NUR 100: Human Anatomy 1

Unit 1: Introduction
 Learning Outcome
 At the end of this unit the learner should be able to
1. Define anatomical position, regional and directional terms, body
cavities and serous membranes
2. Demonstrate basic understanding of specific components of the
human body structure
3. Identify the anatomical landmarks of the human body
4. Identify the cells and tissue type of the organs that make up the
human body
5. Describe human genetics and mechanism inheritance of genetic
diseases
6. Structural development of the skin, its glands and it appendages
 Learning Outcome
 At the end of this unit the learner should be able to
7. Describe the embryological development of the different organ systems
and their relationship to the congenital malformations
8. Describe the specific body organs and their relationship to the human body
functions
9.Describe the structural organizational of the nervous system and it
attributes to body systems
 Introduction
 Anatomical terminologies: definitions, body directional terms and
regions
 Anatomical land marks and their definitions
 Introduction
 The human body is made up of a number of systems that work
interdependently to ensure survival
 Each system is associated with a specific and sometimes related
function that is normally essential for the well being of the
individual and should one system fail the consequences can
extend to others and may reduce the ability of the body to
function normally
 Definition of Terms
 Anatomy: is the study of body structure, which includes size, shape, composition and the
physical relationships between body systems
 Clinical anatomy is the study of the macroscopic structure and function of the body as it
relates to the practice of medicine and other health sciences.
 Basic anatomy is the study of the minimal amount of anatomy consistent with the
understanding of the overall structure and function of the body.
 Physiology: is the study of how the body system works and the ways in which their
intergrated activities maintain life and health of the individual
 Human physiology: is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of
the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life.
 Pathology: is the study of abnormalities and how they affect the body functions
 Pathophysiology: is the study of disorders of functioning example with insufficient iron in the
diet, there will not be enough iron in the hemoglobin of red blood cell and hence less
oxygen will be transported throughout the body resulting in the symptoms of iron deficiency
disorder
 Characteristics of Living Things
 Metabolism - all of chemical reactions that occur within a living being. It
includes growing, repairing, reacting, and reproducing; all the characteristics
of life
 Metabolic rate- is most often used to mean the speed at which the body
produces energy and heat, or, put another way, energy production per unit of
time, such as 24 hours
 Control - coordination of body activities and regulation of processes
 Reproduction - ability to reproduce; the production of new generations of
the same organism
 Growth - increase in size of an organism
 Responsiveness (irritability) : changed activity based upon a stimulus
 Homeostasis -ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable metabolism
 Characteristics of Living Things
 Responsiveness (irritability) : changed activity based upon a stimulus
 Adaptation - physical changes over a long period of time that organisms
make in response to the environment( long term responsiveness)
 Evolution - populations changing over time
 Movement: the ability to change the position of something
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
 Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures
 Some of these structures are very small and can only be observed and
analysed with the assistance of a microscope
 Other larger structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured, and
weighed
 The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means “to cut apart”
 Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and
observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries
 Later, physicians were allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to augment their
knowledge
 When a body is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe
their physical attributes and their relationships to one another
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Cont.
 Anatomy has areas of specialization
 Gross anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible
without the aid of magnification
 Macro- means “large,” thus, gross anatomy is also referred to as macroscopic
anatomy
 Micro- means “small,” and microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that
can be observed only with the use of a microscope
 Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology, the
study of tissues
 Anatomists have been able to observe smaller and smaller structures of the
body, from slices of large structures like the heart, to the three-dimensional
structures of large molecules in the body
Gross anatomy Microscopic anatomy
 Approaches to Study of Body Structures
 Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the
structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen, brain
 Studying regional anatomy helps to appreciate the interrelationships of
body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other
structures work together to serve a particular body region
 Systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete
body system: that is, a group of structures that work together to perform
a unique body function. Example, a systemic anatomical study of the
muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body
 Body Functions and Its Processes
 Body Functions
 Body functions are the physiological or psychological functions of
body systems
 The body's functions are ultimately its cells' functions
 Survival depends on the body's maintaining or restoring
homeostasis, a state of relative constancy, of its internal
environment
 Life Processes
 All living organisms have certain characteristics that distinguish them from non-
living forms
 The basic processes of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness,
movements, and reproduction
 In humans, who represent the most complex form of life, there are additional
requirements such as growth, differentiation, respiration, digestion, and excretion
 All of these processes are interrelated
 No part of the body, from the smallest cell to a complete body system, works in
isolation
 All function together, in fine-tuned balance, for the well being of the individual
and to maintain life
 Disease such as cancer and death represent a disruption of the balance in these
 Organization
Life Processes
 At all levels of the organizational scheme, there is a division of labor. Each
component has its own job to perform in cooperation with others. Even a
single cell, if it loses its integrity or organization, it will die
 Metabolism
 Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that
occur in the body. One phase of metabolism is catabolism in which
complex substances are broken down into simpler building blocks and
energy is released
 Responsiveness
 Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the
internal or external environments and reacting to that change. It is the act
of sensing a stimulus and responding to it
 Life Processes,
 Movement
 There are many types of movement within the body. On the cellular level,
molecules move from one place to another. Blood moves from one part of the
body to another. The diaphragm moves with every breath. The ability of muscle
fibre's to shorten and thus to produce movement is called contractility
 Reproduction
 Reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the birth of a baby. In
this way, life is transmitted from one generation to the next through
reproduction of the organism. In a broader sense, reproduction also refers to
the formation of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as well
as for growth. This is cellular reproduction. Both are essential to the survival of
the human race
 Life Processes
 Differentiation
 Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells change
into specialized cells with distinctive structural and functional characteristics.
Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and organs
 Respiration
 Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the cells and the external environment. It includes
ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the transport of
the gases in the blood. Cellular respiration deals with the cell's utilization of
oxygen and release of carbon dioxide in its metabolism
 Digestion
 Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested foods into simple
molecules that can be absorbed into the blood and utilized by the body
 Life Processes
 Excretion
 Excretion is the process that removes the waste products of digestion and
metabolism from the body. It gets rid of by-products that the body is
unable to use, many of which are toxic and incompatible with life
 The ten life processes described above are not enough to ensure the
survival of the individual. In addition to these processes, life depends on
certain physical factors from the environment. These include water,
oxygen, nutrients, heat, and pressure.,
 Homeostasis
 Homeostasis reflects the ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable
metabolism and to function normally despite many constant
changes(internal and external)
 Homeostasis is maintained by control systems which comprises a
detector, control centre and effector) that detects and responds to
changes in the internal environment
 Metabolism And Homeostasis
 Metabolism; it is all of the chemical reactions and physical processes that take
place within the body
 Metabolism includes growing, repairing, reacting, and reproducing: all the
characteristics of life
 The pumping of the heart, the digestion of food in the stomach, the diffusion
of gases in the lungs and tissues, and the production of energy in each cell of
the body are examples of aspects of metabolism
 Metabolism comes from a Greek word meaning “change,” and the body is
always changing in visible ways (walking down the street), microscopic ways
(cells dividing in the skin to produce new epidermis), and submicroscopic or
molecular ways (RNA and enzymes constructing new proteins)
 Metabolism And Homeostasis Cont.
 Homeostasis reflects the ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable metabolism
and to function normally despite many constant changes
 The changes that are part of normal metabolism may be internal or external, and the
body must respond appropriately e.g. eating food is an internal change: the food is
digested or broken down into simple chemicals that the body can use. The protein in a
hard-boiled egg is digested into amino acids, its basic chemical building blocks; these
amino acids can then be used by the cells of the body to produce their own specialized
proteins
 An example of an external change is a rise in environmental temperature, on a hot day,
the body temperature would also tend to rise. However, body temperature must be
kept within its normal range of (36 to 37.5 degrees celsius) in order to support normal
functioning
 Negative Feedback Mechanism
 In systems controlled by negative feedback, the effector response decreases or negates
the effect of the original stimulus, maintaining or restoring homeostasis
 Most of the homeostatic controls in the body use negative feedback mechanisms to
prevent sudden and serious changes in the internal environment
 An example of negative feedback is shown when there is a rise in environmental
temperature
 Since the body temperature must be kept within its normal range of about 97 to 99F
(36 to 37.5 degrees Celsius) in order to support normal functioning, one of the body’s
responses is to increase sweating so that excess body heat can be lost by the
evaporation of sweat on the surface of the skin
 This response, may bring about an undesirable internal change, dehydration. As body
water decreases, there is a sensation of thirst and the person drinks fluids to replace
the water lost in sweating
 Negative Feedback Mechanism Cont.
 Another example of negative feedback mechanism, one in which the hormone
thyroxine regulates the metabolic rate of the body
 As metabolic rate decreases, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland detect this
decrease and secrete hormones to stimulate the thyroid gland (on the anterior of
the neck just below the larynx) to secrete the hormone thyroxine
 Thyroxine stimulates the cellular enzyme systems that produce energy from food,
which increases the metabolic rate
 The rise in energy and heat production is detected by the brain and pituitary gland
 They then decrease secretion of their hormones, which in turn inhibits any further
secretion of thyroxine until the metabolic rate decreases again
 Metabolic rate does rise and fall, but is kept within normal limits
 Positive Feedback Mechanism
 In positive feedback mechanism ;the response to the stimulus does not stop or
reverse the stimulus, but instead keeps the sequence of events going
 An example is childbirth
 Stretching of the uterine cervix stimulates secretion of the hormone oxytocin by
the posterior pituitary gland
 Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterine muscle, which causes more
stretching, which stimulates more oxytocin and, hence, more contractions
Positive Feedback Mechanism
 Environment and Homeostasis
 The external environment surrounds the body and its source of oxygen and
nutrients required by all body cells
 The internal environment is the water based medium in which body cells exist.
Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or tissue fluid
 Each cell is enclosed by its plasma membrane which is semi-permeable thus
allowing the movement of molecules into the cell
Homeostatic Responses in Temperature Regulation
Homeostasis Feedback Loop
 Anatomical Terminologies
 Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding and to
facilitate effective communication with co-workers and future
patients
 Exact terms are used for
 Position
 Direction
 Regions
 Structures
 Anatomical Terminologies
 Anatomical position
 The anatomical position is the standard reference position of the body
used to describe the location of structures
 The body is in the anatomical position when standing upright with feet
together, hands by the side and face looking forward
 The mouth is closed and the facial expression is neutral
 The rim of bone under the eyes is in the same horizontal plane as the
top of the 'opening to the ear' and the eyes are 'open' and focused on
something in the distance
 The palms of the hands face forward with the fingers straight and
together and with the pad of the thumb turned 90° to the pads of the
fingers.The toes point forward
 Terms Related to Anatomical Position
 All descriptions of the human body are based on the assumption that
the person is standing erect, with the upper limbs by the sides and
the face and palms of the hands directed forward
 This is the so-called anatomic position
 The various parts of the body are then described in relation to
certain imaginary planes
 Terms Related to Anatomical Position( Body Planes)
 Median Sagittal Plane
 This is a vertical plane passing through the center of the body, dividing it
into equal right and left halves
 Planes situated to one or the other side of the median plane and parallel
to it are termed paramedian
 A structure situated nearer to the median plane of the body than another
is said to be medial to the other
 Similarly, a structure that lies farther away from the median plane than
another is said to be lateral to the other
 Frontal or coronal Planes
 These planes are imaginary vertical planes at right angles to the median
plane
 Terms Related to Anatomical Position( Body Planes)
 Horizontal or Transverse Planes
 Separates the body into upper and lower portions or superior and inferior
 These planes are at right angles to both the median and the coronal planes
 The terms anterior and posterior are used to indicate the front and back of
the body, respectively
 In describing the hand, the terms palmar and dorsal surfaces are used in
place of anterior and posterior, and in describing the foot, the terms plantar
and dorsal surfaces are used instead of lower and upper surfaces
 The terms proximal and distal describe the relative distances from the roots
of the limbs; for example, the arm is proximal to the forearm and the hand is
distal to the forearm
 Regional Terms
 Anterior body landmarks
 Regional Terms
 Posterior Body Marks
 Body Sections
 A sagittal section: divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts
 A frontal section: divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior
parts
 Cross-section :a plane perpendicular to the long axis of an organ. A cross-
section of the small intestine (which is a tube) would look like a circle with
the cavity of the intestine in the center
 Longitudinal section: a plane along the long axis of an organ. A longitudinal
section of the intestine, and a frontal section of the femur (thigh bone)
would also be a longitudinal section
 Transverse Section of the Brain
 .
Cross-Section of the Brain
Longitudinal Section
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 A site where two or more bones come together is known as a joint
 Some joints have no movement (sutures of the skull), some have only
slight movement (superior tibiofibular joint), and some are freely movable
(shoulder joint)
 Flexion is a movement that takes place in a sagittal plane. For example,
flexion of the elbow joint approximates the anterior surface of the
forearm to the anterior surface of the arm. It is usually an anterior
movement, but it is occasionally posterior, as in the case of the knee joint
 Extension means straightening the joint and usually takes place in a
posterior direction
 Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in the coronal plane
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Abduction is a movement of a limb away
from the midline of the body in the
coronal plane
 Adduction is a movement of a limb
toward the body in the coronal plane.In
the fingers and toes, abduction is applied
to the spreading of these structures and
adduction is applied to the drawing
together of these structures .The
movements of the thumb, which are a
little more complicated
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Abduction is a movement of a limb away
from the midline of the body in the coronal
plane
 Means moving away from the median plane
in the frontal plane (e.g., when moving an
upper limb away from the side of the body)
 In abduction of the digits (fingers or toes),
the term means spreading them
apart—moving the other fingers away
from the neutrally positioned 3rd (middle)
finger or moving the other toes away from
the neutrally positioned 2nd toe. The 3rd
finger and 2nd toe medially or laterally
abduct away from the neutral position
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Rotation is the term applied to the
movement of a part of the body
around its long axis
 Medial rotation is the movement that
results in the anterior surface of the
part facing medially
 Lateral rotation is the movement that
results in the anterior surface of the
part facing laterally
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Pronation: is the rotational movement of
the forearm and hand that swings the
radius (the lateral long bone of the
forearm) medially around its longitudinal
axis so that the palm of the hand faces
posteriorly and its dorsum faces
anteriorly. When the elbow joint is flexed,
pronation moves the hand so that the
palm faces inferiorly (e.g., placing the
palms flat on a table). When applied to
the foot, pronation refers to a
combination of eversion and abduction
that results in lowering of the medial
margin of the foot. (The feet of an
individual with flat feet are pronated)
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Supination: is the rotational movement of
the forearm and hand that swings the
radius laterally around its longitudinal axis
so that the dorsum of the hand faces
posteriorly and the palm faces anteriorly
(i.e., moving them into the anatomical
position)
 When applied to the foot, supination
generally implies movements resulting in
raising the medial margin of the foot
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Circumduction: is a circular
movement that is a combination of
flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction occurring in such a way
that the distal end of the part
moves in a circle. Circumduction
can occur at any joint at which all
the above-mentioned movements
are possible (e.g., the hip joint).
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Opposition: is the movement by
which the pad of the 1st digit
(thumb) is brought to another
digit pad. This movement is used
to pinch, button a shirt, and lift
a teacup by the handle
 Reposition: describes the
movement of the 1st digit from
the position of opposition back
to its anatomical position.
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Protrusion: is a movement
anteriorly (forward) as in
protruding the mandible
(chin), lips, or tongue
 Retrusion: is a movement
posteriorly (backward), as in
retruding the mandible, lips, or
tongue. The similar terms
protraction and retraction are
used most commonly for
anterior and posterior
movements of the shoulder
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Elevation raises or moves a part
superiorly, as in elevating the
shoulders when shrugging, the upper
lid when opening the eye, or the
tongue when pushing it up against
the palate
 Depression lowers or moves a part
inferiorly, as in depressing the
shoulders when standing at ease, the
upper lid when closing the eye, or
pulling the tongue away from the
palate.
 Anatomical Terms Related To Movement
 Eversion: moves the sole of the foot away
from the median plane (turning the sole
laterally).When the foot is fully everted it is
also dorsiflexed
 Inversion: moves the sole of the foot
toward the median plane (facing the sole
medially). When the foot is fully inverted it
is also plantarflexed
 Descriptive Terms of Body Parts and Body Areas
 Antebrachial- forearm
 Antecubital- front of elbow
 Axillary- armpit
 Brachial- upper arm
 Buccal (oral)- mouth
 Cardiac- heart
 Cervical- neck
 Cranial- head
 Descriptive Terms of Body Parts and Body Areas
 Cutaneous- skin
 Deltoid- shoulder
 Femoral- thigh
 Frontal -forehead
 Gastric -stomach
 Gluteal -buttocks
 Hepatic- liver
 Iliac- hip
 Inguinal- groin
 Lumbar -small of back
 Descriptive Terms of Body Parts and Body Areas
 Lumbar- small of back
 Mammary -breast
 Nasal -nose
 Occipital- back of head
 Orbital -eye
 Parietal -crown of head
 Patellar -kneecap
 Pectoral -chest
 Pedal -foot
 Perineal- pelvic floor
 Descriptive Terms of Body Parts and Body Areas
 Plantar- sole of foot
 Popliteal- back of knee
 Pulmonary -lungs
 Renal- kidney
 Sacral- base of spine
 Scapular- shoulder blade
 Sternal- breastbone
 Temporal -side of head
 Umbilical -navel
 Volar (palmar) -palm
 Body Cavities
 Body cavities is a fluid filled space inside the body that holds and
protects internal organs
 These cavities are organized into two groups
 Dorsal body cavity
 Ventral body cavity
 Dorsal Body Cavity
 Contains the central nervous system, and
consists of the cranial cavity and the vertebral
or spinal cavity
 The dorsal cavity is a continuous one; that is, no
wall or boundary separates its subdivisions
i. The cranial cavity (superior) is formed by the
skull and contains the brain
ii. The spinal cavity (inferior) is formed by the
backbone (spine) and contains the spinal cord
 The membranes that line these cavities and
cover the brain and spinal cord are called the
meninges
 Ventral Body Cavity
 Consists of two compartments
 The thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity which are separated by the
diaphragm
 The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped respiratory muscle
 It has openings for the oesophagus and for large blood vessels
 The thoracic cavity, also called the chest cavity, sits superior (higher) to the
abdominopelvic cavity, and it contains organs such as the heart, lungs, trachea,
and esophagus. It can be subdivided into three main portions:
 The pelvic cavity may be considered a subdivision of the abdominal cavity
(there is no wall between them) or as a separate cavity
• The left pleural cavity, which
houses the left lung
• The mediastinum (comes from a
Latin word meaning “midway”)
houses organs such as the heart,
oesophagus, thymus gland, and
trachea. The heart is surrounded
by its own cavity called the
pericardial cavity (peri = around;
cardi = heart)
• The right pleural cavity, which
houses the right lung
 Abdominopelvic Cavity
 The abdominopelvic cavity (inferior to diaphragm) contains
various digestive and reproductive organs, and it can be divided
into two sub-cavities: an upper (abdominal) portion and a lower
(pelvic) portion
 The abdominal cavity (superior), which contains organs such as
the liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, intestines, and
kidneys
 The pelvic cavity (inferior), which contains the bladder,
reproductive organs, and the distal portions of the large intestine
(sigmoid colon and rectum).
 Minor Cavities
 In addition to the major body cavities, the body also contains a few
minor cavities such as the
 Nasal cavity/sinuses
 Oral cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
 Synovial (joint) cavities
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Nine areas
Abdominopelvic Regions
• Two transverse planes and
two sagittal planes divide
the abdomen into nine
areas:
• Upper areas—above the
level of the rib cartilages are
the hypochondriac,
epigastric, and right
hypochondriac
• Middle areas—the left
lumbar, umbilical, and right
lumbar
• Lower areas—below the
level of the top of the pelvic
bone are the left iliac,
hypogastric, and right iliac