Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712 - 1778)
Introduction
• Jean- Jacques Rousseau was a mid-18th century
French philosopher who captured the spirit of the
modern age most closely and influenced the ideas
and events of his time most profoundly.
• He is regarded as the intellectual Father of French
Revolution.
• Rousseau was the third social contract thinker and
first to offer a strong critique of modern social and
political institutions in the name of modern values of
equality, liberty and democracy.
• He emphasizes on the fundamental divide between
the Society and human nature and belief that in State
of nature man was good but got corrupted by the
artificiality of society, thus, attack the institution of
private property.
• He also made an appeal for human equality in
Society and tried to reconcile liberty with equality.
• Rousseau advocated the notion of General will as the real basis of legitimate power and
authority.
• He sought to defend simplicity, innocence, virtue for the development of the
potentialities of human nature.
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Prominent Works
Discourse on the Arts and 1750 He argues that progress in science and arts was illusory;
Sciences(essay) sciences were causing ruin of mankind.
Discourse on the Origin and 1755 Makes distinction between two types of inequalities-
Basis of Inequality (known as natural inequality and conventional inequality.
second discourse) He also speculates about the rise of civilization
Discourse on Political 1755 Rousseau introduces the concept of the “general will,” a
Economy major aspect of his political thought which is further
developed in the Social Contract.
Emile 1762 Rousseau’s educational philosophy| inspired new
education system during French Revolution
The Social Contract 1762 Notion of General will| common good
The Confessions 1782 Rousseau’s autobiographical account
• Enlightenment
• The Enlightenment refers to an intellectual movement of 18th century France, Gemany
and Britain. It was marked by the growth of a new outlook, informed by reason and
committed to the authority of scientific knowledge. Thinkers stressed on the need to
apply scientific methods and perceiving reason as the best guide for conducting life.
• Rousseau was against this intelligence, science and reason as he felt that they were
responsible for destroying faith and moral institutions of society.
• He regarded ‘thinking animal as a depraved animal’ because Reason suppressed and
distorted natural responses like sympathy and pity.
• He dismissed modern society that was based on reason as false and artificial as it
destroyed natural and true culture of the Society
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State of Nature
• Rousseau has presented his ideas on 'state of nature' first in his book 'Discourses on
Inequality' (1755) and then in his 'Social Contract' (1762).
• According to Rousseau 'state of nature' is a state of 'Idyllic Blissfulness'.
‘Nature never deceives us; it is we who deceive nature.’
• He argued that man was a noble savage in a primitive state of nature, he was free to
choose, consume and live. The concept of status, power, hierarchy all emerged with the
rise of society. It was society and science, the increasing population and growing
conflicts that led to degeneration of noble savage.
• For Rousseau, man before the origin of society was in a condition of 'amour de soi'
which stands for self- preservation, maintenance and fulfillment of one's own needs
through the help of nature. (French word 'amour' stands for 'love‘)
• Rousseau argued that with the emergence of society the 'amour de soi' degenerated into
'amour propre'. The 'amour propre' reflects a possessive version of 'self-love', when
man's love is judged by its comparative worth. The cutthroat competition and race for
resources has 'inflamed' and the inflamed version is dangerous for the greater good of
mankind.
Concept of private property
• With the Rise of civilization that lead to discovery of metals and agriculture which
resulted in division of labour and the institution of private property came into existence.
• Private property was owned by few people and its acquisition created inequality in
Society. Thus, a civil Society was formed for the selfish interest of the individual for
protecting their property.
• Private property led to the distinction between the rich and the poor and over time
economic inequality became extreme to the point that rich came up with the idea of
Government, law and administration in everybody’s interest.
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Inequality
• Rousseau in his work 'Discourse on Inequality' challenged the notion of inequality.
Perhaps, he was the first thinker to strongly advocate for equality in society. He
creatively divided inequalities into two categories:
• Natural Inequality: Those are irreconcilable and unalterable. E.g., colour, gender,
physical appearance etc.
• Conventional Inequality: Not natural but a construct of society. These are alterable. E.g.,
social inequalities, income and wealth inequalities etc.
Social Contract
• In the Social Contract, Rousseau asserted that a Polity will upheld the general interests
of its members and it will transform the noble Savage into a humane person.
• He held that nothing was dearer to a person than liberty, thus, the right kind of Society
would enhance human freedom by governing through the “General Will".
• For Rousseau, the main motive behind the contract was to reconcile liberty with
authority, thus, regarded Consent as the basis of Society.
• He sought to emphasize that the community was established to benefit the individual by
upholding its freedom.
• The community is represented by the best individual as it is vested with the General Will
of all the Individuals who are thinking of General and Public interests rather than their
selfish interests.
Concept of General Will
• The General Will be the source of all laws. Thus, only legislative will could be a General
Will that is embodied in Direct Democracy.
• Rousseau made a distinction between two types of will of an Individual.
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1. Actual Will- motivated by the immediate and selfish interest of an individual.
2. Real Will- motivated by the ultimate and Collective good of all Individuals.
• Hence, General will reconcile the interests of each with those of all by converging the
real will of all individuals.
• He held that the main objective of making the General Will as Sovereign was to protect
Individual Liberty which cannot exist without equality. More precisely he is referring to
the economic equality because without it social and political equality is not possible.
• Rousseau states that for the General will to be truly general, it must be general in -
(a) Origin, that means everyone in the society must have a voice in the decision taken
up by the general will; for instance, everyone must have the right to vote which
expresses his decisions.
(b) Object, that means people must be thinking about the General or common good
when making a decision or policy for the Society.
Nature of Popular sovereignty
• Rousseau's 'popular sovereignty' is a very peculiar and different concept. He doesn't
provide for any third party sovereign; rather he asked for transfer of full authority from
'individual capacity' to 'corporate capacity' governed by people itself. He provides for no
natural right, no right to revolution. In other words, Rousseau's popular sovereignty is
Hobbes' Leviathan with its head chopped.
Features of his popular sovereignty are:
No Master: The instance where there is a master, there is no sovereign.
Inalienable: "...because it is a collective authority, it is vested in the whole society.“
Indivisible: Sovereignty for the very same reason as making it inalienable is indivisible.
Illimitable: All rights are vested in 'sovereign community', no question of limit arises.
Infallible: Sovereignty represents 'General Will' which is a combination of all the 'Real
Wills', hence, cannot be false.
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No representation: "The moment people allow themselves to be represented, they are no
longer free."
Critique of liberal representative government
• He held the English Parliamentary System of Government only give illusion of freedom
to the people but in reality, English people were only free during the time of elections
and once they elect their representatives they lost their freedom.
• Therefore, he advocated Direct Democracy as in it people were actually free by taking
part in the process of law making.
• He suggested Participatory Democracy as it secures freedom, self-rule, equality and
virtue of an individual.
On family and women
• Like Aristotle, Rousseau regarded the family as the first form of society and sought to
defend the Patriarchal family.
• He held family as a natural institution; the oldest of all societies and is based on natural
ties, love, affection and natural differences between the sexes
• He assigned a subordinate position to the women in Society same as held by them in a
family whose authority lies with the male.
• He wanted women to be represented by men in a liberal democracy and wanted women
to stay away from politics as he was afraid that they will always put the interests of their
families before that of public; they cannot transcend their love and affection from
particular to general.
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In the words of Rousseau,
• ‘Man is born free and everywhere is in chains’.
• ‘I prefer liberty with danger than peace with slavery’.
• ‘I would rather be a man of paradoxes than a man of prejudices’.
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• ‘No man has any natural authority over his fellow men’.
• ‘Our greatest evils flows from ourselves’.
• ‘Everyman has a right to risk his own life for the preservation of it’.
• ‘What wisdom can you find that is greater than kindness’.
• ‘The strongest is never strong enough to be always the master, unless he transforms strength into
right, and obedience into duty’.
CUET PYQ (2023)
