECG will have many P
waves. In atrial fibrillation, the P complex can only be seen as coarse wave because the
action potentials fire very rapidly in a chaotic manner. In ventricular fibrillation, the will be
absent in P, QRS or T wave because coordinated contraction of the ventricular myocardium
is replaced by high-frequency, disorganized excitation, resulting in failure of the heart to
pump blood.
15 Label the following parts in the diagram and state their functions
Aorta
Superior vena cava Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary Vein
Pulmonary Valve
Left Atrium
Pulmonary Vein
Mitral Valve/Left AV Valve
Right Atrium Aortic Valve
Tricuspid Valve/ Chlordae Tendinae
Right AV Valve Papillary Muscle
Right Ventricle Left Ventricle
Inferior Vena Cava Interventricular
Apex
