APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Department of Robotics and Artificial

Intelligence

Applied Physics
Laboratory Manual

For

Course code: CSCL1107

Name of Student:

Reg. No.:
Section:
Semester:_

1
 Lab Rules
1. Students must thoroughly read the assigned work. It will be assumed that they have studied
the assigned work and have understood the majority of the material and technical terms
before the start of the experiments.
2. All the original data have to be recorded in a Report sheet during the laboratory sessions.
Data recording on rough sheets of papers are not allowed. In order to check for the originality
of the data, ball pen or inerasable pen should be used. If correction has to be made, just cross
it out. They must hand over the Report sheet to the demonstrator for their signature after data
count.
3. For safety reasons, students are requested not to leave their equipment unattended during the
lab session. In case of special circumstances, please seek the support of the class
teachers/demonstrators
4. All practical contribute to the final results of the sessional course. Thus any absent laboratory
session automatically means loss of marks for the final grade. Under special circumstances
(supported by documentary proof), e.g. illness and other reasonable causes, laboratory
session may be re-scheduled upon approval of the head of the department.
5. During the class, students will be continuously assessed by performance test on each
experiment.
6. To ensure your fellow students can proceed with their experiments in a degree of comfort and
without undue noise and other disturbances, keep the noise level down and stay in your own
laboratory bench area. Mobile phones should be switched off during the experiments.
7. Eating/drinking is strictly prohibited in the lab. Keep your mobile phones silent to
maintain the learning environment of the lab.
8. Please fill your name, registration number, class and section to avoid misplacing of the lab
manuals.
9. Index should be filled after every experiment in terms of date performed. Students will be
marked on the index after completion of the experiment on the same day.
10. Students have to submit a one page report after every experiment which should include their
name, registration no., title of experiment, what have you learnt from the experiment,
calculations graphs and any additional details as instructed. Reports need to be submitted in
the next class for previous experiment.

Calculations:
Relevant formulae should be stated, i.e. only those used to calculate experimental results.
Great care should be exercised in performing simple arithmetic operations and the calculation
should be thoroughly checked.

Result Discussion:
Students should write discussion on the overall accuracy of your results and on any
systematic errors in the experiment or agreement/discrepancy with expected values.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT: CSCL 1201 Physics Lab

Marks Evaluation Sheet
Date
Sr Date Examin
. Topi Perform
Grad Chec
er
cs e ke d
N ed Initial’
o. s
1 Introduction to
measuring instruments
(Week # 1 – 2)
2 Validation of Screw
Gauge (Week # 3)
3 Working of a simple
pendulum (Week # 4)
4 Observation of Hooke’s Law
(Week # 5 , 6- 7)
WEEK # 8 : MIDTERM LAB
PERFORMANCE
5 Projectile Motion
(Week # 8-9-10)

6 Verification of KCL and KVL

(Week # 11)

7 Ohm’s Law & Series and

Parallel Circuits
(Week # 12-13)
8 Energy Conservation by
Maxwell’s Wheel
9 Logic Gates (AND, OR and NOT)
(Week # 14-15)

WEEK # 16 : FINAL LAB PERFORMANCE

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT: CSCL 1201 Physics Lab

Index of Experiments

N Topics Objectiv Page

o. es #
● To learn how to use Vernier caliper and its 1-6
components.

Introduction ● To determine the length and depth of a

to measuring given object using Vernier caliper.
instruments ● To determine the internal and
1
● Verni external diameters using Vernier caliper.
er ● To learn how to use micrometer screw
Calip
gauge and its components.
er
● To determine the length and thickness of a
● Screw
given object using screw gauge.
Gauge
● To determine the volume of sphere using
micrometer screw gauge.
● To observe behavior of a tension spring 7-09
under loading conditions.
2 Hooke’s Law ● To verify the validity of Hooke’s Law and
elastic region of a material.
● To find the spring constant (K) from graph
of force vs displacement.
● To determine time period of a 10-13

3 Simple simple pendulum for different lengths.

Pendulu ● To find out value of gravity on earth using
m
simple pendulum.
● To discuss the result of the experiment.

● KCL. 13-18

Verification of ● KVL.
4 KCL and KVL
● Mesh analysis.

● Nodal analysis.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

The moment of inertia of the Maxwell disk is 26-30

determined. Using the Maxwell disk, following
Energy are determined as a function of time:
5 Conservation ● The potential energy.
by Maxwell’s
Wheel
● The energy of translation.

● The energy of rotation.

Ohm’s Law & 31-54
● To verify Ohm’s law (V=IR) where current
Series and
Parallel Circuits through a resistor is proportional to the
voltage across it.
● To verify that in a series circuit;
a. The total resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistors.
b. The voltage drops across the
6 resistors equals to the applied
voltage.
c. The value of the current is the same
in all parts of the circuit.
● To verify that in parallel circuits;
a. The equivalent resistance is the
reciprocal of the sum of reciprocals
of the individual resistors.
b. The branch current in parallel equal
to the supply current.
c. The voltage drop across each
resistor in parallel is the same.
d. To verify by measurement and
calculation for two different
networks:
Logic Gates ● Introduction to basic logic gates. 31-54
(AND, OR ● Understand the concept of AND, OR and
and NOT) NOT gates.
7 ● Understand the concept of truth table,
logic diagrams and logic expressions.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 1: Vernier Caliper

Objectives:
a) To learn how to use Vernier caliper and its components.
b) To determine the length and depth of a given object using Vernier caliper.
c) To determine the internal and external diameters using Vernier caliper.
Experiment Requirements:
1. A Vernier caliper with no zero error.
2. A cube of any size having different holes in it.
3. A solid or a hollow cylinder of suitable length.
About the instrument:
The Vernier scale is an experimental tool which assists in the accurate reading of the
fractional part of a scale division. The Vernier caliper consists of two scales: one is the fixed
main scale of the instrument, and the other (called the Vernier scale) is arranged to slide
along the fixed scale & it is calibrated on L Shaped frame, which carries a fixed jaw. When
the two measuring jaws are in contact with each other, the scale should show zero reading.
An adjustable screw is provided for fine adjustment of movable jaw. Also, a lock nut is
provided to lock the sliding scale on main scale.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1. Setup and Procedure:

● Clean the work piece and instruments.

● Check the Vernier caliper for errors like loose sliding jaws and zero error if any.

● If any zero error is present, correct it or change the instrument in case of loose jaws.

● Calculate the least count of the instrument.

● Hold the work piece in the measuring jaws / anvils. Use grip to slide the jaws.

● Note down the readings on main scale and Vernier scale.

● Take the measurements for at least 3 components by Vernier caliper at different points.

● Calculate the total reading of Vernier caliper.

● Complete the observation table.

2. Precautions and safety:

● Always adjust the instruments for zero reading error.

● Do not apply undue pressure.

● Parallax or reading error must be avoided.

● Contact of an object should be made properly with sliding jaw and the main scale.

3. Calculation of Least count and volume of cylinder:

Number of Divisions on
𝑳. 𝑪. = VernierScale
Show calculation:
Smallest Division on Main
Scale

Volume of a cube:
𝑽 = 𝑳𝒙𝑩𝒙𝑯
Volume of a solid cylinder:
V=πh(R^2−r^2)
V=πr^2h
Volume of a hollow
cylinder:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Observation Table:
i. Determine volume of a cube by measuring all three sides known as length,
width and breadth. Also find the depth of the hole if any.
S.No Reading on Main Reading on Vernier Total Reading =
Scale Scale
MSR + (LC*VSR)
(cm) (divisions)
1 (L)
2 (W)
3 (B)
4 (D)

V=

ii. Determine volume of a solid cylinder by measuring its external diameter and length:
S.No Reading on Main Reading on Vernier Total Reading =
Scale Scale
MSR + (LC*VSR)
(cm) (divisions)
1 (Do)
2 (L)

V=

iii. Determine volume of a hollow cylinder by measuring its internal, external

diameter and length:
S.No Reading on Main Reading on Vernier Total Reading =
Scale Scale
MSR + (LC*VSR)
(cm) (divisions)
1 (Do)
2 (Di)
3 (L)

V=
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 2: Screw Gauge

Objectives:
d) To learn how to use micrometer screw gauge and its components.
e) To determine the length and thickness of a given object using screw gauge.
f) To determine the volume of sphere using micrometer screw gauge.
Experiment Requirements:
4. A micrometer screw gauge.
5. A bolt of appropriate length, a thin plate or a wire.
6. A solid sphere or ball.
About the instrument:
Micrometer is also the precise instrument to measure the circumference or thickness of an
object. It consists of a screw having 10 or 20 threads per cm and revolves in a fixed nut. The
end of the screw forms one measuring anvil and a fixed anvil is in the frame. The spindle can
be advanced or retracted by rotating the thimble. Barrel is a fixed part attached with the
frame. The spindle is slide fit in the barrel. Generally, the pitch of screw thread is 0.5 mm &
the thimble has 50equal divisions on the circumference. Ratchet is provided at the end of
thimble to apply sufficient and uniform measuring pressure.
Pitch and Least count: The pitch is the measure of linear distance moved by one complete
revolution of the spindle while least count is the minimum value that an instrument can
measure.
4. Setup and Procedure:
 ● Clean the work piece and the instrument.

● Check the micrometer for errors like play in the jaw, zero error if any.

● If any zero error is present, correct it or change the instrument in case of loose spindle.

● Calculate the least count of the instrument.

● Hold the work piece in the measuring anvils and use ratchet to grip the object.

● Note down the readings on main scale and thimble/circular scale.

● Take the measurements for at least 3 components by micrometer.

● Calculate the total reading of micrometer.

● Complete the observation table.

5. Precautions and safety:

● Always adjust the instruments for zero reading error.

● Do not apply undue pressure.

● Parallax or reading error must be avoided.

● Contact of an object should be made properly with anvil and the spindle.

6. Zero Error:

7. Calculation of pitch and least count (Show calculation):

𝒃𝒚 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅

Pitch:

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑳. 𝑪. =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏
𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

L.C.:

Observation Table:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Zero Error (x): divisions. (In case of negative zero error, include –ve sign).
Least count (L.C.): mm.
iv. Determine length and thickness of a given object by using screw gauge.

Pitch Circular Zero Correct Total

S.N Scale Scale Error ed Reading = T=
o Reading Reading (n) correctio Readin
(A) n g A + (LC*N)
(divisions)
(m (x) N= n – x (mm)
m)
1
(L)
2
(T)

v. Determine the cross-sectional area of the given wire by at least taken 3 readings:

Mean Area = (𝝅𝒓𝟐).

vi. Determine mean volume of a given sphere by using screw gauge:

𝟒
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 = (𝝅𝒓𝟑)

𝟑
Mean Volume =
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 3: Hooke’s Law

Objectives:
g) To observe behavior of a tension spring under loading conditions.
h) To verify the validity of Hooke’s Law and elastic region of a material.
i) To find the spring constant (K) from graph of force vs displacement.
Experiment Requirements:
7. Hooke’s Law apparatus with measuring scale.
8. Tension spring of different stiffness’s.
9. Slotted weights with hanger.
About the experiment:
The purpose of this lab is to determine the spring constant of a given spring. This spring
constant is given by the relation between the force exerted on the spring and the distance the
spring is either stretched or compressed. This relationship is given through Hooke’s law
which we are going to get a better understanding of throughout this lab. The principle we use
throughout this lab is Hooke’s law. Hooke’s law is stated by F= -kx. This means that the
force exerted on a spring is inversely related to the product of the spring constant and the
displacement in meters. This occurs because a spring is a conservative force, a spring when
stretched or compressed stores energy so that it may return to its state of equilibrium once it
is released from the position it is being held at.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

8. Setup and Procedure:

● Setup the Hooke’s law apparatus on a plane surface which is parallel to the ground.

● Hang the given spring in to the upper blade of the apparatus and adjust the blade so
that the end of the spring is located at the zero position.
● In case of end point of spring is beyond zero position, set the current position at initial
position and hang the weight hanger to the spring.
● Before adding any weight, make sure the hanger is at initial position (as noted before).

● Start adding weights one by one and note down the corresponding position of the
spring after every weight is added.
● Complete the observation table and repeat the experiment with different springs.

9. Theory:
One of the properties of elasticity is that it takes about twice as much force to stretch a spring
twice as far. The linear dependence of displacement upon stretching force is called Hooke’s
Law. Hooke’s Law states that the force exerted by a spring (an elastic material) is
proportional to the distance the spring stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.
F𝖺x
where F is the applied force (e.g. weight of hanging object from a vertical spring) x is
the extension (or compression) of the spring
If too large a force is exerted on a spring, the spring may be damaged. When this occurs, the
extension x increases to very large values, not according to Hooke’s Law. When the force is
removed, the spring does not return to its original length. We say that the elastic limit is
exceeded. So Hooke’s Law applies only if the elastic limit is not exceeded i.e. called elastic
region.
Figure 1: Measurement of spring constant “K”
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Observation Table:
Initial Position: m.
S.No Applied Distance Spring Constant
Load covered (K)

F (N) X (m) K=-F/x

1
2
3
4
5
6

Plot the graph between applied force (F) vs distance covered (x) and find the slope
to determine the spring constant “K”.

Fo
rc
e
A
pp
lie
d
(N

Distance covered (m)

Discuss the result:

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 4: Time period of a

Simple Pendulum

Objectives:
j) To determine time period of a simple pendulum for different lengths.
k) To find out value of gravity on earth using simple pendulum.
l) To discuss the result of the experiment.
Experiment Requirements:
10. A bob of any material with string attached to it.
11. A stopwatch.
12. Measuring scale.
About the experiment:
Simple harmonic motion is not restricted to masses on springs. In fact, it is one of the most
common and important types of motion found in nature. From the vibrations of atoms to the
vibrations of airplane swings, simple harmonic motion plays an important role in many
physical phenomena. A swinging pendulum, for example, exhibits behavior very similar to
that of a mass on a spring. By making some comparisons between these two phenomena,
some predictions can be made about the period of oscillations for a pendulum.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

10. Setup and Procedure:

● Setup the equipment as instructed.

● Take any suitable length of thread/string and tie it to the mass hanger.

● Measure the length of the cord and write down in observation table.

● Oscillate the pendulum parallel to the line of motion. Do not tilt it.

● Start the timer with oscillation and note down the time taken for specific oscillations.

● Repeat the experiment by changing the length of the string.

● Use different types of pendulum to determine the change in parameters.

11. Theory:
Figure 1 shows a pendulum with the string and mass at an angle 𝜃 from the vertical position.
Two forces act on the mass; the force of the string and the force of gravity. The gravitational
force, F = mg, can be resolved into two components; Fx and Fy. F just balances the force of
the string and therefore does not accelerate the mass. Fx is in the direction of motion of the
mass, and therefore does accelerate and decelerate the mass.

Figure 1: Forces acting on simple pendulum

Using the two congruent triangles in the diagram, it can be seen that Fx = mgsin 𝜽, and that
the displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position is an arc whose distance, x is
approximately L tan 𝜽. If the angle 𝜃 is reasonably small, then it is very nearly true that sin 𝜃
= tan 𝜃. Therefore, for small swings of the pendulum, it is approximately true that F = mgtan
𝜃 = mgx/L. (Since Fx is a restoring force, the equation could be stated more accurately as Fx=
-mgx/L.) Comparing this equation with the equation fora mass on a spring (F = -kx), it can be
seen that the quantity mg/L plays the same mathematical role as the spring constant.
On the basis of this similarity, you might speculate that the period of motion for a pendulum
is just:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

equation (1) T = 2π √(L / g)

where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and L is distance from the pivot
point to the center of mass of the hanging mass. In this experiment, you will test the validity
of this equation.
Observation Table:
vii. Determine time period of a simple pendulum and compare with theoretical value.
S.N Length No. of Measured time Average Calculate
o of oscillatio for one time d Time
string ns oscillation period period
L (m) N t (sec) T=t/N (eq. 1)
(#)
1
2
3
4

viii. Modify the equation 1 and determine the value of gravity using the above method.
S.N Length No. of Measured time Average Value
o of oscillatio for one time of
string ns oscillation period Gravi
ty
L (m) N t (sec) T=t/N
(#) (eq. 2)
1
2
3
4

Derive eq.2 by modifying eq.1 for finding the value of gravity:

Does changing the mass of the pendulum make any different to the time period?
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 5: Projectile Motion

Objectives:
m) To determine the range as a function of the angle of inclination.
n) To determine the maximum height of projection as a function of the angle of inclination.
o) To determine the (maximum) range as a function of the initial velocity
Experiment Requirements:

Item # Descripti Qt
on y.
11229- Ballistic unit 1
10
11221- Recording paper, 1 roll, 25 m 1
01
02502- Steel ball, d = 19 mm 2
01
02076- Two-tier platform support 1
03
03001- Meter scale, demo, l = 1000 mm 1
00
02006- Barrel base 1
10
11229- Speed measuring attachment 1
30
 13900- Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A 1
99
12. Setup and Procedure:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

● Make sure the ballistic unit is adjust so that it the parallel to the ground. Use sprit
level to confirm the level.
● Set the scale to 90° and fire the ball upwards with the highest velocity i.e. 3rd notch
setting and catch the ball in the hand.
● Adjust the support base using adjusting screws until vertical projection is obtained.

● Note down the initial velocity of the ball at all three tension stages of firing spring

using the attached speed measuring device.

● The initial velocity can also be verified using mathematical expression i.e. 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉
where h is the maximum height obtained. It may vary from unit to unit.
● Set the 2-tier platform support (02076-01) for determining the range and mark the
points of impact on the recording strip that is pasted on the bench with adhesive tape.
● It is best to measure the long ranges before the short ones (secondary impact points!)
and to mark the primary impact points with a pen.
● The distance from the ballistic unit is frequently checked with the meter scale during
the test.
● To measure the height of projection the meter scale is clamped in the barrel base and
moved parallel to the plane of projection and height can be observed by sight.

13. Principle of working:

A steel ball is fired by a spring at different velocities and at different angles to the horizontal.
The relationships between the range, the height of projection, the angle of inclination, and the
firing velocity are determined.
14. Theory of Projectile Motion:
If a body of mass m moves in a constant gravitational field (gravitational force m⃗ g), the
motion lies in a plane (as shown in Figure 1).

Figure 1: Movement of a mass point under the effect of gravitational force.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

The maximum range s is reach at an inclination angle of 45° for every initial velocity. Fig. 4
shows the range s for an angle of 45° plotted against different initial velocities v0. By
choosing a logarithmic scale, a regression line can be applied to the measured data and used
to determine the maximum range for arbitrary initial velocities.
Note: To ensure an accurate determination of the initial velocity, the time taken for the ball
to cover the measuring distance must be taken into account. Depending on the angle of
inclination, the ball already leaves the light barrier with a reduced velocity. If v exp is the
experimentally determined initial velocity we obtain as actual initial velocity.

𝒗𝒐 = √𝒗𝒆𝒙𝒑𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋

where d is the distance between the striker and the centre between the light barriers.
Observation Table (Part A): To determine the (maximum) range as a function of the
initial velocity. Plot a graph of initial velocity vs maximum range for the angle of
inclination of 45°.
Angle of Inclination Initial Velocity (m/s) Maximum Range (m)
(α)
45°
45°
45°
Observation Table (Part B): To determine the range as a function of the angle of
inclination. Plot a graph of angle of inclination vs range for all three initial velocity.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

i. At initial velocity v1:

Angle Initial Calculat Observ Error %
of Velocit ed ed
Inclinati y (m/s) Range Range
on (m) (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

ii. At initial velocity v2:

iii. At initial velocity v3:

Angle Initial Calculat Observ Error %
of Velocit ed ed
Inclinati y (m/s) Range Range
on (m) (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Observation Table (Part C): To determine the maximum height of projection as a function
of the angle of inclination. Plot a graph of angle of inclination vs height for all three initial
velocity.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

i. At initial velocity v1:

Angle Initial Calculat Observ Error %
of Velocit ed ed
Inclinati y (m/s) Height Height
on (m) (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
ii. At initial velocity v2:

iii. At initial velocity v3:

Angle Initial Calculat Observe Error %
of Velocit ed d Height
Inclinati y (m/s) Height (m)
on (m)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
 0
7
0
8
0
9
0
Expected Graphs/Results for all parts:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Fig. 4: Maximum range s as a function of the initial velocity ν0 with a fixed angle of inclination
Φ = 45°. (Part A)

Fig. 2: Maximum range s as a function of

Fig. 3: Maximum height of projection
the angle of inclination Φ for different
h as a function of the angle of
initial velocities. (Part B)
inclination Φ for the initial velocities.
(Part C)

Conclusion: It is observed during the experiment that the range of projectile motion is not
dependent on the mass or size of an object. The same experiment can be verified using
different types of balls with different sizes and materials.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 06: Mechanical

Energy Conservation / Maxwell’s
Wheel

Objectives:
The moment of inertia of the Maxwell disk is determined. Using the Maxwell disk, following
are determined as a function of time:
a) The potential energy.
b) The energy of translation.
c) The energy of rotation.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment Requirements:
Item Description Qt Item Descripti Qt
# y. # on y.
02007- Support base DEMO 1 11207- Light barrier with counter 1
55 30
Support rod, stainless steel,
02034- 3 07363- Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm, 1
l = 1000 mm, d = 12 mm
00 04 blue
Support rod, stainless steel, Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A
02059- 1 11076- 1
l = 370 mm, d = 10 mm with 4 mm plugs
00 99
02040- Right angle clamp PHYWE 6 02062- Plate holder 1
55 00
03001- Meter scale, l = 1000mm 1 07542- Adapter, BNC-plug/socket 4 mm 1
00 26
02201- Cursors, 1 pair 1 39105- Capacitor 100 nF/250 V, G1 1
00 18
02425- Maxwell wheel 1 02417- Holding device w. cable release 1
00 04
Connecting cord,
07363- 1 07363- Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm, 1
32 A, 1000 mm, red
01 04 blue

15. Setup and Procedure:

● The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Using the adjusting screws on
the support rod, the axis of the Maxwell disk, in the unwound condition, is aligned
horizontally. When winding up, the windings must run inwards.
● The winding density should be approximately equal on both sides. It is essential to
watch the first up and down movements of the disk, because incorrect winding
(outwards, crossed over) will cause the “gyroscope” to break free.
● The release switch, controlling the pin to be placed in a hole of the disk, is used to
release the disk mechanically and to start the counter when determining distance and
time.
● The release switch could be adjusted in way that the disk does not oscillate or roll
after the start. Furthermore, the cord should always be wound in the same direction
for starting

A. Measurement of the time t

● It is required by the wheel from the start “s” to reach the light barrier.

● Connect the release switch to light barrier as it is shown in Fig. 2.

● Press the wire release and lock the position.

● Set the selection key of the light barrier to

● Press the “Set” button of the light barrier.

● Loosening the wire release stopper sets the wheel into motion and the counter of the
 light barrier starts.
● After the wheel has passed the needle of the holder, the wire release is pressed
again and locked before the light barrier is interrupted.
● The counter stops as soon as the axis of rotation enters the path of light of the light barrier.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

B. Measurement of ∆𝒕
● It is used to determine the translational velocity v.

● Disconnect “Trigger In” signal from light barrier.

● Fix the wheel in the start position by means of the holder.

● Set the switch of the light barrier to

● Press the “Set” button of the light barrier.

● Loosening the wire release stopper sets the wheel into motion, the counter of the light
barrier does not start yet.
● As soon as the axis of rotation enters the light barrier, the counter starts and stops
when it moves past the light ray.
● Calculate the velocity v according to:
---- equation (1)

where d is the diameter of the spindle which is 5 mm.

Note: During the experiment one have to measure the time t the wheel required between its
start position and the position of the light barrier s and the velocity of the wheel at this
position. The distance should be varied from 15 cm to 50 cm in steps of 5 cm.
16. Principle of working:
Maxwell’s wheel is used to demonstrate the conservation of mechanical energy. When the
wheel is rotated by hand to the top and released, its potential energy Epot turns into kinetic
energy Erot + Etrans (rotation and translation) as it falls. The total energy E of the system is
constant and given by:
𝑬 =𝑬 +𝑬 +𝑬
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍

Fig. 2: Connections of the light barrier (lb)

17. Theory and evaluation:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Fig. 3: Relation between the increase in angle dφ and the decrease in height 𝒅⃗𝒔⃗ in the Maxwell disk
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

---- equation (2)

Fig. 4: Distance travelled by the centre of

gravity of the Maxwell disk as a function Fig. 5: Velocity of the centre of
of time. gravity of the Maxwell disk as a
function of time.

As can be seen in results (Fig. 6), the potential energy is almost completely converted into
rotational energy.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Observation Table:
S. Distance to Measured time Time difference Calculated
No. light barrier to reach lb. ∆𝒕 velocity
(lb) t (s) (ms) (eq.1) V
h (m) (m/s)
1 0.235 9.76 0.049 0.122
2 0.425 5.66 0.043 0.116
3
4
5
6
7
8

i. Determination of the inertia

S. Distance to Calculat Calculated Mean

No. light barrier ed Inertia Inertia
(lb) velocit (eq.2 ) Iz
h (m) yV I (𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐) 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐
−𝟑
(m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

ii. Determination of the energies

S. Measured Potential Translation Rotational Kinetic

No. time to Energy al Energy𝟐 Energy𝟐 Energy
reach lb. 𝑬𝒑𝒐𝒕 = 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗 𝑬 = 𝑰𝒛𝑚 Ekin = Etrans
t 𝒎𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝟐 𝒓𝒐𝒕 𝟐
+ Erot
(J) (J)
(J) (J)
(
s
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Expected Graphs/Results for all parts:

Fig. 6a: Energy of the Maxwell disk as a function of time (negative potential energy)

Fig. 6c: Energy of the Maxwell

disk as a function of time

Fig. 6b: Energy of the Maxwell disk as a (energy of rotation)
function of time (energy translation)
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment No # 7: Verification of KCL

& KVL
Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

Objectives:

1.To verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law

2.To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Theory

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law: The algebraic sum of current at any junction of a system of
conductors is zero, i.e. the sum of the currents flowing into a junction must be equal to
the sum of current flowing away from the junction.
Formula:

● Is = I1 + I2 + I3

● IR1 – IR2 – IR3 = 0

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: In a closed electric circuit the algebraic sum of potential drops
is equal to the algebraic sum of total electromotive force occurring round the circuit.
Formula:
1. V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
2. Vs = V1 + V2 + V3

Circuit Diagram:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

KCL:

1.Connect the circuit in the trainer kit as per the circuit diagram

2.Adjust the input voltage by adjuster for different reading

3.Connect the ammeters to get the respective currents meeting at the required node

4.Repeat the same procedure for different observation

5.Compare the value with theoretical results

KVL:

1. Connect the circuit in the trainer kit as per circuit diagram

2. Adjust the input voltage by adjuster for different reading

3. Connect the voltmeters to get the required voltage

4. Repeat the same procedure for different observation

5. Compare the value with theoretical results

 APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Observation:

KCL:

Input Supply Vol tage I1 Total Current, I (mA) Total Current, I (mA)
(Is) (mA) I2 (mA)
[measured value] [theoretical value]

KVL:

V Al gebraic sum of Algebraic sum of

Supply Vol VR R vol tages vol tages
Loop tage, 1 2 VR3
( (V) (V)
V
No. (Vs.) (V) ) (V)
[measured val ue] [theoretical val ue]

Apparatus Used :

Sl. Name of the

No. apparatus Quantity Specification Maker’s Name

1 Networ k theorem trai ner

. ki t- 1 1

2 Digital 0-500-700 V,
. Multimeter 2 10 A

3 Connecting 1
. Probs 0

Remarks:

We have compared the measured values with theoritical results. The measured values are little deviated
from the KCL and KVL is verified successfully.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 08 :
Ohm’s Law & Series and
Parallel
Circuits

Objectives:

a) To verify Ohm’s law (V=IR) where current through a resistor is proportional to the
voltage across it.
b) To verify that in a series circuit;
● The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistors.

● The voltage drops across the resistors equals to the applied voltage.

● The value of the current is the same in all parts of the circuit.
c) To verify that in parallel circuits;
● The equivalent resistance is the reciprocal of the sum of reciprocals of the
individual resistors.
● The branch current in parallel equal to the supply current.

● The voltage drop across each resistor in parallel is the same.

● To verify by measurement and calculation for two different networks: the total
current and the branch values, the voltage drop across various parts of the
networks and the method for determining the equivalent resistance of such
networks.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Equipment:
Instruments
DC power supply
Two digital multimeters.

Components
Resistors ; 1.0kΩ, 1.5kΩ, 6.8kΩ

Procedures:

Part A : Ohm’s Law

1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 1.1.

2. Measure the actual value of each resistor and record in Table 1.1
3. Beginning at 0 V, increase the voltage across R3 in 1-Volt steps until 6 V. Measure
and record the resulting current in Table 1.1 for each increment of voltage.
4. Plot the graphs of I verses V for results in Table 1.1. (Assign I to the vertical axis and
V to the horizontal axis).
5. Construct a right triangle on the graph and from this, re-determine the slope and hence
evaluate the conductance, G.
6. From this information, evaluate the resistance, R. Record G and R for the graph in the
appropriate column in Table 1.2.
7. Compare these experimentally obtained values with those measured values recorded
in the respective tables.

Fig. 1.1

Part B : Series Circuits

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1. Remove the voltmeter and ammeter connections from the circuit of Fig. 1.1.
2. Adjust the supply voltage (Vs) to 15V. (Note the value must be kept constant
throughout the test by connecting voltmeter across the voltage supply in the circuit to
observe the voltage.)
3. Switch off the supply. Connect the ammeter in position A.
4. Switch on the supply. Read the current through resistor R1.
5. Connect the voltmeter across R1 and measure the voltage drop across it.
6. Repeat 3 until 5 for the ammeter positions B, C, and D and the voltmeter positions
across resistors R2 and R3.
7. Record the voltage for close and open loop. Fill up the measured values in Table 1.3

Part C : Parallel Circuits

1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig 1.2

2. Adjust the supply voltage 15V. (Note the value of the supply voltage and keep it
constant throughout the test.)
3. Switch off the supply. Connect the ammeter in position A, the total current, ITotal.
Switch on the supply. Read the current through resistor R1 and the voltage drop
across it.
4. Repeat 4 for the ammeter positions B, C, and D and the voltmeter positions across
resistors R2 and R3. Be careful not to touch R3 during measurement as it might be
hot.
5. Fill up the measured values in Table 1.3.

Fig 1.2
Part D: Analysis, deductions and conclusions:

1. Has Ohm’s law been verified?

2. What are the facts supporting this decision?
3. State the factors affecting resistance of a material with a uniform cross-sectional area?
4. What are the common types of fixed and variable resistors? State usage of each type.
5. If the Resistor from the experiment above is changed to 10 kΩ, deduct what will
happen to the slope of I-V graph. What effect on the conductance G?
6. Do all resistors obey ohm’s law? Justify your answer by stating some examples.
7. Have each point in aims (b) and (c) been achieved?
8. What are the facts supporting these decision for each point of the aims (b) and (c)?
9. What are the probable factors, which contributed to the discrepancies in the results for each
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

point of the aims (b) and (c)?

10. Indicate which circuit the principle of voltage division and current division is applicable to.
11. State the formula for each condition.
Results and Calculations:
Table 1.1

Nominal Measured
Resistance Resistance

R=6.8kΩ R=
Voltage Source
(V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(Vs)

Current
(m
(Measured A)
values)
Current
(m
(Theoretical A)
values)

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 1.4
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Supply I1 I2 I3
current Σ
(amper (amper (amper Current
(ampere) es) es) es)

Supply V1 V2 V3
voltage
(volts) (volts) (volts)
(volt)

Equival R1 R2 R3 Equival
ent (Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms) ent
resistan resistan
ce ce

G1 G2 G3
Total
conductance (Siemen (siemen (siemen ΣG
s) s) s)
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 09
Ohm’s Law & Series and Parallel
Circuits
Fundamentals of Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law is one of the key laws of electricity. Ohm's Law states that the direct current
flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference, or voltage,
between its ends. It is expressed in the equation:

𝑉=𝐼𝑅
Equation1-1

V is voltage (or potential difference) across the resistor, I is current, and R is

resistance. Using Ohm's Law

Given the value of any two of the variables in the formula, the equation V=IR can be rearranged
to determine the unknown value. An easy way to remember the formula for one of the
variables is to arrange the formula into a pyramid, as shown in Figure 1-2 below. Cover the
value you wish to solve for to reveal its formula in terms of the other two variables.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Figure 1-2 These triangles will help you rearrange the Ohm's law formula.

Check Your Understanding

Note: The following questions are meant to help you self-assess your understanding so far. You can
view the answer key for all “Check your Understanding” questions at the end of the lab.

1-1 Which equation represents Ohm’s Law?

A. V=IxR
B. V=I/R
C. I=RxV
D. None of the above

1-2 Current is proportional to applied voltage.

A. Inversely
B. Increasingly
C. Directly
D. Not
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Applications of Ohm’s Law

By defining the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance, Ohm's law allows
you to make a variety of measurements and determine key values for many electrical
components.

Ohm's law is used to design fuses and circuit breakers. Normally, fuses and circuit breakers
are rated by current. This means that designers need Ohm's law to determine what rating is
appropriate for a given electronic device based on its internal resistance and power supply.

Ohm's law is also the principle behind the ammeter shunt (also known as a shunt resistor).
An ammeter shunt is a resistor with an accurately known value. When the current in a circuit
is beyond an ammeter's range, it can be connected in parallel with an ammeter shunt. Most
of the current is redirected along the path of the shunt, which usually has a very small
resistance value. Ohm's law is needed to determine the amount of current redirected through
the shunt, which is added with the ammeter reading to give the total current in the circuit.
Ammeter shunts may be found inside ammeters or attached externally.

In addition, Ohm's law can be used in calculations for electric power, P, which itself is given by:
𝑃=𝑉𝐼
Equation 1-2

Ohm's law gives you V=IR (Equation 1-1), which allows you to express power in
terms of current and resistance:
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
Equation 1-3

You can also express power in terms of voltage and resistance by using the following equation:

𝑃 = 𝑉2

𝑅
Equation 1-4

This allows you to determine the power rating for an electrical appliance given its voltage
and resistance.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1-3 Ammeter shunts are connected so that most of the current passes through them, allowing
the ammeter to accurately measure the precise amount of current that remains. Why do
ammeter shunts usually have very small resistance values?

A. To decrease the voltage in the circuit

B. So they take on very large amounts of current
C. So current passes through them very slowly
D. Because they are very small

1-4 Given the formula for power, P=VI, which equation correctly expresses power in
terms of current and resistance?

A. P = I / R2
B. P=I2/R
C. P=IxR
D. P=I2xR
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Exercise: Calculate IR Relationship using Ohm's Law

You will start this lab by analyzing a circuit that demonstrates Ohm’s Law.

First, you will use Equation 1-1, Ohm's Law to calculate the current flowing through a
resistor for resistances of 330 Ω, 1 kΩ, and 3.3 kΩ. Then, you will calculate the current
given different supply voltage values, as shown in the table below. Finally, you will find
these values using a simulated circuit and compare your observed values to those you have
calculated.

1-5 Enter the calculated values in the table.

Table 1-1

R=330 Ω R=1 kΩ R=3.3k Ω

Supply Voltage (V) Calculated I (mA) Calculated I (mA) Calculated I (mA)

5
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1.3 Simulate: Ohm’s Law Measurement

You will use Multisim Live to simulate a circuit with a 330 Ω resistor and varying voltages,
from 1 V to 5 V, and record the current in each case. Then, you will repeat the process with 1
kΩ and 3.3 kΩ resistors.
Instructions:

Simulate Your First Circuit

1. Access the Multisim on computer installed in CS Lab or Live circuit Ohm’s Law at:
https://www.multisim.com/content/sZ2Da8WmAn6mXq23mHC9NP/ohms-law/.
Notice that the circuit uses a DC power supply to provide voltage across a resistor.
2. Click on and modify the V1 power supply voltage to 1 V.
3. Click Run to begin simulating the circuit.
4. Measure the current detected by the DC current probe PR1.

● Open Split view to see the charted value of the current.

● If necessary, adjust the scale of the graphing window to see the value of
the current.

1-6 Record the measured current in the appropriate location in the table.

Table 1-2

R=330 Ω R=1 kΩ R=3.3k Ω

Supply Voltage (V) Measured I (mA) Measured I (mA) Measured I (mA)

5
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Simulate Varying Voltages

1. Modify the voltage at V1 to values of 2 V through 5 V, according to the table above.
2. For each voltage, measure the DC Current.
3. Record your results in the table.
4. When all of the measurements for the 330 Ω resistor have been taken, stop the
simulation by clicking Stop.

Simulate a 1 kΩ Resistance

1. When the simulation is stopped, double-click the 330 Ω resistor and change
the resistance to 1000 Ω, or 1 kΩ.
2. Click Run to begin simulating the circuit.
3. Modify the voltage provided by V1 to values of 1 V through 5 V, as directed in the
table above.
4. Measure the DC current using the Current Probe, and record your results in the table.
5. When all of the measurements for the 1 kΩ resistor have been taken, stop the
simulation by clicking Stop.
Simulate a 3.3 kΩ Resistance
1. When the simulation is stopped, double-click the 1 kΩ resistor and change the
resistance to 3300 Ω, or 3.3 kΩ.
2. Click Run to begin simulating the circuit.
3. Complete the last column of the table by modifying the voltage at V1 and recording
the current.
4. Click Stop when you have completed the table.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1.4 Implement: Finding Resistance of a Potentiometer

You will now go beyond simulation and use the NI ELVIS III to confirm the relationships
given by Ohm's law. You will do this by creating an actual circuit on the NI ELVIS
Protoboard.

Note: A potentiometer is a resistor that can have its resistance value manually changed.
This activity will use the 1 k potentiometer on the NI ELVIS Protoboard to implement a
random, unknown resistance. By applying a known voltage and measuring the current
through the potentiometer, you can calculate its resistance.
Instructions:

1. Connect the following circuit:

● Remember to turn off the protoboard while wiring.

Figure 1-3 Circuit diagram for finding the current through the potentiometer.

2. Spin the 1 k potentiometer to a new position.

3. Turn on the NI ELVIS III and ensure it is connected to your computer.
4. From the Instruments tab of Measurements Live, open the following instruments:

● Digital Multimeter (DMM)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Note: For more information about accessing Measurements Live and launching instruments,
visit http://www.ni.com/documentation/en/ni-elvis-iii/latest/getting-started/launching-soft-
front- panels/.

5. Set the Measurement mode to DC Current.

6. Measure the current through the circuit using the DMM.
7. Use Ohm's Law to calculate the resistance of the potentiometer, knowing that 5
V is applied.

1-7 What is the measured current?

1-8 What is the calculated resistance?

Confirm Resistance Using DMM

1. Change the circuit configuration to the following:

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Figure 1-4 Configuration for confirming resistance with the DMM.

2. Set the DMM to measure resistance with Range set to 5 kΩ.

3. Measure the resistance of the potentiometer.
● Be sure to turn off the protoboard while wiring and turn it back on when done.

1-9 What was the measured resistance value of the potentiometer?

1-10 Did the measured resistance value match the calculated resistance value? Why or why not?
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1.5 Implement: Finding Resistance of an Unknown Resistor

You will use the NI ELVIS III to experiment with Ohm's law and confirm the value of a
resistor compared to its color code specification.

In this activity, you will randomly select a resistor and wire it into a circuit using the NI ELVIS
III. By applying a known voltage and measuring the current, you can calculate the
unknown value of the resistor.

Instructions:

1. Select a random resistor from the kit and connect it into the following circuit:

Figure 1-5 Circuit diagram for measuring the current through the random resistor.

2. Measure the current through the circuit using the DMM.

3. Use Ohm's Law to calculate the resistance of the resistor, knowing that 5 V is applied.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1-11 What is the measured current?

1-12 What is the calculated resistance?

Confirm Resistance Using Color Codes and DMM

Resistors are color-coded to indicate their values.

Check the specified resistance of the one you selected using the color
code: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_color_code#Resistor_color-

coding. 1-13 According to the color codes, what resistance should the resistor

demonstrate?
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Now, use the digital multimeter to directly measure the resistance of the component.

1. Change the circuit configuration to the following:

Figure 1-6 Circuit diagram for measuring the resistance of the component with the DMM.

2. Measure the resistance of the component using the DMM set to resistance mode.
● If the reading is over, increase the Range.

● Make sure to turn off the protoboard while measuring resistance and turn it
back on when done.

1-14 What was the measured resistance value of the component?

1-15 Do the calculated and measured resistance values fall within the color code range?
Why or why not?
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1.6 Investigate: Non-Linear and Negative Resistance Compoents

Most resistance components follow Ohm's law and can be referred to as ohmic. There are
cases in which Ohm's law does not apply as expected, such as non-linear resistors and
negative resistance components. While it is likely you will not be interacting with non-
linear or negative resistance components until you have a more advanced grasp of
electronics, these concepts provide an interesting contrast to Ohm’s law and are included
here as a related topic.

Non-Linear Components

Most resistors are linear. This means that they provide the same resistance all the time, so
that the ratio between current and voltage is constant. This phenomenon follows from
Ohm's law, where R=V/I. The values you determined during the calculation exercise should
show the linear nature of the V-I relationship.

Some resistors cause current and voltage to vary non-linearly. Known as non-linear
resistors, they do not follow Ohm's law. For example, thermistors and photoresistors vary
their resistance values according to increases in temperature and light, respectively.
Another type of non-linear component is the varistor. A varistor’s resistance increases as
voltage increases. Non-linear resistors have many applications in the real world.

Read more about non-linear resistors:

tutorialspoint.com/basic_electronics/basic_electronics_nonlinear_resistors.htm

Negative Resistance Components

In general, we think of circuit components as having positive values for resistance. When
voltage passes through a positive resistor, voltage is dropped (decreased) across the resistor
and power is consumed.

It is also possible for a component to have negative resistance. Voltage increases across
components with negative resistance. A component that exhibits this behavior is said to
be a negative resistance component. Although they are generally rare, one common
example is
a fluorescent lamp.

Normally, voltage increases directly proportionally with current. Typically an increase in

voltage leads to a corresponding increase in current, as per the equation I = V / R. In a circuit
with at least one negative resistance component, however, an increase in voltage can lead to a
decrease in current, since R is negative.

Read more about negative resistance:

en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Circuit_Idea/Negative_Resistanceelectronbunker.ca/eb/
NegativeResistan ce.html
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1-16 Describe the difference between regular (ohmic) resistors and non-linear/negative
components. How would the presence of a non-linear or negative component change how
you might analyze a circuit?
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1.7 Conclusion

These questions will help you review and interpret the concepts learned in this lab.

1-17 In your own words, describe Ohm's law. Give two instances from the real world or
from your educational career in which it would be used.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

1-18 What is the current of the circuit?

Figure 1-7 Calculate the current in this circuit.

A. Volts
B. 5 Amps
C. 5 Amps
D. 2 Amps

1-19 The watt (W) is the unit for electrical power, where P = I x V. Express the watt in
terms of ohms (Ω), amperes (A), and/or volts (V):
A. W = V2 x Ω
B. W = A2 x Ω
C. W=AxVxΩ
D. W=Ω/AxV

1-20 Were your observations from the simulated circuit in the Simulate step consistent with
your calculations from the Exercise step? If not, why do you think that is?

1-21 Record any observations from your experiments in relation with Ohm's law that you
have not yet noted. Reference your calculations from the exercise and your results from the
simulation and experiment steps.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment 10

Logic Gates (AND, OR and NOT)

Overview
To understand the operation of various 2-Input and 3-Input logic gates and verify their
truth table

BACKGROUND THEORY:
In general, logic circuits have one or more inputs and only one output. The circuits
respond to various input combinations, and a truth table shows this relationship between
circuits input combinations and its output. The truth table for a particular circuit explains
how the circuit behaves under normal conditions. Familiarization with a logic circuit’s truth
table is essential to the technologist or technician before he or she can design with or
troubleshoot the circuit.

Input Logic Gates:

In this experiment, logic circuits with 2-inputs are:
1. AND gate:
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

2. OR gate:

3. NOT gate:

OBSERVATIONS:

1. AND gate (truth table)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

2. OR gate (truth table)

3. NOT gate (truth table)