AECC- Compulsory course

Environmental Awareness
🞂 The word environment is derived from the French word “environ” meaning
surroundings. Hence, everything surrounding us is called environment.
🞂 The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things. This
environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather,
and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity.
🞂 Environmental studies is multi-disciplinary because it comprises various
branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science,
agriculture and public health. It is the science of physical phenomena in the
environment.
🞂 Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is an
applied science as its seeks practical answers to making human civilization
sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.
🞂 The environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological
and cultural elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as
collectively.
These elements are:
🞂 (1) Physical Elements: Space, landforms, water
bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals. They
determine the variable character of the human habitat,
its opportunities as well as limitations .
🞂 (2) Biological Elements:Plants, animals,
microorganisms and human beings constitute the
biosphere.
🞂 (3) Cultural Elements:Economic, social and
political elements are essentially manmade features.
🞂 Environment Studies enlighten us about the importance of protection and conservation
of our environment. At present, a great number of environment issues have grown in
size and complexity day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. We live in
landscapes that have been heavily modified by human beings, in villages, towns or
cities.
🞂 But even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from surrounding villages
and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands, rivers,
seashores, for resources such as water for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish.
🞂 The scope of environmental studies include:

1. Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the environment and its related

problems.
2. Motivating people for active participation in environmental protection.
3. Developing skills to find solutions to environmental problems.
4. Imbibe and inculcate in others the necessity for conservation of natural resources.
🞂 Environmental sustainability is defined as responsible
interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or
degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term
environmental quality.
🞂 The practice of environmental sustainability helps to ensure
that the needs of today's population are met without
jeopardizing (compromising) the ability of future generations
to meet their needs.
🞂 Sustainable Development
🞂 Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety
of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up
our natural world. Each of these species and organisms work together in
ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and support life.
Biodiversity supports everything in nature that we need to survive: food, clean
water, medicine, and shelter.

🞂 The term “biodiversity” refers to the variety of living organisms. Biodiversity

brings together the different species and forms of life (animal, plant,
entomological and other) and their variability, that is to say, their dynamics of
evolution in their ecosystems. Traditionally, there are three levels of
biodiversity: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
🞂 A natural functional ecological unit comprising of living
organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or
physio- chemical) environment that interact to form a stable
self-supporting system.
🞂 Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems
and aquatic ecosystems. These form the two major habitat
conditions for the Earth’s living organisms.
🞂 In any ecosystem we have the following functional
components:

(i)Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii)Organisms (plants, animals and microbes)

(iii)Energy input which enters from outside (the sun)

🞂 Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human
life. All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the
growth and regeneration of its plant and animal species.
🞂 These interlinked processes can be depicted as various cycles. All these
processes depend on energy from sunlight.
🞂 During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and oxygen is
released into the atmosphere. Animals depend on this oxygen for their
respiration. The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for
plants and animals to live.
🞂 The energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows.
Our own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles
of life. If human activities alter them, humanity cannot survive on earth.
🞂 A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients through
a succession of organisms through repeated process of eating and being
eaten. In a food chain, the initial link is a green plant or producer which
produces chemical energy available to consumers.
🞂 For example, marsh grass is consumed by a grasshopper, the grasshopper is
consumed by a bird and that bird is consumed by hawk.
🞂 Food chains are of three types:
🞂 Grazing food chain
🞂 Parasitic food chain
🞂 Saprophytic or detritus food chain
🞂 Many food chains exist in an ecosystem, and they are not independent. In
an ecosystem, one organism does not depend wholly on another. The
resources are shared specially at the beginning of the chain.
🞂 The marsh plants are eaten by variety of insects, birds, mammals and fishes
and some of the animals are eaten by several predators. Similarly, in the
food chain e.g.: grass→mouse → snakes→owls.
🞂 Sometimes mice are not eaten by snakes but directly by owls. This type
of interrelationship interlinks the individuals of the whole community. In
this way, food chains become interlinked.
🞂 A complex of interrelated food chains makes up a food web. Food web
maintains the stability of the ecosystem. The greater the number of
alternative pathways, the more stable is the community of living things.
🞂 Ecological Succession is the process by which the ecosystem tend to 48 change
over a period of time. There are several developmental stages in the ecosystem.
Developmental stages in the ecosystem consist of a pioneer stage, a series of
changes known as serial stages and finally a climax stage.
🞂 The successive stages are related to the way in which energy flows through the
biological system. Succession usually produces a stable state at the end. For
example, an open area will gradually be converted into grassland, a shrub land
and finally, a woodland and a forest.
🞂 There are two different types of succession- primary and secondary.
🞂 Primary succession occurs in regions in which the soil is incapable of
sustaining life. This may occur due to factors like lava flows, newly formed
sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier.
🞂 Secondary succession occurs in areas where a community that previously
existed has been removed. It is characterized by smaller-scale disturbances that
do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment. The most frequent
example of successional changes occur in a pond ecosystem.
🞂 The different stages may be: dry terrestrial habitat, an early colonization stage
by small aquatic species after the monsoon, a mature aquatic ecosystem.
🞂 It may go back to its dry stage in summer when its aquatic life remains
dormant. Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes,
which create changes in the community of plants and animals living in the
ecosystem.
🞂 Other successional events may take much longer periods of time, extending
to several decades. If a forest is cleared, initially only a small number of
species from surrounding habitats are capable of thriving in this disturbed
habitat.
🞂 As new plant species take hold, they modify the habitat by altering things like
the amount of shade on the ground or the mineral composition of the soil.
🞂 These changes allow other species that are better suited to this modified
habitat to succeed the old species. These newer species are superseded, in
turn by still newer species.
🞂 A similar succession of animal species occurs, and interactions between
plants, animals, and environment influence the pattern and rate of
successional change.
 🞂 A forest ecosystem is a population of organisms
residing within a tree. In general, a forest is defined as a
large group of trees. Other important aspects of a forest,
however, are the shrubs, the floor-leaf mulch and the
plants that live in conjunction with the trees.
 🞂 A forest ecosystem, however, isn't just about the
forest environment. It also deals with the animals
that live in the forest.
🞂 Forest ecosystems are important not just for the community close to
the forest, but for the whole world.
The following are the reasons for this.
🞂 1. The Amazon rainforest is described as a biotic pump-like a giant
green lung that releases oxygen into the atmosphere and locks away
carbon.
🞂 2. Some of our forests are truly ancient, and much older than many
human civilizations.
🞂 3. All our forest ecosystems are important for biodiversity. In fact,
biologists very often claim that they are still discovering new species in
the Amazon rain forest on a regular basis.
🞂 4. Forest ecosystems are not just habitats for animals. Many human
communities including indigenous communities live in forests all over
the world.
🞂 5. Forests keep the earth rich in minerals, protect it from
desertification by providing a shield against winds, and so on.
🞂 Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grassland
Ecosystems and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. Grasslands occupy
about 24% of the earth’s surface. They occur in regions too dry for forests
and too moist for deserts.
🞂 The annual rainfall ranges between 25-75cm, usually seasonal. The principal
grasslands includes Prairies (Canada, USA), Pampas (South America),
Steppes (Europe and Asia), and Veldts (Africa).
🞂 The highest abundance and greatest diversity of large mammals are found in
these ecosystems. The dominant animal species include wild horses, asses
and antelope of Eurasia, herds of Bison of America, and the antelope and
other large herbivores of Africa.
🞂 Grasslands are found primarily on plains or rolling topography in the
interiors of great land masses, and from sea level to elevations of nearly
16,400 ft in the Andes.
🞂 Because of their continental location, they experience large differences in
seasonal climate and wide ranges in diurnal conditions.
🞂 A desert ecosystem is a community of organisms that live together in an
environment that seems to be deserted wasteland. A desert ecosystem generally
witnesses little rainfall, resulting in less vegetation than in more humid areas of
the globe. Look closely at any seemingly deserted piece of land and you will
usually be able to see numerous insets living in communities, an abundance of
plant life, mammals and birds.
🞂 In addition, micro organ-isms such as bacteria will also be present in this
ecosystem, though they are not visible to the naked human eye.
🞂 There are many different types of desert ecosystems.
🞂 1. Hot deserts:
🞂 Hot deserts can be found close to the equator. The Sahara is a good example.
Hot deserts tend to feature scorching hot ground which many plants may
struggle to grow on, little shade, and a shortage of water. The plants and animals
that live here have evolved in order to adapt to these very hot conditions. For
example, cacti have grown a tough outer skin and interiors which can store any
fluid that they absorb so that they can stay hydrated during droughts.
2. Cold deserts:
🞂 Desertification can exist at high altitudes too, and when this
happens, the desert will be cold. A good example is the
deserted rocky peaks of a mountain. A cold desert may be
sandy or rocky, but it will be a harsh environment where
organisms have adapted in strange and wonderful ways so that
they can survive. E.g.: Gobi desert.
3. Ice deserts :
🞂 Ice deserts are another type of cold desert. Here, instead of a
sandy or rocky wasteland, we have a seemingly uninhabited
region that is composed of ice. Ice deserts can be found
towards the north and south poles of the planet, though they
may also be located high up on mountain peaks.
🞂 In the broadest sense, there are two major types of ecosystems-aquatic and
terrestrial. Among which aquatic ecosystems are further classified into
freshwater, marine and estuarine ecosystems based on their salt content.
Composing more than 70% of the Earth’s surface, aquatic ecosystems are
not only the dominant feature of earth but are also very diverse in species
and complexity of interaction among their physical, chemical and bio-
logical components.
🞂 Fresh water ecosystems Fresh water ecosystems cover about 2% of the
earth’s surface, an area of about 2.5 million Km2. These ecosystems are
characterized by running water or still water. The running water
ecosystems are also known as lotic ecosystems and still water as lentic
ecosystems.
🞂 Lotic ecosystems Fresh water streams (Springs, rivulets,
creeks, brooks etc.) and rivers can change over their course
from being narrow, shallow, and relatively rapid to become
increasingly broad, deep and slow moving.
🞂 A river is a lotic ecosystem that is formed because of gravity
and acts as a catchments delivery/removal system.
🞂 They are Mother Nature’s pipelines. The water in a lotic
ecosystem, from source to mouth, will 56 have atmospheric
gases, turbidity, longitudinal temperature gradation and
material dissolved in it.
🞂 An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or
more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open
sea.
🞂 Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime
environments. They are subject both to marine influences-such as tides,
waves, and the influx of saline water-and to reverie influences-such as flows
of fresh water and sediment.
🞂 The inflows of both sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients
both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries one among the
most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed
during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river eroded or glacially
scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10,000-12,000 years
ago.
🞂 Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphologic features
or to water-circulation patterns.
🞂 They can have many different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons,
inlets, or sounds, although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet
the above definition of an estuary and may be fully saline.
🞂 The banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas
of the world, with about 60% of the world’s population living along
estuaries and the coast.
🞂 As a result, many estuaries suffer degradation by many factors, including
sedimentation from soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing and other poor
farming practices; overfishing; and filling of wetland; eutrophication due to
excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including
heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, radionuclides and hydrocarbons
from sewage inputs; and damming for flood control or water diversion.
🞂 Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic ecosystems.
Examples include salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves,
coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor. They can be contrasted with fresh
water ecosystems, which have a lower salt content.
🞂 Marine waters cover two thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are
considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice
versa. Marine ecosystems are essential for the overall health of both marine
and terrestrial environments.
🞂 According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats account for about
one-third of marine biological productivity.
🞂 Estuarine ecosystems, such as salt marshes, sea grass meadows and mangrove
57 forests, are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet.
🞂 Coral reefs provide food and shelter to the highest levels of marine diversity in
the world. Marine ecosystems usually have a large biodiversity and are
therefore thought to have a good resistance against invasive species.
 Assi. Prof. Sonali Bhosale

AECC – Environmental Studies

Unit 3: Natural Resources:
Renewable and
Non-Renewable sources Topics

❑ Energy

❑ Land

❑ Deforestation

❑ Water

2
 Introduction
❑ Natural resources
The resources that are available in the environment and develop independent of human
interference are called natural resources. They are used to support life and meet human
needs.
e.g. coal, natural gas, oil, gas, metals, stone etc.
❑ Renewable resources
The resources that are responsible for the production of renewable energy are called
renewable resources. They can be replenished at the same rate at which they are used.
They are natural resources like solar energy, wind energy, water, biomass, geothermal etc.
❑ Non renewable resources
The natural resources that are formed over a long period of time in the environment and are
impossible to renew easily are called non renewable resources. These resources can be
depleted more quickly than they can be regenerated. E,g, coal, compressed natural gas.

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4
 Alternative Sources of Energy

.
1. Solar Energy: Sun is the primary source of heat and light on the earth. The energy received by the earth from the sun is about 1.4
kilojoules per second per square meter, also known as the solar constant. Solar panels are used to convert this energy into
electrical energy.

2. Hydroelectric Energy: In a hydroelectric power plant, the potential of stored water in a reservoir is converted into the kinetic
energy of water. This kinetic energy of water is used to rotate the blades of the turbine connected to a generator, producing
electricity.

3. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is derived from the heat generated by the earth’s core. This heat is used to generate
electricity by using steam turbines.
4. Bioenergy: Bioenergy is derived from organic matter such as wood, crops, and waste materials. This organic matter is burned to
produce heat, which in turn produces steam that drives turbines connected to generators.

5. Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is produced by splitting atoms in a process called nuclear fission. The heat generated by this
process is used to produce steam that drives turbines connected to generators.

5
 Land resources and land use change

• Land resources includes hills, plains, river basins, wetlands, etc.

• Lans is a finite resources, but if utilized properly it can be considered as a renewable resource. It
will be converted into non-renewable when immensely toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are
disposed onto it.
• Driving forces behind the land use change:
Building homes, cultivating food, Developing
industries for providing goods,
For creating towns and cities.

6
 Land degradation

Urbanization Modernization Industrialization Population growth

• Some major causes also include soil erosion, water-logging, and excessive salinity.
• The most critical issue is deforestation.

7
 Land Degradation
• Farmland is endangered due to excessive utilization. Each year, between 5 to 7 million
hectors of land is added to the current degraded farmland.
• According to statistics, out of the total land area, about 175 million hectors face
degradation.

8
 Soil erosion
• It is defined as the displacement of the upper layer of soil and is in itself a
form of soil degradation.
• The top layer of soil gets continuously eroded by various natural agents
like air and water
• Excessive erosion can be due to overgrazing, deforestation, mining, etc.
• The agents of soil erosion can be either water or wind.

• Types of soil erosion: 1) Water induced erosion- Splash, Sheet, Rill, Gully
2) Wind induced erosion

9
 Desertification
• It is defined as the process of conversion of productive land to arid or
semi-arid lands.
• Its causes include climate change, deforestation, overgrazing, mining,
unsustainable irrigation practices, etc.
• Some effects include difficulty in farming, decreases in crop yields,
flooding, poor water quality, biodiversity loss, migration, etc .

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 Deforestation

• Deforestation is the practice of intentionally cutting down trees to clear land for
other uses. In the past 10,000 years, the world has lost 2 billion hectares — or
one-third — of its forested land, and half of that has occurred since 1900.

• The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that an average of 10

million hectares of forest are cut down each year, but some years are much
worse than others. 2016 remains the worst year on record for deforestation
at 29.7 million hectares, partly due to significant forest fires.

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According to the secretariat of the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change), agriculture is the root cause of 80% of deforestation. Logging accounts for another 14%
and the cutting of trees for use as wood fuel account for 5%.

12
 Water: use and overexploitation of surface water
• Use: irrigation, drinking, water supply, recreation and hydroelectric power
generation. However, overuse of surface water can lead to a range of
negative impacts, including:
• Droughts: Reduced water availability. Significant impact on agriculture,
industry and human population.
• Ecological impacts: drying up of wetlands, damage to aquatic ecosystem,
and loss of habitat for wildlife.
• Water pollution: can exacerbate water pollution, as pollutants can become
concentrated in the remaining water.

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 Preservation of ground and surface water
• Promote water conservation
• Implement efficient irrigation techniques
• Protect water sources
• Monitor water resources
• Promote alternative water sources
• Implement water allocation systems
• Price water to reflect its true value

Presentation title 14
 Conflicts over water

• Agriculture vs. urban use

• Inter-state or inter-country water disputes
• Environmental conservation vs. Human use
• Traditional vs. modern users

Presentation title 15
Unit 4: Biodiversity
and conservation
Topics
❑ Levels of biological diversity

❑ India as mega-biodiversity nation

❑ Threats to biodiversity

❑ Ecosystem and biodiversity services

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The sum of all the varied plant species, mammals, fungi, and microbiological
organisms that dwell on Earth, as well as the various habitats in which they live, is
known as biodiversity. The genetic information contained in these creatures is also
included in biodiversity. Biodiversity is derived from two words: bio, which means
life, and diversity, which means variety.
Biodiversity refers to the diversity of all living organisms, encompassing the
numerous plants, creatures, and microbes, as well as the genetic data and
ecosystems that they create.

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 Levels of biodiversity

1. Genetic diversity
Within a species, genetic diversity refers to the number of genes present. Every species is made up of people with their
own unique genetic make-up. This indicates that a species may have many populations, each with its own genetic
makeup. Diverse populations of an ecosystem should be protected in order to preserve genetic diversity. Through genetic
linkages, all animals on Earth are related in some way. And the closer two species are connected, the more genetic
code the two populations will exchange.
2. Species diversity
The diversity of species observed within a habitat or region is referred to as species diversity. Many species can be found
in some ecosystems, such as rainforests and coral reefs. Others have fewer, such as salt flats or a filthy creek. Every
ecosystem has its own assortment of species that interact with one another. Certain habitats may well have a significantly
higher number of species than others. One species has grown so huge in some habitats that it now dominates the natural
community.
3. Ecosystem diversity
The diversity of habitats in a specific location is referred to as ecological diversity. An ecosystem is a population of
organisms that engage with their physical surroundings. A vast environment, such as a forest, or a tiny ecosystem, such
as a pond, are both examples of ecosystems. An area may well have multiple ecosystems or only one. Oceans or deserts
with large swaths of land would be examples of low ecological diversity locations. In this respect, a mountainous location
with lakes, woods, and grasslands might have more biodiversity. 18
 Biodiversity patterns
Ecologists observed that species vary at a global level as well as locally; also, species vary over time.

• Species Varying Globally - Global pattern of biodiversity has been observed; here, species living in
similar habitats are found in different parts of the world are distantly related and act similarly.
Examples are Emus that are found in Australia, Rheas found in South America, Ostriches found in
Africa, all are flightless birds.
• Species Varying Locally - An example is the Galapagos islands that consist of a group of islands
that are relatively close to each other but comprise different atmospheres with different climates.
So, each island comprises its own species of tortoise and finch that adapt to respective islands.
• Species Varying Over Time - An example that we can cite is the modern-day armadillo and the
fossil remains of glyptodont that resemble each other.

Latitudinal Gradients Describing Biodiversity Pattern in Species:

• Latitude: It is a determinant of the angular distance of a place concerning the equator, which
ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles.
• Gradient: "direction and rate of fastest increase".
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 Biographic zones of India
• Trans-Himalayan Zone
This zone includes the high-altitude regions of Ladakh, Lahaul-Spiti, and parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
It is characterized by alpine meadows, barren landscapes, and sparse vegetation.
• Himalayan Zone
This zone extends along the entire length of the Himalayan mountain range and includes states like Uttarakhand, Himachal
Pradesh, and parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
It features diverse ecosystems ranging from sub-tropical forests in the lower regions to coniferous forests, alpine meadows,
and glaciers at higher elevations.
• Desert Zone
The desert zone covers the arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Haryana and Punjab.
It comprises the Thar Desert and features xerophytic vegetation, sand dunes, and saline lakes.
• Semi-Arid Zone
This zone encompasses areas with a semi-arid climate, including parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya
Pradesh.
It features shrub-lands, dry deciduous forests, and grasslands.
• Western Ghats
The Western Ghats, running parallel to the western coast of India, constitute a hotspot of biodiversity.
This zone includes tropical evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, grasslands, and wetlands. 20
• Deccan Plateau
The Deccan Plateau covers central and southern India, including parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
It consists of dry deciduous forests, scrublands, and extensive agricultural lands.
• Gangetic Plain
This zone encompasses the fertile plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, extending across states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal, and Assam.
It features alluvial soils, wetlands, and diverse vegetation.
• Coastal Zone
The coastal zone covers the coastal areas of India, including mangrove forests, estuaries, beaches, and coral reefs.
It is rich in marine biodiversity and supports unique ecosystems.
• Northeastern Himalayan Region
This zone includes the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and parts of Assam and Nagaland.
It features a diverse range of habitats, including subtropical forests, montane forests, and alpine meadows.
• Eastern Ghats
The Eastern Ghats stretch along the eastern coast of India, covering states like Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
This zone comprises dry deciduous forests, scrublands, and hilly terrain.
• Islands
The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of coral islands located in the Arabian Sea. This zone is characterised by coral reefs, lagoons,
and marine ecosystems with rich biodiversity.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal. They are home
to diverse ecosystems, including tropical rainforests, mangroves, coral reefs, and endemic species.

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22
• Biodiversity hotspots are regions with the richest and most
threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth.

• There are 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, which represent

just 2.4% of Earth’s land surface. These hotspots support
nearly 60% of the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and
amphibian species, with a high share of those species as
endemics. Some examples of biodiversity hotspots are the Tropical
Andes, the Cape Floristic Region, and the New Zealand archipelago

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Global biodiversity hotspots

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Criteria for an Area to become a Biodiversity Hotspot

A region must meet two tight requirements to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot in the world
according to Myers’ 2000 edition of the hotspot map:

• It must have at least 0.5 per cent, or 1,500 vascular plants, as endemics – that is, a high
percentage of plant life that can be found nowhere else on the earth. In other words, a
hotspot is irreplaceable.
• It must have no more than 30% of its original natural vegetation. To put it another way, it
must be in danger.

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• Biodiversity in the world is important for the following reasons:

1.Preservation: They create an ecoregion in which numerous endemic species can be

preserved and conserved. More than 15,000 indigenous plant species are found in
biodiversity hotspots around the world, with some of them losing up to 95 per cent of their
natural habitat.
2.Development: They contribute to the growth of a healthy ecosystem.
3.Natural resources: These hotspots are beneficial to natural resource conservation.
4.Pollution control: These areas aid in pollution control.
5.Habitat: Many species use biodiversity hotspots as their home.
6.Food: They provide food for many species, including humans.
7.Medicinal resources: They are a good source of pharmaceutical pharmaceuticals and
treatments.
8.Human Survival: Humanity would perish! At this rate of extinction occurring in the
biodiversity hotspots in the world, we will have less air to breathe, food to eat, and even
water to drink and use. These biological hotspots are the most important for human
survival, and they are also the most endangered.

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27
 Just 17 of the world’s 190 or so countries contain 70 percent of its biodiversity, earning them the title
“megadiverse.” India is one of these megadiverse countries with 2.4% of the land area, accounting for 7-8% of
the species of the world, including about 91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species of plants, that have
been documented in its ten bio-geographic regions. Of these 12.6% of mammals, 4.5% of birds, 45.8% of
reptiles, 55.8% of amphibians and 33% of Indian plants are endemic, being found nowhere else in the world.

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 Endangered & Endemic Species in India
• Animals or plants are considered to be endangered if there are only a few members of their species
left in the wild, and if they are not properly protected, they will eventually become extinct. Endemism
refers to the fact that a particular plant or animal species can only be found in a specific region of
the planet. These as well will vanish from the globe if conservation efforts are not made. At the
Rio+20 Earth Summit, the Red List of 2018 was made public for the first time. There are 132
endangered plant and animal species found here that are native to India.

• The Asiatic Lion in Gir Forest National Park, the Sangai deer in Keibul Lamjao National Park, the
Nilgiri Tahr and Lion-Tailed Macaque in the Western Ghats of India are other instances.

• The Great Indian Rhinoceros, the Critically Endangered Gharial, the Hoolock Gibbon, the Ganga River
Dolphin, the Chinkara, the Blackbuck, the Saara hardwickii, the Indian Star Tortoise, the Indian Bison,
the Assam Roofed Turtle, and the Mugger Crocodile are all native wild animals that live on the
Indian subcontinent.

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 Endangered Species
• An endangered species are the animals and plants that are at the edge of extinction. National
endangered species day is on the third Friday of May, every year. People celebrated this day to
bring awareness about the endangered flora and fauna. It specifies that human activities are
doing harm to animals as well as plants.
• We need to keep our activities in check to save these floras and fauna that are about to extinct.
It is for alerting us about the alarming situation caused by our actions. Endangered species are
at three levels; state, national and international. Endangered species act manages the list of
endangered species on the federal level.
• Congress in 1973 initiated the Endangered Species Act (ESA).
Under this act, the government protects endangered species, threatened species, and critical
habitats.
• Threatened species are the ones who are at the risk of getting endangered in the future.
Critical habitats are habitats of these endangered species that need protection.
• Listed species are those which are on the list of protection by the Endangered Species Act.
Whereas, candidate species are those who can come on the list.
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 Endemic Species of India
• The following is a list of the species that are unique to India and can only be found here:

• The Asiatic Lion and the Gir Forest

The Asiatic Lion, commonly known as the Indian Lion, is endemic to only the Gir Forest National Park in Gujarat and the areas immediately around it. These
animals are considered to be on the verge of extinction. These are two of India’s five big cats; the others are the Indian Le opard and the Bengal Tiger. India is
home to a total of five large cats.

• Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley

The Dachigam National Park in the Kashmir Valley and the Chamba district in Himachal Pradesh are home to the Hangul, another name for the Kashmir Stag.
Both of these areas are located in Himachal Pradesh.

• The Western Ghats, and the Lion-Tailed Macaque

Only the Western Ghats of Southern India are known to be home to this one-of-a-kind primate species, making it the world’s rarest, most endangered primate.
• Purple Frog, Western Ghats

The only place on Earth where you can find the purple frog, also called the Pignose frog, is in the rainforests of India’s western ghats. It burrows underground
for most of its existence.

• Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake

In addition to its other name, the Brow Antlered Deer, this species can only be found in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao National Park. This park is a marshy wetland
and it is situated in the southern portions of Loktak lake.

• Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills

It is an endangered species of wild sheep that can only be found in the unique Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats.

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❑ Other species that can only be found in India include the following:

• Pygmy Hog, Assam

• Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats

• Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills

• Malabar Civet, Western Ghats

• Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills

• Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh

• Indian Giant Squirrel

• Bonnet Macaque

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 Threats to Biodiversity
• Climate change refers to the long term and irreversible change that occurs in the Earth’s climate.
This increase in the temperature of the atmosphere has major effects on the environment such as
the seasons, rising of the sea levels, and glacial retreats.
• The biodiversity of organisms are affected regarding their population, distribution, level of the
ecosystem, and even the individuals’ morphology and function.
• Because of the increase in temperature, organisms have already adapted by expanding their ranges
in latitudes. Because of this behavior, many species population have declined. Aside from this,
many animals have exhibited changes in the timings of their physiological functions. These include
the birds and insects migrating and mating earlier than usual, which then result in some failure in
breeding and production of young.
• Regarding ecosystems, studies revealed that climate change has brought the expansion of many
desert ecosystems and thus have effects on the function and services that the ecosystem can
provide.

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• Habitat loss refers to changes in the environment that result to the rendering of a specific habitat to be functionally
valuable. The habitat can no longer accommodate and support the life of the organisms present, thereby declining
their population.

• Habitat loss may either be caused by natural events like natural calamities and geological events or anthropogenic
activities like deforestation and man-induced climate change.

• In the process of habitat degradation, the organisms that were once living in a particular area or region are displaced
and are forced to relocate; thus resulting in biodiversity reduction.

• Indeed, man-made efforts are the prime reasons for habitat loss. At present, the practice of clearing out ecosystems
for agriculture conversion and industrial expansion continues to displace organisms of their natural habitat. Other
activities include logging and mining.

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 Pollution

• Be it water, air, or land pollution, all forms of pollution appear to be a threat to all life forms on Earth. However, it plays a major threat
to biodiversity when it comes to the nutrient loading of the elements nitrogen and phosphorus.

• In Europe, atmospheric nitrogen is the only pollutant that has not decreased in concentration since the implementation of
legislation. Its mere presence poses huge challenges to the conservation measures intended to natural habitats and species li ving
there.
• Furthermore, the presence of nitrogen compounds in water systems can cause eutrophication (excessive plant and algal growth).
• The presence and accumulation of phosphorus in water systems can alter the way food webs function. Excessive phosphorus, like
nitrogen can result to the uncontrolled growth of planktonic algae; thus increasing organic matter deposition in the seabed.
• Another form of pollution that can damage and kill living organisms is acid rain. Acid rain, as its name suggests, is rain that is
composed of harmful acids (i.e., nitric and sulfuric acid). This rain is usually a result of pollution coming from the excess ive burning
of fossil fuels.
• Some types of pollution, like the depletion of the ozone layer, can be reversible. However, this shall only happen when human s stop
or limit the use of various chemicals that contribute to its destruction.

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• Overexploitation refers to the act of overharvesting species and natural resources at
rates faster than they can actually sustain themselves in the wild. Because of this,
species population is put into great risk of reduction.

• Overharvesting, overfishing, and overhunting are some examples of overexploitation.

• Additionally, some species of living organisms find it hard to reproduce when their
number is too small.
• So as a population or ecosystem continues to suffer from low species diversity, the
probability of getting wiped out completely when a natural disaster or other forces
increases.
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 Biodiversity conservation
• “Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, upliftment, and
management of biodiversity in order to derive sustainable benefits for
present and future generations.”
• Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity
to obtain resources for sustainable development.
Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives:
• To preserve the diversity of species.
• Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem.
• To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological processes.
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In-situ Conservation

• In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species within their natural habitat. In this method, the natural ec osystem is
maintained and protected.

• The in-situ conservation has several advantages. Following are the important advantages of in-situ conservation:
• It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity.

• A large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously.

• Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily adjust to different environmental conditions.

• Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.

National Parks

• These are small reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well demarcated and human activities such as grazing,
forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibited. For eg., Kanha National Park, and Bandipur National Park.

Wildlife Sanctuaries
• These are the regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such as timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods
and other forest products are allowed here as long as they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourists visit these
places for recreation.

Biosphere Reserves

• Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle of the inhabitants and domesticated
plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are permitted here.

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 • Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered
species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.
There is less competition for food, water and space among the organisms.

• Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:

• The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
• The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
• Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species.

Presentation title 39
 Ecosystem and biodiversity services
• Ecosystem services are the benefits that nature provides to society, such
as clean air, water, pollination, etc. Biodiversity is the diversity of living
organisms, which is essential for ecosystem function and service
delivery. Ecosystem services can be classified into four categories:
provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting. Each category has
ecological, economic, social and ethical aspects. For example,
provisioning services provide food, fiber, fuel and other resources that
have economic value and support livelihoods. Regulating services
maintain the stability of natural processes, such as climate regulation,
flood control and disease prevention. Cultural services enhance the quality
of life, such as recreation, education and spiritual values. Supporting
services underpin the functioning of all other services, such as soil
formation, nutrient cycling and primary production. Ecosystem services
and biodiversity are interdependent and must be protected and
sustainably managed for human well-being.

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“ “The greatest threat to our planet is the
belief that someone else will save it.”—
Robert Swan
”
 Sonali Bhosale
Thank you
sonalibhosale2503@gmail.com