Earth
Structure
and
Composition
By: Victor L. Saavedra, Jr.
The Planet
The Earth formed around 20 million years after its initial
creation and experienced a massive impact that generated
enough heat to melt much of the planet.
Earth This melting process led to the separation of materials by
density, with lighter substances forming the atmosphere
and oceans, and heavier materials sinking toward the core.
As the Earth cooled and solidified, it became a
differentiated, zoned planet.
The Earth is a spheroid with an equatorial bulge and polar
flattening, and it is the only known planet that supports
life.
The planet comprises three main layers: the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and hydrosphere, with the biosphere playing a
crucial role in sustaining life.
The
The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope around the Earth, extending
up to 700 km, essential for sustaining life.
Atmosphere Despite its small mass, most of the atmosphere's mass is within 32
km of the Earth's surface, held by gravity.
The atmosphere is composed of distinct layers, each with unique
characteristics in composition, temperature, and ionization.
Key layers include the troposphere, where weather occurs, and the
stratosphere, which houses the ozone layer crucial for UV protection.
The thermosphere and exosphere transition into space, while the
ionosphere plays a role in reflecting radio waves.
The atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace gases
like carbon dioxide, vital for photosynthesis and climate regulation.
The Lithosphere is the stony part of
the Earth and in a broader sense
Lithosphere includes all the solid materials
composing the Earth from the
surface downwards. The body of
the Earth is subdivided into
three specific layers or zones as
shown in Figure the crust, the
mantle, and the core, and are
introduced as follows.
Body of the It is the outermost solid shell of the Earth
Earth which has varying thickness at different
locations. For example, the thickness
under the ocean ranges from 5 to 10 km;
under the continents between 30 to 35
km; and under the mountains 70 to 100
km. The crust, therefore, constitutes just
an insignificant part of the Earth when
compared with the radius of the Earth
(6378 km, on average). Materials forming
the Earth become quite different in
properties at the base of the crust.
CRUST
Chemical
Composition The Earth's crust is primarily composed of silica (SiO₂),
of Crust which constitutes over 50% of the oceanic crust and more
than 62% of the continental crust by volume. Alumina
(Al₂O₃) makes up 13-16% of the crust. Other significant
components include iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) at 8%, lime (CaO) at
6%, sodium oxide and magnesium oxide each at 4%,
potassium oxide at 2.5%, and titanium oxide at 2%.
The crust is made up of three main types of rocks: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. Continental crust is
divided into two layers: the upper "sial," which is rich in
silica and alumina and has a granitic character, and the
lower "sima," which is rich in silica and magnesia and has a
basaltic character. Under the oceans, only the sima layer is
present.
Thickness of Crust
The thickness of the Earth's crust varies significantly depending on the region:
Mountainous Areas: Himalayas: 70-100 km thick, Hindukush Mountains: 60 km thick, and Andes: 75 km thick
Continental Areas:
Thickness ranges from 30 to 40 km.
The continental crust is divided into three layers:
Layer A: The upper layer, 2-10 km thick, low density (2.2 g/cc), composed mainly of sedimentary rocks. P-wave velocities range from 1.8
to 5.0 km/s.
Layer B: The middle layer, denser (2.4-2.6 g/cc), with P-wave velocities of 5-6.2 km/s. Known as the granite layer, it includes granites,
gneisses, and other igneous and metamorphic rocks. It can be up to 20 km thick and is sometimes exposed on the surface due to
erosion. This layer is also called sial (silica-alumina).
Layer C: The lowermost layer, with a density of 2.8-3.3 g/cc and P-wave velocities of 6-7.6 km/s. Known as the basaltic layer or sima
(silica-magnesium), it ranges from 25 to 40 km in thickness and is composed mainly of basic minerals rich in magnesium silicates.
Oceanic Areas:
The crust varies from a maximum of 19 km to as low as 5 km in deep oceans. The oceanic crust is generally an extension of the C layer from the
continental crust and lacks the A and B layers. It has an estimated volume of 2.54 × 10^9 cc and an average density of 3.00 g/cc.
Body of the It is the zone that starts after the crust
Earth and continues up to a depth of 2900
km. It is made up of extremely basic
material called ultra-basic, very rich
in iron and magnesium but quite poor
in silica. This zone is characterized by
high density increasing with depth.
The material of the mantle is believed
to be variably viscous in nature and
the overlying crust-blocks virtually
float over it at a very slow rate.
MANTLE
Body of the It is the third and the innermost structural
Earth shell of the Earth. The boundary between
the mantle and the core is at a depth of
about 2900 km below the surface. The
core extends right up to the center of the
Earth, at a depth of 6378 km. The
liquidlike core extends from a depth of
2900 km to about 4800 km and is often
termed as outer core. The inner core
starts from 4800 km and extends up to
6370 km. It is unknown but is definitely in
a solid state and with properties
CORE resembling a metallic body.
The The hydrosphere is the collective term for all
Hydrosphere natural water bodies on or below the Earth's
surface, encompassing oceans, seas, rivers,
lakes, glaciers, and groundwater. Although it
constitutes only 0.03% of the Earth's mass,
the hydrosphere is crucial for sustaining life.
Over 97% of it is made up of saline water in
the oceans, which, along with seas and bays,
cover more than 70% of the Earth's surface.
Glaciers and groundwater also play
significant roles within the hydrosphere. This
feature is unique to Earth, though its origin
and development are not fully understood
and did not exist when the Earth first formed.
The biosphere is where all life occurs on
The Biosphere Earth. The biosphere is made of three
parts, called the lithosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere. The
atmosphere is the air that living
organisms use for respiration, and which
supports life up to 2,000 meters above
the planet’s surface. The hydrosphere is
the aquatic portion of the planet, all of
which supports life. The lithosphere is
the land mass, excluding Earth’s mantle
and core, which do not support life.
