34]

UNIT

At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:

• describe and explain the origin of different types of optical spectra.
• show an understanding of the existence of discrete electron energy levels
in isolated atoms (e.g. atomic hydrogen) and deduce how this leads to
spectral lines.
• explain how the uniqueness of the spectra of elements can be used to
identify an element.
• analyse the significance of the hydrogen spectrum in the development of
Bohr's model of the atom.
• explain hydrogen atom in tenns of energy levels on the basis of Bohr
Model.
• detennine the ionization energy and various excitation energies of an atom
using an energy level diagram.
2
• Solve problems and analyse infonnation using in.. = RH [l/p2 - 1/n J.
• understand that inner shell transitions in heavy elements result into
emission of characteristic X-rays.
• explain the tenns spontaneous emission, stimulated ~mission, meta stable
states, population inversion and laser action.
• describe the structure and purpose of the main components of a He-Ne gas
laser.

The beginning of the twentieth century saw the start of new branches of Physics -
atomic structure and spectra which has a profound effect on revealing the inner
mysteries of the structures of atoms.
The existence of line emission spectra from atomic gases is used to infer a
structure of an atom in tenns of discrete energy levels in atoms. J.J. Balmer in
1885 succeeded to devi<,e an empirical formula which could explain the existence
of the spectra of atomic hydrogen
In this chapter we will !>tudy the line !>pectrum of hydrogen atom, the Bohr model
of h"ydrogen atom, production of X-rays, working principle of CAT scanner and
La<,er.

A CT s can s tand s for

Computed Tomography
scan It is abo known as a
CAT (Computer Axial
Tomography) scan. It 1s a
medical imaging method that
employs tomography.
CT scanning 1i. useful to get a
very detailed 3-D image of
certain parts ofthe body, such
as soft tissues, the blood
vessels, the lungs, the bram,
abdomen, and bones.

19. I Atomic Spectra

When a substance 1s heated. its atoms absorb energy antl .:.1 e t XC1ted, 1.c.
some of its electrons jump to higher energy.states. The electron stays there for a
short duration (10 8 s) and fall back to lls lower enerr y state. In this process it
emits a radiation called photon which 1i. :,upposed to be a discrete packet of light
energy. A photon is a particle of light having wave charactenstic-', i.e. 1t has an
frequency and wavelength.
The frequency of emitted radiation or photon<; i., equal to the frequency
with which the electron bounce:, baLk and forth between th\. higher and the lower
energy state.

Chopter 19
 In a solid, a liquid or a dense gas, the atoms are clm;ely packed and
are, therefore, not free to emit radiation because of interaction.
Thus we do not get discrete radiation but instead obtain only a continuous
spectrum. The ato~s of gas are however free to emit a radiation when excited.
The emission spectrum of a gas is, therefore, discrete, having line ~pectrum.
Suppose an evacuated glass tube is filled with a gas such as neon, helium,
or argon. If a potential· difference between electrodes in the tube produces an
electric current in the g;,is, the tube will emit light whose color is characteristic of
the gas. If the emitted light is analyzed by passing it through a narrow slit and
then through a spectroscope, a series of discrete lines is observed, each line
corresponqing t~a different wavelength or color. We refer to such a series of lines
as a line spectrum. The wavelengths contained in a given line spectrum are
characteristic of the elements emitting light. Because no two elements emit the
same line spectrum, this phenomenon represents a practical technique for
identifying elements in chemical ubstance. The first such spectral series was
found by J.J Balmer in 1885 in the course of a study of the vb1ble part of the
hydrogen spectrum.

lh•tHtu1

, Ptl\ lH
fJ,h,,111~1.,1,111, I I ,1,.\

III T - - I
·-----

llv•h,111n11 ,,.1,.
,Jlq, h,11 \J•' tllh ~
f
•
•
I
I
1tfl11111 H 111111 -lhlh1m
19. 2 The Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

When hydrogen gas is placed in a discharge tube, and a discharge is

caused in it by means of high voltage across the tube, the gas becomes luminous
and gives off a bluish - red light, Fig 19.2. This light can be analyzed by passing it
through a dispersing device such as a prism or a grating. The spectrum of
hydrogen atoms consists of a series of lines. Each line represents a wavelength of
light given off by the light source.

Pfund Series
f
,. •[
Brackett Series
. Paschen Series

.. .... ·-· ....-····•·

l •• • [ ,- Balmer Sc:rics [ Lyman Serles
• t t , 1
······...--........
__

Wavelength 8 ff § I ..
8
(nm) fl ..
~ nfrnre... t-\Tisibll. ...;t-- - - - - - - - -Ultruviolet- - f

Figure i 9.~: lint! spectrum of hydroecn atom

The line spectrum of hydrogen includes a series ot Jines in the visible region of
the spectrum shown. in figure. 19.2. The linec; fall into three distinct groups or
series, each named after its discoverer. The spectrum of atomic hydrogen was
observed much before Bohr proposed a theory for it.
In 1885, Johann Balmer, found that the wavelengths of these lines can be
described by this simple empirical equation.

!=R( ~-;2 ) ...... 19.1

2
Where n may have integral values of 3, 4, 5 ... . .. and R is constant, now called the
Rydberg constant. If the wavelength is in meters, R has the value.
R =1·0973732x107 m-1
Balmer predicted that other series of lines might exist outside the visible
region which would obey the equations given below.

Atomic Spectra
Several years later, other were discovered. These spectra are called the Lyman,
Paschen and Brackett series after their discoverers. The wave lengths of the lines
in these series can be calculated by the following empirical fonnulas.

Lyman series .!..=R(~-~) ......(19.2)'

Ji. 1 n
, Where n=1,2,3,45, ..... .

paschen series ~= R(; 2 - ~2) ••• • •• (19.3)

Where n= 4,5,6,7, ...... .

Brachett series .!.Ji. =R(...!..

4 2 -...!..)
n 2 ...... (19.4)
Where n= 5,6,7 ... •
All the above fonnulas can be written in a general mathematical fonn as:
1 (1 1)
- = A 2 - 2 ...... (19.5)
11.n P n
.
Where P = 1,2,3..... .
And n=P+1,P+2,P+3, ... .. .
The Balmer series lies in the visible region of the spectrum, the paschen
and Brakett series in. the infra - red, and the Lyman series in the ultraviolet.

19. 3 Bohr Model of The Hydrogen Atom

In 1913, the Danish scientist Neil Bohr (1885 -1963) proposed a theory of
the hydrogen atom which contained a combination of ideas from classical physics,
Plank's original quantum theory, Einstein's photon theory of light, and
Rutherford's model of the atom. Bohr' s model of the hydrogen atom contains
some classical features as well as some revolutionary postulates that could not be
justified within the frame work of classical physics. The Bohr model can be
applied quite successfully to such hydrogen -like ions as single ionized helium

Chapter 19
and doubly ionized lithium. However, the theory does not properly\
describe the
spectra of more complex atoms and ions.
The basic postulates of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom are as follows.
1 The electron move in circular orbits about the nucleus under the influence of
the coulomb force of attraction between the electron and the positively
charged nucleus.
mv2 ke2
- ,- ~7 .... (19.6)
Where mv2 and k~ are centripetal and coulomb forces respectively.
r r
2. Only those stationary orbits are allowed for which orbital angular momentum

is equal to an integral multiple of ..!!.__ •

2Jt
h
mvr = n- .... (19.7)
2Jt
Where "/,'' 1s Plank' s constant and its value is h =6.6256x10 34 j s.
3. The electron in stable orbit does not radiate energy as in the clas!>ical theory.

n=3

4 The atom radiates energy only when ( n=2

the electron Jumps from one allowed / n-1 ~ \..1v......
stationary orbit to another. The
\ 0 +Ze ) AE=hv
,
frequency of the radiation obeys the
condition. "'--"

Figure 19.J (a): energy radiation due

to jumping of electron from higher to
L'VN orbit .
hf = E" - Ep ... (19.8)
Where Enand EP are higher and lower energy states respectively.

Chapter 19 Atomic Spectra

 347

Lyman
(ultraviolet)

n=l
4fDnm
• Balmer series
(visible)

n-=3

n=4 Paschen series

(infrared)
ri=S n=6

Figure 19.3 (b) : Lyman, Balmer, and paschen series.

The Radii of The Quantized Orbit _ I

From Eq : (19.7)
nh
V=-- ... (19.9)
21tmrn
For electrons to stay in a circular orbit, the centripetal force is provided by the
coulomb's force. Thus,
mv2 ke2
--,:;;-= ,2n ...... (19.10)

k=-1-
41tE0

From Eq: 19.9 put the value in Eq: 19.10. After simplification we get.

· ··19·11

Chapter 19 Atomic Spectra

 1,2
Where ri =---
4,r1kme2
By putting the values of constants we get
Or 'i = 0 .53x10-'°m •··19.12
From Eq (19.11), we see that the radii of the allowed orbit of the electron are
determined by the integer n. The orbits of the electrons are quantized. The integer
n is called the quantum number. We label the orbits by the quantum number 11.
Thus,
... (19.13)

rn-- 2
n x .053A
0
: n := 1,2,3 ·

A
Where 1 = 10- 10m
Thus the radii of different stationary orbits of the electron in the hydrogen atom
are given by

Energy of Electron in Quantized Orbit I

Let us now compute the energy of the hydrogen system for a given n. The energy
consists of the electron 's kinetic energy and the electrostatic potential energy of
the two charges. From Eq (19 .10) .
1 1 ke2
K · E =- mv2 =- - ... (19.14)
2 2 rn
And its electrostatic energy is
P -E =- ke2 ... (19.15)
rn
So the total energy will be
En = K · E + P -E
ke2 ke2
E =---
n 2rn rn
 349

Hence
1 ke2
E
n
=---
2 r
... (19.16)
n
By substituting the value of r n from Eq: (19.11), we have
2n2e4 k2 m 1
E" = h
2 x2
n
Write the constant factor in the above equation as
4
2n2e k2m =E
ft 0

We get

E=-J ... (19.17)

Thus the total energy is determined by the quantum number n. The total
energy of the hydrogen atom is quantized. Label the energy E by the quantum
number n, we have
En = -E
rt0 ··•• u
(1918)
•

Where n=l,2,3 ..
The minus sign shows that the electron is bound to the nucleus and cannot
escape from it. Substituting the value of various constants, we find that
E0 = 2.17x10-18 j = +13.6ev
13
Thus En= - ;ev .... .. (19.19)

The lowest stationary energy state, or ground state, corresponds to n = 1

and has energy ·E1 = -13 •6 ev . The next state, corresponding to n = 2, has an

energy E2 = -""t
E
= -3 · 4 ev, and so on.

I Hydrogen Emission Spectrum

The result derived above for the energy levels along with postulate 4 can
be used to derive the expression for the wavelength of the hydrogen spectrum.
Suppose that the electron in hydrogen atom is in the excited state "n" with energy

Chapter 19

•
En and makes a transition to a lower state "P'' with energy EP, where En > EP ,
then hf =E,. - Ep.

Where E
n
=-rrEa and E
p
=- p2
Eo

1
Hence hf =-E
o
[_!__--
rr F'2 ]
Substituting for f =- ~ we have,

1 he (1 n1)
11. =
£0
P2 - 2

! =R (-1__!__)
/\. n2
H p2
.... (19.20)

Where Aw is the Rydberg constant given by the equation.

RH= Eo = 1.0974x107 m·1
he
This value of RH in Bohr model is in agreement with the value of the
Rydberg's constant detennined empirically by Balmer. Thus the Balmer empirical

formula ~ = R(; -; 2) and that derived from Bohr's theory ~ = RH ( t -;)

are actually the same. Thus, sundar to the Balmer empirical formuJa, Bohr's
theory can be used to compute the energies or wavelength of the transitions
involved in the various emission series.

19.4 Energy -Level Diagram

According to Bohr's theory the total energy and the radii of the electron
orbits in hydrogen atom are respectively given by the following relations.
_ - £ _ - 13.6 ev d _ 2
E,. - n20 - n2 an rn-r1 n
When n = I, the electron is in the first orbit; the energy is minimum and has
the value E1 = - E0 = -13.6 ev . When n ➔ 00, then rn ➔ 00, En ➔ 0 ·

Chnpter 19
 351

The electron become free from the nucleus. The atom is then said to ionized. It is
convenient to represent the energy of the quantized states of the atom on an
energy level diagram as showq in Fig 19.4.
The energy levels of the atom E0 are represented by a series of horizontal lines.
T~sitio.n between the levels are represented by vertical arrows. When the
electron is free from the atom and is at rest, both its kinetic and potential energies
are zero at n = oo level .
The energy Jevel diagram can be used to illustrate the origin of
various spectral series observed in the emission spectrum of hydrogen. The
transition from various energy level to the lowest level (n = 1) gives rise to
lyman series. Balmer series occurs for transition ending at second energy level
(n = 2) . The paschen, bracket and pfund series occurs for transitions from
various energy levels to the r = 3, 4, 5 energy levels, respectively.

n=«> l - . . .-
0
n=7 ' I M
-0.28
n=6 -0.38

n=S ' llu -0.54

Pfucd
n=4
!

1 -0.85
Bnd.dl
n=3 - 1.51
I Pasdlen

n=2 I
-3.40
Balmer
i

n=1 -13.60
Lyman

Figure 19.4 : energy level diagram Energy levels of the hydrogen atom with some
of the transitions between them to give rise to the spectral lines

Chapter 19
 352

' 19.5 De -Broglie Waves And The Hydrogen Atom

One of the postulates made by Bohr in his theory of the hydrogen atom
was that angular momentum of the electron is quantized in units of
h
- or mvr =n -h
2n' 2n
For more than a decade following Bohr's publication, no one was able to
explain why the angular momentum of the electron was restricted to these discrete
values. Finally, de Broglie
recognized a connection 1
between his theory of the wave
5
character of material properties
and the quantization condition
given above. De- Broglie
assumed that an electron orbit
woul~ be stable (allowed) only
if it contained an integral 2
number of electron
wavelengths. 4
Figure (19.5) demonstrate this
point when five complete
wavelengths are contained in 3
one circumference of the orbit Figure 19.S (a) : Standing wave pattern for an
similar patterns can be drawn electron wave fn a stable orbit of hydrogen.
for orbits of four wavelengths, There are five full wavelengths In this orbit.
three wavelengths. two
wavelengths, etc. This situation A B
is analogous to that of standing
waves on a string (fig 19.5).

Figure 19.5 (b} : Standing waves

pattern for a vibrating stretched string

Chapter 19
 353

Now imagine that the vibrating string is removed from its support at A and Band
bent into a circular shape such that A and B are brought together. The end result is
a pattern similar to that shown in (fig 19.5). Standing waves pattern for a vibrating
stretched string fi~ed at its ends. This pattern has three full wavelengths.
In general, the condition for de -Broglie standing wave in an electron orbit is that
the circumference must contain an integral multiple of electron wavelengths. We
can express this condition .as
2rcr=n'A. •··(19.21)
(n=1,2,3 .... .. )
De -Broglie's equation for the wavelength of an electron in terms of its
momentum.
h
I A.=- ···19.22
mv
Substituting A.in Eq:(19.21), we have,
2rcr= n!2_
mv
h
mvr=n-
21t
This precisely explains the quantization of angular momentum condition imposed
by Bohr in his original theory of hydrogen atom.

Limitations of Bohr's Theory

I
Bohr's theory successfully explains the spectra of simpler atoms or ions which
contain only one electron e.g. hydrogen, singly ionized helium, doubly ionized
lithium etc. But this theory fails to explain the spectra of many electrons atom.
Also when a spectral line of hydrogen is examined more closely with high
precision instruments it reveals a fine structure i.e. the spectral lines is found to
- consist of a number of closely spaced lines. Bohr's theory could not explain the
fine structure of the spectral lines of hydrogen atom. Later researchers studied the
effect of electric and magnetic fields on spectral lines.A spectral line was found to
split into a number of lines under the influence of magnetic field (Zeeman Effect)
and electric field (Stark effect). Bohr's theory cannot explain these two effects.
 354

What postulate of Bohr's model is justified by de - Broglie?

'

Example 19.1
,
The electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from n = 2 energy
sl3t_e to the ground 'state n =1. Find the waveleng~ of the emitted photon.
....
Solutiom
We can use the equation
l= R(..!__J_)=
2 2
3R
1.. 1 2 4
4
A.= -
3R
i..= 4
3(1.097x 107 )
1..=1 .215 x 10-7 m=121.5 nm
Example 19.2

The Balmer series for hydrogen atom corresponds to electronic transitions

that terminate in the state of quantum number n = 2. Find the longest wavelength
of photon emitted.
Solution: I
The longest -wavelength in the Balmer series result from the transition.
From n 3 = to n =2 ·
1
- -=R(J__J...)=~R
2 2
1..max 2 3 36
,._ = 36
max 5R
36
Amax= ( ) =656.3 nm
5 1.097x107

Chapter 19
 355

I Example 19.3

Find the shortest wavelength photon in the Balmer series.

I Solution: I
The shortest -wavelength photon in the Balmer series is emitted when the
electron makes transition from n =oo to n =2 . Therefore,

,.~=R(;;- ~}=:
4 4
Amin= A'= 1.0g?x107 = 364·6 nm

19.6 Excitation and Ionization Potential

I
The Bohar model as well as the current quantum mechanical model of an
atom predicts that the total energy of an electron in an atom is quantized. The
allowed energies are given by a relation of the form.
I -E
En= ,./; n =1,2,3 ..... .

The state n =1 is called ground state, while states with n =2,3, 4, ...... are called
exited states. When energy is supplied to the atom, then an electron in the atom
reaches one of its exited states. The atom in an exited state cannot stay for a long
time. The electron in an exited atom soon returns to lower energy levels by
emitting photons.

I Excitation Energy
The energy required to move electron from its ground state to an exited
state is known as excitation energy. For example the first ·and second excitation
energies of hydrogen atom are calculated to be.
-E 3 3
/ -(- E0 ) = E0 = (13.6eV) =10.2eV0
2 4 4
-E 8 8
/-(- Eo)= E0 = {13.6 eV)=12.1 eV0
3 9 9
Atomic Spectra
 356

Excitation Potential
The potential difference V in volts applied to an electron in its ground
state to get an amount of energy equal_to the excitation energy of the electron in
the atom is called excitation potential of the atom. For example, the first and
second excitation potential of H - atom are respectively 10.2 V and 12.1 V ..

I Ionization Energy
If an atom absorbs sufficient amount of energy, an electron may be raised
to a level n = oo . The electron then becomes free from the attractive force of the
nucleus, i.e., the electron is removed from the atom. An atom which has lost one
or more ele.;:trons is said to be ionized. The minimum energy required to remove
an electron from its ground state is called ionization energy of the atom. But the
energy of the electron in the initial (ground) state is Ev, and its energy in the final
(ionized) state i~ zero. Thus the ionization energy of the atom is{O- (- E0 )} = E0 •
This means that the ionization energy of the atom is numerically equal to the
ground state energy of the atom. For example, the ionization energy of H - atom is
13.6 eV.

I Ionization Potential
The potential difference applied to an electron to provide il the requisite
amount of ionization energy is called ionization potential.

I Example 19 .4
When a hydrogen atom is bombarded, the atom may be raise into a higher
energy state. As the excited electron fall back to the lower energy levels,
light is emitted. What are th·e three longest wavelength spectral lines
emitted by the hydrogen atom as it returns to the n = 1 state from higher
energy states?

I Solution: I
n = 2 ➔ n = 1: ..1.E2,1 = -3.4 - (- 13.6) ,.... 10.2ev
n = 3 ➔ n = 1: ~E3,1 =-1.5 - (- 13.6) = 12.1eV
n=4 ➔ n = 1: ..1.E4 ,1 = - 0.as ·- (- 13.6)==12.SeV
 357

To find the corresponding wavelengths we can use t!.E = hf = ~•

For · n = 2 to n = 1 transition

A.=..!!£.._
t:.E2.1
• 6.63x 10·34 j •s( 3x 108 ms- 1 )
A . = - - - - - -19- - -1= 121 nm
(to.2eV)(t.60xto- Jev- )

For n =3 to n =1 transition
A.=~
l1E3,1
(6.63 x 10-34 js)(3x108 ms-1 )
" A = - - - - - - - -1 - = 1 1
0 2 nm
{12.1eV)(1.60x 10- ' Jev- )

For n = 4, to n = 1 transition

A.=~
l1E4,1
(6.63x10-34 j •s)(3 x 108 ms-1 )
"A =...;....._-------'------------'- 96 •9nm
(12 •a eV)(1.60 x 10- )Jev-
10 1

These are the first three lines of the Lyman series.

19 .7 Inner shell Transition and Characteristic X-Rays

The transitions of electron in hydrogen atom results in the emission of spectral

lines in the infrared, visible or ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum due
to small energy difference in the transition levels.
In heavy atoms, the electrons are assumed to be arranged in concentric shells
labeled as K, L, M, N, 0, etc. The K shell being closest to the nucleus, the L shell
next, and so on. The inner shell electrons are tightly bound and large amount of
energy is required for their displacement from their normal energy levels. When a
heavy target material is bombarded with a beam of electrons, that has been
accelerated by several k eV. Some of these electrons will collide with inner-shell
electrons of the target and knock them out of their respective atoms.
 358

F gur 19.6 (a) :Inner shell Transition

-,, , ,..5

-
Let a K-shell
electron is
ii u
~

-I
..•4 N-serfes
knocked out from
u
~, I
- =3 M-Nries
an atom creating ~

a vacancy in K-
I iln fl , I ,
shell.

Then an electron
from either, L, M,
- n =2 L-series

or N -shell will i

quickly jump .
I !
'
down to fill the I

vacancy in the
K-shell emitting
I , , , 1 ,1 qr
the excess energy n ml IC- series
as x -rays phQton. Figure 19.6 (b) : Characteristic X-Rays

C_h apter 19 Atomic Spectra

 359

These x-rays consists of series of specific wavelengths or frequencies and hence

are called characteristic x-rays. An x-ray photon due to transition from L:-shell to
the vacancy in the K-shell is called Ka characteristic x -rays. The transition from
M -and N -shell to the K -shell gives rise to Kli and KT characteristic x - rays
respectively. The study of characteristic x -rays spectra has played a very
important role in the study of atomic structure and the periodic table of elements.

I 19.7.1 Continuous x -rays

Another process that can rise the emission of x -rays, is illustrated in (fig 19 .7).
Consider an electron traveling towards a target nucleus in the x -rays .tube. The
incident electron has coulomb interaction with orbital electrons as well as the
positive nucleus. Because of the concentrated positive charge, the interaction with
the nucleus is very strong. The for~e of attraction accelerates the electron.
According to the classical theory of electromagnetism, an accelerated charge
emits radiation called Bremsstrahlung, a Germen word meaning braking·radiation.
This Bremsstrahlung is called continues x -rays.

_/
Deflected lower
Nucleus of energy electron
target atom

~ hf
incoming
electron
"
Emitted Photon

. Figure 19.7: electron moving towards nude.us

Chapter 19 Atomic Spectra

 360

According to quantum theory. this radiation must appears in the form of pholon.
Since the radiated photon (shown in Fig: L9 .1) carries e.Q..~rgY, the electron must lose
kinetic energy because of its encounter with the target nucleus. Let us consider an
extreme example in which the electron losses all of its energy in a single collision.
In this case, the initial energy of the electron (eV) is transformed completely into
the energy of the photon ( hfma• ) • In equation form we have
he
eV = h'1r.u =: ~
min

he
Am1n = - ···(19.23)
eV
Where eV is the energy of the eleclron .ifter it has been accelerated
through a potential difference of V volt and e is the charge on electron.
All radialion produced does not have the wavelength given in Eq: 19.23 because
many of the electrons
arc not stopped in a Intensity
single collision.
This results in the
production of the
continuous spectrum
of wavelengths.

Wavelength A

I ixample 19 .5
Figure 19.8. Continuous x-rays curve.

Calculate the minimum wavelength produced when electrons are

accelerated through a potential difference of 1000, 00 V, for an X - ray tube.

Solution:
I
Using (Eq 19.23)
"-. = he
mm eV

Chnptcr 19 Atomk SpectrH

 361

( 6.63 o/eec)
X 10-34 j · S )(3x10
8
A =~------'--.;_-----
min (1.60 x10-19 c)(105 v)
"-min= 1.24x 10-11 m

19.7.2 Production of X-Rays I

Fig (19.9) shows an arrangement of producing x ·-rays. It consists a
filaments F, heated by the current supplied from a battery B, emits electrons. 'ftlis
serves as a hot cathode. The anode is made of a solid copper bar "c". A high
melting -point metal like platinum or tungsten is embedded at end of the copper
rod and it serve as a target T.

- - • Anode

C
f-- Water
El
➔

Glass chamber

Figure 19.9 : X-rays device

The cathode and anode are enclosed inside an evacuated glass chamber
and a high DC voltage of the order of 50,000 V is maintained between them. The
electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated by the high potential
difference. The energetic electrons strike the target T and X- rays are produced.

Chuptcr 19
 362

It may be mentioned that a small part of the kinetic energy of the incident
electrons is converted into X - rays, the rest is converted into heat. The target T
becomes very hot and must, therefore, have a high melting point. The heat
generated in target T is dissipated through the copper rod. Sometime the anode is
cooled by water flowing behind the anode.
When such highly energetic electrons are suddenly stopped by target T, an
intense beam of X -rays produced. These X -rays have large penetrating capacity
and are called hard X - rays, while those with small penetrating power are called
soft X-rays.

Properties of X-rays
Preliminary experimental investigations revealed that X -rays, have the
following properties.
1. They are not refracted as they pass from one medium into another.
2. They cast shadows of the obstacles placed in their path.
3. They can be diffracted.
4. They cause fluorescence in many substances.
5. They effect photographic plates.
6. They penetrate solid substances·which are opaque to ordinary visible light.
7. When they pass through a solid, liquid or gas, they ionize the atoms
Applications of X -Rays
The important practical applications of X -rays can be categorized as (i)
Scientific (ii) Industrial and (iii) medical.
Scientific Applications .
The diffraction of x -rays at crystals gave birth to x -ray crystallography.
The Laue diffraction pattern can be used to determine the internal structure of the
crystals. The spacing and dispositions of the atom of a crystal can be precisely
detennined.
Industrial Applications
Since X - rays penetrate the materials on which they are incident, they are
used in industry to detect defects in metallic stmctures in big machines, railway
tracks and bridges.

Atomic Spt!d ra
 363

X -rays are used to analyse the compositions of alloys such as bronze, steei and
artificial pearls. The structure of rubber and plastics can be analysed and
controlled by X-rays studies.
■ Medical Applications
Almost immediately after their discovery by Roentgen, X -rays were used
in hospitals in Vienna for surgical operations. Since bone is more opaque to x -
rays than flesh, if x -rays are allowed to pass through a human body, the bone!i ,
cast their shadow on the photographic plate. The X -ray photographs reveal
fractures of bones or the presence of foreign bodies. X-rays can also be used for
curing malignant tissues of the body. X-ray therapy ·has also been used for the
treatment of cancer.

19.7.3 CT Scanner

A 'normal' X- ray gives only limited information because it is rather like a

shadow picture - fine detail within the image may be invisible especially if one
organ lies in front of
X-rays detectors
the region of the body
being studied. To give
a high quality images
CT Scans are used to
identify internal
structures of various Patient on
coach
part of the human
body. CT Scans
Machine is 30
machine with
computer model

In the CT scanner
there is one X-ray
source but a large 19.9(b)· CT scanner with the X-rays source and
number of detectors. detectors

ChnJ>tcr J9 f i\Comlc Spcctrn

 - ... •• ..... _ ...._ _ _ - - - - . , __ -----1'
. .
,
' ....... , --~ . ' 364

The source and the detectors arc

mounted in a large ring-shaped
machine and the patient is placed
inside thi<; on a couch as shown m
figure. Each detector record,; an
image and the source and detectors 1

are then rotated around the patient

to give views from a variety of
direction. The image is called a ,
tomogram. The couch and patient
are then moved along the axis of
the machine and another set of
19.9(c): CT scan images.
images 1s taken.

This large number of images (many hundreds) are then combined by a computer
to give a composite detailed 3D image of the organs under investigation. The
development of the CT scanner has been of enonnous help in the study of the
tumours in cancer patients where images of high quality are essential.

19 .8 l .asers
• The term Jm,er is an abbreviation of Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emi <;~ion of Radiation. Laser is a remarkable device that produces an intense and
highly parallel beam ot coherent hght. The fir!)t lase1 wa!) fablicatcd by T.H.
Maiman in 1960. To understand the working of a laser, terms such as
spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and population inversion mm,t be
understood.

Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission

We have seen that one possible method of exciting an atom is to send

I
photon!) whose energy is equal to the excitation energy ot the atom. The
excitation energy Li£ b the difference between the two possible energy states of
an atom. The excited atom wait for a brief period of about 1o-ssand then

ChHpter 19 Ahunic Spectra~

 365

spontaneously drops back to its lowest energy state, emitting light or photon of
energy exactly equal to !!E.
The only role of the passing photon is to give up its entire energy in exciting the
electron to a higher energy state. This is a fonn of resonance in which a photon
induce an upward transition.

Spontaneous absorption Spontaneous emission Stunulated absorption

Figure 19. 10 : Electron falls back to its lower energy state E1 and emitting
a photon, thus duplicating the stimulated photon.

Can the photon play the opposite role, i. e. can it induce or stimulate the
downward transition? The answer is, Yes. Imagine a photon of energy 11£
incident on an atom which is already excited, its excitation energy being equal to
the energy l!E of the photon.
The photon can stimulate the excited electron to fall back to the lowest energy
state, instead of the excited electron waiting for 1a-e s for its spontaneous
transition. This transition can then take place much sooner than 1o-es. In this
process a photon of energy l!E is emitted and we already have the incident
photon of the same energy because, now it is not absorbed. The emitted photons
travel in exactly the same direction as the stimulated photon and are exactly in
phase. (Fig 19. 10).

Population Inversion and Laser Action

.
Let us consider a simple case of a material whose atoms can reside in three
different states as shown in fig 19 .11. State E1 which is ground state, the excited

Chapter 19
 ---- -------
- • • • - -- •- o..._ -'•• ~ r •
366

state E3 , in which the atoms can reside only for 1 o..a s and the metastable state
E2 ,in which the atoms can reside for 10-3s, much longer than10..as.

-8
10 Sec
E, N,

E, N, > N, .

L..Melaslable state
C:

~
0
~

e-
~ 51 ~
J:l
Ill ~ ~
Optical 8 Input
pumping
i
::J
"C
.5
:::X:::
oplical amplified
E, N,

Figure 19.11 (a)· electrons transition

energy of
A metastable Male is atom Lifetime» 10-"s
an excited slale in
which an excited
electron in unusually
stable and from
which the electron Stale
spontaneously falls to
lower state only after
relatively longer
time.
ground
state
Figure 19.11 (b), metastable states

Chapter 19 Atomic S11cctr:i

 367

The transition from or to this state are difficult as compared to other excited
states.
Hence, instead of direct
Pwnping energy
excitation to this state, the
electrons are excited Jo Mirror
higher level for spontaneous
fall to metastable state.

Also let us assume that the

incident photons energy (11)
hf = I; - E3 raise the atom
from ground state E1 to the
excited state E3 , but the
excited atoms do not decay
back to E1 • Thus the only
alternative for the atoms in
the excited state E3 is to
decay spontaneously to state
E2 • This eventually leads to
the situation that the state
E2 contains more atoms than
state, E3 • This situation is (c)

known as population Figure 19 12 : photons move back and forth inside

inversion. Once the reflecting mirrors.
population inversion has
been reached, the lasing action of a laser is simple to achieve.
The atoms in the metastable state E2 are bombarded by photons of energy
hf = E2 - E1, resulting in an induced emission, giving an intense, coherent beam in
the direction of the incident photon.

Chapter 19 Atomic Spectra

 The emitted photons must be confined in the assembly long enough to stimulate
further emission from other excited atoms. This is achieved by using mirrors at
the two ends of the assembly. One end is made totally reflecting, and the other
end is partially transparent to allow the laser beam to escape (Fig 19.12). As the
photons move back and
forth between the
reflecting mirrors they
continue to stimulate
~
REGULARUGIIT

other excited atoms to ~ ~~

emit photons. As the UGKT OF AU. WAVELENGTHS ~
process continues the
number of photons
multiply, and the
resulting radiation is,
therefore, much more
UGIIT OF ONE WAVELENGTH
intense and coherent than TRAVELING OUT OF STE'
light from ordinary LASERUGKT

sources.
UGlfT OF OHE WAVEI.EHGlll
TRAVEUNG 1H STEP

Figure 19.12 { d): comparison of light sources

Helium -Neon Laser with laser.

It 1s the most common type of lasers used in physics laboratoriec;. Its

discharge tube is filled with 85% helium and 15% neon gas. The neon is the
lasing or active medium in this tube. By chance, helium and neon have nearly
identical metastable states, respectively located 20.61 eV and 20.66 eV level. The
high voltage electric discharge excites the electrons in some of the helium atoms
to the 20.61 eV state. In this laser, population inversion in neon is achieved by
direct collisions with same energy electrons of helium atoms.
Thus excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms, each transferring its own
20.61 eV of energy to an electron in the neon atom along with 0.05eV of K.E
from the moving atom. As a result, the electrons in neon atoms are raised to the
20.t 6 e V state.

Chapter 19 ' Atomic Spectra

 In this way, a population
inversion is sustained in the
E~
_ 96cY .
..-'-X :~

neon gas relative to an

energy level of 18.70 eV.
1 E~
Pumping
BcctricaJ
. 632 8 run. rI l!~
2066 cV
Spontaneous emission from 2061 e.V

L]
neon atoms initiate laser
action and stimulated
emission causes electrons
in the neon to drop from llchum Ent Neon ~nl
20.66 eV to the 18.70 eV Tmns1uons ~ssumulaicd
(a) pontancous
level and red laser light of
wavelength 632.8 nm
corresponding to 1.96 eV Ei--- --c:g..-- - - -
energy is generated Photon
lncident
(Fig 19.13). phctcn ~
~
~
Photon
£,-----.'-----
(I,) Stimulated emission
Uses of Laser •
Figure 19.13 :

1. Laser beams are used as surgical tool for "welding" detached retains.
l. The narrow intense beam of laser can be used to destroy tissue in a
localized area. Tiny organelles with a living cell have been destroyed
by using laser to study how the absence of that organelle effects the
behaviour of the cell.
3. Finely focused beam of laser has been used to destroy cancerous and
pre -cancerous cells.
4. The heat of laser seals off capillaries and lymph vessels to prevent
spread of the disease.

Chapter 19 Atomic Spectra

 370

5.. The intense heat produced in small area by a laser beam is also used
for drilling tiny holes in hard materials.
6. The precise straightness of a laser beam is also useful to surveyors for
lining up equipment especially in inaccessible locations.
7. It is potential energy source for including fusion reactions.
8. Laser can develop hidden finger prints.
9. It can be used in telecommunication alonlbptical fibers.
10. Laser beam can be used to generate three dimensional images of
objects in process called holography. Fig. 19.14

Figure 19.14: hologram

f'h:ipter 19 Atumk Spectrn

 • When an atom gas or vapours at less than atmospheric pressure is
suitably exited, usually by passing electric current through it, the
emitted radiation has a spectrum which contains certain specific
wavelengths only.
• Postulates of Bohr's model of H -atom are:
i. An electron bound to the nucleus in an atom, can move
around the nucleus in certain circular orbits without
radiating. These orbits are called the discrete stationary
states of the atom.
ii. Only those stationary states are allowed for which orbital
angular momentum is, equal to an integral m~ltiple of.h_i.e,
nh 2n
mvr=-
2n ;
iii. Whenever an electron makes a transition, i.e, jumps from
high energy state En to a lower energy ,state EP , a photon ~f
energy hf is emitted so that hf = En - EP.
• The transition of electrons in the hydrogen or other light elements
results in the emission of spectral lines in the infrared, visible or
ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum due to small energy
difference in the transition levels.
• The X-rays emitted in inner shell transition are called characteristics
X- rays, because their energy depends upon the · type of target
materials.
• The X-rays that are emitted in all directions and with a continuous
range of frequencies are known as continuous X-rays.
• Laser is the acronym for light amplification by stimulated Emisslon of
Radiation.

Chapter 19 Atomic Spectra

 372

• The incident photon absorbed by an atom in the ground state E1, there
by leaving the atom in the exited state E2 called stimulated or induces
absorption.
• Spontaneous or induced emission is that in which the atom emits a
photon of energy hf = E2 - E1 in any arbitrary direction.
• Stimulated or induced emission is thal in which the incident photon of
energy hf = E 2 - E1 induce the atom to decay by emitting a photon that
travels in the direction of the incident photon. For each incident
photon, we have two photons going in the same direction giving rise
to an amplified as weJl as unidirectional coherent beam.

Ch1tptcr 19 Atomic Spectra

 373

I._ xercis I
Multiple choice questions:

Each of the following questions is followed by four answers. Select the

correct answer in each case.

1. If 13.6eV energy is required to ionize the hydrogen atom, then the required
energy to remove an electron from n = 2 is
a. 10.2eV b. 0 eV c. 3.4 eV d. 6.8 eV

2. For an atom of hydrogen atom the radius of the first orbit is given by,
h me
a. - - 2 b. - 2
me 4h
h2
c. 41t kme2
2

3. The Balmer series is obtained when all the transition of electrons terminate
on •
a. 1st orbit b. 2nd orbit c. 3rd orbit d. 4th orbit

4. In accordance with Bohr's theory the K.E of the electron is equal to

ze2 ze2 Ze2 1 ze2
a. ½- b. - c. - -2 d. - --2
r r r 2 r
5, According to Bohr's theory the radius of quantized orbit is given by
4n2m n2h2
a. n h2 Ze2
2 b. 4x2mZe2

6. In the Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, the lowest orbit corresponds to
a. Infinite energy b. Maximum energy
c. Minimum energy d. Zero energy

Atomic Spect~
 374

7. When an electron in an atom goes from a lower to higher orbit its

a. K.E increases, P.E decreases b. K.E increases, P.E increases
c. K.E decreases, P.E increases d. K.E decreases, P.E decreases

8. Frequency of X - rays depends upon

a. Number of electrons striking target b. Accelerating potential
c. Nature of the target d. Both b and c
9. Target material used in X - rays tube must have following properties.
a. High alomic number and high melting point
b. High atomic number and low melting point.
c. Low atomic number and low melting point. d. High atomic number only
10. Laser is a device which can produce.
a. Intense beam of light b. Coherent beam of light
c Monochromatic beam of light d. All of the above

Conceptual Questions
1. Why does the speclrum of hydrogen consists of many lines even though a ·
hydrogen atom has only a single electron?
2. Suppose that the electron in hydrogen atom obeyed classical mechanics
rather quantum mechanics. Why would such a hypotheucal atom emit a
continuous spectrum rather than the observed line spectrum?
3. Can the electron in the ground state of hydrogen absorb a photon of energy
(a) less than 13.6eV (b) greater than 13.6eV? Explain.
4. Why do s~lids give rise to continuous spectrum while hot gases give rise
to line spectrum?
5. Explain the difference between laser light and light from an incandescent
lamp.
6. Why Bohr extends quantum theory t(? the structure of the atom?
7. Why 2He4 has larger ionization energy than H? ·
8. X - rays can emit electrons from metal surface and X -rays can be
diffracted. Comment?
9. Why X-rays have different properties from light even though both
originate from orbital transition of electrons in excited atoms?

f'h:iptcr 19 Atomic Spectra

 375

10. What is meant by the statement that a laser beam is coherent,

monochromatic and parallel? ·
11. What are laser knives?
12. Why we cannot see atom?
13. What meant by breaking radiation?
14. What is optical pumping?

Comprehensive Questions

1. Describe the spe.ctrum of hydrogen atom in detail.

2. .What are Bohr's postulates about hydrogen atom? Hence derive
expression for the (a) radii of electron orbit (b) energy of the electron.
3. What do you understand by the terms normal state, Excited state,
Excitation energy, ionization energy.
4. What are X-rays? Give an account of the properties, and uses of X-rays.
5. What is a l~er? Explain the principle and 'operation of a laser. Describe
· some practical uses of lasers.

Numerical Problems
1. Find the shortest wavelength photon emitted in the lyman series of
hydrogen. (91nm)
2. What is the wavelength of the second line of paschen series?
[1281 .43nm] .
.
3. Calculates the longest wavelength of radiation for the paschen series
[1875 nm] .
4. The series limit wavelength of the Balmer series is emitted as the
electron in the hydrogen atom falls from n =oo to the n =2 state. What is
the wavelength of this line. Where .l\E=3.40eV. [ 365nm] .
S. A photon is emitted from a hydrogen atom, which undergoes a transition
from that n = 3 state to the n = 2 state. Calculate (a) the energy (b) the
wavelength, and (c) frequency of the emitted photon.
[ (a)1 .89eV,(b)658 nm (c)4.56 x 1014 Hz]
Chapter 19 f Atomic Spcctr;-J
 376

6. Find Lhe longest wavelength of light capable of ionizing a hydrogen

atom. How much energy in needed to ionize a hydrogen atom?
[91.2 nm, 13.6 eVJ.
7. Calculate the radius of the innermost orbital level of the hydrogen atom.
[ 5.3x10-11 m J.
8. (a) Determine the energy associated with the innermost orbit of the
hydrogen atom (n=l). (b) Determine the energy associated with the
second orbit of the hydrogen atom. (c) What energy does an incoming
photon possess to raise an electron from first to the second allowed orbit
of the hydrogen atom? [ (a) = -13.6eV, (b) - 3.4eV, (c )-10.2 eV] .

9. An electron drops from the second energy level to the first energy level
within an excited hydrogen atom (a) determine the energy of the photon
emitted (b) calculate the frequency of the photon emitted (c) calculate
the wavelength of the photon emitted.
[(a) 10.2 ev (b) 2.5 x1015 Hz (c)1.2x10-1 m]
10. An electron is in the first Bohr orbit of hydrogen. Find (a) the speed of
the electron. (b) the time required for the electron to circle the nucleus.
[(a) 2.19x106 ms-1 , (b)1.52x10~ s]

11. Electrons in an x -ray tube are accelerated lhruugh a potential difference

of 3000 V. if these electrons were slowed down in a target, what will be
the minimum wavelength of x -rays produced.
0
[4.14A ]

12. Compute the potential difference through which an electron must be

accelerate in order that the short -wave limit of the continuous x -ray
spectrum shall be exactly 0.1 nm.
[12,400V].

Chnpter 19 Atomic Spectra