Fourier series

74
The complex or exponential form of
a Fourier series
may be written as:
74.1 Introduction ∞
 
9 ej
2πnx
L + e−j
2πnx
L

The form used for the Fourier series in Chapters 69 to f (x) = a0 + an

2
73 consisted of cosine and sine terms. However, there n=1
 2πnx 2πnx

is another form that is commonly used—one that ej L − e−j L
directly gives the amplitude terms in the frequency + bn
spectrum and relates to phasor notation. This form 2j
involves the use of complex numbers (see Chapters Multiplying top and bottom of the bn term by −j
23 and 24). It is called the exponential or complex
form of a Fourier series. (and remembering that j2 = −1) gives:

∞
 
9 ej
2πnx
L + e−j
2πnx
L
f (x) = a0 + an
2
74.2 Exponential or complex notation n=1
 2πnx 2πnx

ej L − e−j L
It was shown on page 264, equations (4) and (5) that: − jbn
2

e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ (1) Rearranging gives:

and e −jθ
= cos θ − j sin θ (2) ∞ 
9 
an − jbn 2πnx
f (x) = a0 + ej L

Adding equations (1) and (2) gives: 2

n=1
  
an + jbn 2πnx
e jθ
+e −jθ
= 2 cos θ + e−j L (5)
2
e jθ + e−jθ The Fourier coefficients a0 , an and bn may be
from which, cos θ = (3)
2 replaced by complex coefficients c0 , cn and c−n such
that
Similarly, equation (1) – equation (2) gives:
c 0 = a0 (6)
e jθ − e−jθ = 2j sin θ an − jbn
cn = (7)
2
e jθ − e−jθ
from which, sin θ = (4) an + jbn
2j and c−n = (8)
2
Thus, from page 676, the Fourier series f (x) over where c−n represents the complex conjugate of cn
any range L, (see page 251).
Thus, equation (5) may be rewritten as:
∞ 
9     ∞
9 ∞
9
2πnx 2πnx 2πnx 2πnx
f (x) = a0 + an cos + bn sin f (x) = c0 + cn e j L + c−n e−j L (9)
L L
n=1 n=1 n=1
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 691

Since e0 = 1, the c0 term can be absorbed into the From equations (3) and (4),
summation since it is just another term to be added  L  2πnx 2πnx

to the summation of the cn term when n = 0. Thus, 1 2 e j L + e−j L
cn = f (x) dx
∞ ∞ L − L2 2
9 9  2πnx 
j 2πnx 2πnx
f (x) = cn e + c−n e−j (10)  L 2πnx
ej L − e−j L
L L
1 2
n=0 n=1 −j f (x) dx
L − L2 2j
The c−n term may be rewritten by changing the limits
n = 1 to n = ∞ to n = −1 to n = −∞. Since n has from which,
been made negative, the exponential term becomes  L  2πnx 2πnx

2πnx 1 2 e j L + e−j L
e j L and c−n becomes cn . Thus, cn = f (x) dx
L − L2 2
∞
9 −∞
9  L  2πnx 2πnx

j 2πnx e j L − e−j L
2πnx
f (x) = cn e L + cn e j L 1 2
− f (x) dx
n=0 n=−1 L − L2 2
Since the summations now extend from −∞ to −1
and from 0 to +∞, equation (10) may be written as:
 L
1 2 2πnx
i.e. cn = f (x) e−j L dx (12)
∞
9 L − L2
j 2πnx
f (x) = cn e L (11)
n=−∞ Care needs to be taken when determining c0 . If n
appears in the denominator of an expression the
Equation (11) is the complex or exponential form expansion can be invalid when n = 0. In such cir-
of the Fourier series. cumstances it is usually simpler to evaluate c0 by
using the relationship:
 L
74.3 The complex coefficients 1 2
c0 = a0 = f (x)dx (from page 676). (13)
L − L2
From equation (7), the complex coefficient cn was
an − jbn
defined as: cn =
2 Problem 1. Determine the complex Fourier
However, an and bn are defined (from page 630) by: series for the function defined by:
   3
2
L
2 2πnx 0, when −2 ≤ x ≤ −1
an = f (x) cos dx and f (x) = 5, when −1 ≤ x ≤1
L − L2 L 0, when 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
 L   The function is periodic outside this range of
2 2 2πnx
bn = f (x) sin dx period 4.
L − L2 L
⎛
L  2πnx  ⎞
2 2
⎜ L −2 L f (x) cos L dx ⎟ This is the same Problem as Problem 2 on page 677
⎝
L  2πnx  ⎠ and we can use this to demonstrate that the two forms
− j L L f (x) sin L dx
2 2
of Fourier series are equivalent.
−2
Thus, cn = The function f (x) is shown in Figure 74.1, where
2 the period, L = 4.
 L  
1 2 2πnx From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is
= f (x) cos dx given by:
L − L2 L
 L   ∞
9 L
1 2 2πnx 2πnx
−j f (x) sin dx f (x) = cn e j L
L − L2 L n=−∞
692 FOURIER SERIES

f(x) 5 πn
Since cn = sin , then
5 πn 2
5 π 5
c1 = sin =
π 2 π
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 5
c2 = sin π = 0
2π
L=4
(in fact, all even terms will be zero since
Figure 74.1
sin nπ = 0)
where cn is given by:
5 πn 5 3π 5
 c3 = sin = sin =−
1
L
2 2πnx
πn 2 3π 2 3π
cn = f (x) e−j L dx (from equation 12).
L − L2 By similar substitution,
With reference to Figure 74.1, when L = 4, 5 5
c5 = c7 = − , and so on.
5π 7π
 −1  1  2 
1 −j 2πnx Similarly,
cn = 0 dx + 5e 4 dx + 0 dx
4 −2 −1 1
5 −π 5
 jπnx 1 c−1 = sin =
1 1
− jπnx 5 e− 2 −π 2 π
= 5e 2 dx =
4 −1 4 − jπn
2 −1 5 −2π
c−2 = − sin = 0 = c−4 = c−6 , and so on.
−5  − jπnx  1 −5 jπn jπn
2π 2
= e 2 = e− 2 − e 2 5 −3π 5
j2πn −1 j2πn c−3 = − sin =−
 πn  3π 2 3π
5 e j 2 − e−j 2
πn

= 5 −5π 5
πn 2j c−5 =− sin = , and so on.
5π 2 5π
5 πn
= sin (from equation (4)). Hence, the extended complex form of the Fourier
πn 2 series shown in equation (14) becomes:
Hence, from equation (11), the complex form of the
Fourier series is given by: 5 5 πx 5 j 3πx 5 j 5πx
f (x) = + ej 2 − e 2 + e 2
∞ ∞
2 π 3π 5π
9 9 5 πn j πnx
j 2πnx 5 j 7πx 5
f (x) = cn e L = sin e 2 − e 2 + · · · + e−j 2
πx

n=−∞ n=−∞
πn 2 7π π
(14) 5 −j 3πx 5 −j 5πx
− e 2 + e 2
3π 5π
Let us show how this result is equivalent to the
5 −j 7πx
result involving sine and cosine terms determined − e 2 + ···
on page 678. 7π
From equation (13), 5 5
+ e−j
πx πx
= + ej 2 2
 L  1
2 π
1 2 1
c0 = a0 = f (x)dx = 5 dx −
5 3πx 3πx
e j 2 + e−j 2
L − L2 4 −1 3π
5 5 5 5 5πx 5πx
= 1
[x]−1 = [1 − (−1)] = + e 2 + e−j 2 − · · ·
4 4 2 5π
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 693
 πx 
e j 2 + e−j 2
πx
5 5 f (t ) f (t ) = t
= + (2)
2 π 2
 3πx 3πx

5 e j 2 + e−j 2
− (2)
3π 2
 5πx 5πx
 −1 0 1 2 t
5 e j 2 + e−j 2
+ (2) − ···
5π 2 Period L = 1
 
5 10 πx 10 3πx Figure 74.2
= + cos − cos
2 π 2 3π 2
  and when the period, L = 1, then:
10 5πx
+ cos − ···
5π 2 ∞
9
(from equation (3)) f (t) = cn e j2πnt
   n=−∞
5 10 πx 1 3πx
i.e. f (x) = + cos − cos where, from equation (12),
2 π 2 3 2
    L  L
1 5πx 1 2 2πnt 1 2πnt
+ cos −··· cn = f (t) e−j L dt = f (t) e−j L dt
5 2 L − L2 L 0

which is the same as obtained on page 678. and when L = 1 and f (t) = t, then:
∞
9 5 nπ j πnx  1  1
1 2πnt
Hence,
πn
sin
2
e 2 is equivalent to cn = t e−j 1 dt = t e−j2πnt dt
n=−∞ 1 0 0

   Using integration by parts (see Chapter 43), let u = t,

5 10 πx 1 3πx du
+ cos − cos from which, = 1, and dt = du, and
2 π 2 3 2 dt
  
1 5πx let dv = e−j2πnt , from which,
+ cos −···
5 2 
e−j2πnt
v = e−j2πnt dt =
−j2πn
Problem 2. Show that the complex Fourier  1 
series for the function f (t) = t in the range t = 0 Hence, cn = t e−j2πnt = uv − v du
to t = 1, and of period 1, may be expressed as: 0
 1 
1
∞
j 9 e j2πnt e−j2πnt 1 e−j2πnt
f (t) = + = t − dt
2 2π n=−∞ n −j2πn 0 0 −j2πn
 1
e−j2πnt e−j2πnt
= t −
The saw tooth waveform is shown in Figure 74.2. −j2πn (−j2πn)2 0
 −j2πn 
From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is e e−j2πn
given by: = −
−j2πn (−j2πn)2
∞
9   L
f (t) = cn e j
2πnt
e0
L
− 0−
n=−∞ (−j2πn)2
694 FOURIER SERIES

From equation (2), From equation (12),

  
cos 2πn − j sin 2πn cos 2πn − j sin 2πn 1
L
cn = − cn =
2
f (x) e−j
2πnx
dx
−j2πn (−j2πn)2 L
L
− L2
1   
+ 1 0 4
(−j2πn)2 = 0 e−j
πnx
4 dx + 10 e −j
πnx
4 dx
8 −4 0
However, cos 2πn = 1 and sin 2πn = 0 for all posi-
4  
e−j 4
πnt
tive and negative integer values of n. 10 10 4  −jπn 
= = e −1
1 1 1 8 −j πn 8 −jπn
Thus, cn = − + 4 0
−j2πn (−j2πn) 2 (−j2πn)2
1 1( j) 5j  −jπn  5j  −jπn 
= = = e −1 = e −1
−j2πn −j2πn( j) −j πn
2 πn

j From equation (2), e−jθ = cos θ − j sin θ, thus

i.e. cn = e−jπn = cos πn − j sin πn = cos πn for all integer
2πn
values of n. Hence,
From equation (13),
 L 5j  −jπn  5j
1 2 cn = e −1 = (cos nπ − 1)
c 0 = a0 = f (t) dt πn πn
L − L2
From equation (11), the exponential Fourier series
  is given by:
1 L 1 1
= f (t) dt = t dt ∞
L 0 1 0 9 2πnx
f (x) = cn e j L
 2 1  
t 1 1 n=−∞
= = −0 =
2 0 2 2 9∞
5j nπx
Hence, the complex Fourier series is given by: = (cos nπ − 1) e j 4
n=−∞
nπ
∞
9 2πnt
f (t) = cn e j L from equation (11) Now try the following exercise.
n=−∞
∞
9
1 j Exercise 248 Further problems on the com-
i.e. f (t) = + e j2πnt plex form of a Fourier series
2 n=−∞ 2πn
∞ 1. Determine the complex Fourier series for the
1 j 9 e j2πnt function defined by:
= + 
2 2π n=−∞ n 0, when −π ≤ t ≤ 0
f (t) = 2, when 0 ≤ t ≤ π
The function is periodic outside of this range
Problem 3. Show that the exponential form of of period 2π.
the Fourier series for the waveform described ∞
by: 9
j
 f (t) = (cos nπ − 1) e jnt
nπ
0 when −4 ≤ x ≤ 0 n=−∞
 
f (x) = 10 when 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
2 1 j3t 1 j5t
= 1−j e + e + e + ...
jt
and has a period of 8, is given by: π 3 5
8∞ 5j nπx
 
f (x) = (cos nπ − 1) e j 4 2 −jt 1 −j3t 1 −j5t
+j e + e + e + ···
n=−∞ nπ π 3 5
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 695

 L  
2. Show that the complex Fourier series for the 4 2 2πnx
waveform shown in Figure 74.3, that has = f (x) cos dx
L 0 L
period 2, may be represented by:
∞
9 An odd function is symmetrical about the origin and
j2
f (t) = 2 + (cos nπ − 1) e jπnt contains no cosine terms, a0 = an = 0.
πn
n=−∞ For odd symmetry,
(n =0)
 L  
2 2πnx
f(t ) bn = f (x) sin dx
L 0 L
4  L  
4 2 2πnx
= f (x) sin dx
L 0 L

an − jbn
−1 0 1 2 t From equation (7), page 690, cn =
2
Thus, for even symmetry, bn = 0 and
Period L = 2
 L  
an 2 2 2πnx
Figure 74.3 cn = = f (x) cos dx (15)
2 L 0 L
3. Show that the complex Fourier series of
Problem 2 is equivalent to: For odd symmetry, an = 0 and

8 1   
f (t) = 2 + sin πt + sin 3πt −jbn 2
L
2 2πnx
π 3
 cn = = −j f (x) sin dx (16)
1 2 L 0 L
+ sin 5πt + . . .
5 For example, in Problem 1 on page 691, the func-
4. Determine the exponential form of the tion f (x) is even, since the waveform is symmetrical
Fourier series for the function defined by: about the f (x) axis. Thus equation (15) could have
f (t) = e2t when −1 < t < 1 and has period 2. been used, giving:
∞     
1 9 e(2−jπn) − e−(2−jπn) 2
L
2 2πnx
f (t) = e jπnt cn = f (x) cos dx
2 n=−∞ 2 − jπn L 0 L
  
2 2 2πnx
= f (x) cos dx
74.4 Symmetry relationships 4 0 4
 1  2 
If even or odd symmetry is noted in a function, then 1 πnx
= 5 cos dx + 0 dx
time can be saved in determining coefficients. 2 0 2 1
The Fourier coefficients present in the complex
⎡ πnx ⎤1
Fourier series form are affected by symmetry. Sum-  
5⎢ sin
marising from previous chapters:
= 2 ⎥ =5 2 nπ
−0
An even function is symmetrical about the verti- ⎣ πn ⎦ sin
2 2 πn 2
cal axis and contains no sine terms, i.e. bn = 0. 2 0
For even symmetry,
5 nπ
 L
= sin
1 πn 2
a0 = f (x)dx and
L 0 which is the same answer as in Problem 1; how-
2
 L 
2πnx
 ever, a knowledge of even functions has produced L
an = f (x) cos dx the coefficient more quickly.
L 0 L
696 FOURIER SERIES

3 0  −jnx π 4
Problem 4. Obtain the Fourier series, in com- 1 −2e−jnx 2e
= +
plex form, for the square wave shown in 2π −jn −π −jn 0
Figure 74.4.  :
1 2  −jnx 0  −jnx π ;
f(x ) = e −π
− e 0
2π jn
 :
;
2
1 2  0  
= e − e+jnπ − e−jnπ − e0
2π jn
−π 0 π 2π 3π x
1 1 2
= 1 − e jnπ − e−jnπ + 1
−2 jπn
  jnπ 
1 e + e−jnπ
= 2−2
Figure 74.4 jnπ 2
by rearranging
  −jnπ 
Method A 2 e jnπ + e
= 1−
jnπ 2
The square wave shown in Figure 74.4 is an odd
function since it is symmetrical about the origin. 2
= {1 − cos nπ} from equation (3)
The period of the waveform, L = 2π. jnπ
Thus, using equation (16): −j2
= {1 − cos nπ}
 L   −j( jnπ)
2 2πnx
2
cn = −j dx
f (x) sin by multiplying top and bottom by −j
0L L
2
 π   i.e. cn = −j (1 − cos nπ) (17)
2 2πnx nπ
= −j 2 sin dx
2π 0 2π It is clear that method A is by far the shorter of the
   two methods.
2 π 2 −cos nx π From equation (11), the complex Fourier series is
= −j sin nx dx = −j
π 0 π n 0 given by:
2 ∞
9
= −j (−cos πn) − (−cos 0) f (x) = cn e j
2πnx
L
πn
n=−∞
2
i.e. cn = −j [1 − cosπn] (17) ∞
9 2
πn = −j (1 − cos nπ) e jnx (18)
n=−∞
nπ
Method B

If it had not been noted that the function was odd,

equation (12) would have been used, i.e. Problem 5. Show that the complex Fourier
series obtained in problem 4 above is equiva-
 L lent to
1 2 2πnx 
cn = f (x) e−j L dx 8 1 1
L − L2 f (x) = sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x
π 3 5
 π 
1 2πnx 1
= f (x) e−j 2π dx + sin 7x + · · ·
2π −π 7
 0  π  (which was the Fourier series obtained in terms
1
= −2 e−jnx dx + 2 e−jnx dx of sines and cosines in Problem 3 on page 671).
2π −π 0
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 697

2 j4 −j5x j4 −j7x
From equation (17) above, cn = −j (1 − cos nπ) + e + e + ···
nπ 5π 7π
When n = 1,  
j4 j4
2 = − e jx + e−jx
c1 = −j (1 − cos π) π π
(1)π  
j4 3x j4 −3x
2 j4 + − e + e
= −j 1 − (−1) = − 3π 3π
π π
 
When n = 2, j4 5x j4 −5x
+ − e + e + ···
2 5π 5π
c2 = −j (1 − cos 2π) = 0;
2π j4  jx  j4  3x 
in fact, all even values of cn will be zero. =− e − e−jx − e − e−3x
π 3π
When n = 3,
j4  5x 
2 − e − e−5x + · · ·
c3 = −j (1 − cos 3π) 5π
3π
4  jx  4  3x 
= −j
2
(1 − (−1)) = −
j4 = e − e−jx + e − e−3x
3π 3π jπ j3π
By similar reasoning, 4  5x 
+ e − e−5x + · · ·
j4 j4 j5π
c5 = − , c7 = − , and so on.
5π 7π by multiplying top and bottom by j
When n = −1,    
8 e jx − e−jx 8 e j3x − e−j3
2 = +
c−1 = −j (1 − cos(−π)) π 2j 3π 2j
(−1)π  
2
= +j (1 − (−1)) = +
j4 8 e j5x − e−j5x
+ + ···
π π 5π 2j
When n = −3,
by rearranging
2
c−3 = −j (1 − cos(−3π)) 8 8 8
(−3)π = sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + · · ·
π 3π 3x
2 j4
= +j (1 − (−1)) = + from equation (4), page 690
3π 3π
i.e.
By similar reasoning, 
8 1 1
j4 j4 f (x) = sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x
c−5 = + , c−7 = + , and so on. π 3 5
5π 7π 
1
Since the waveform is odd, c0 = a0 = 0. + sin 7x + · · ·
7
From equation (18) above,
Hence,
∞
9 2 ∞
9
f (x) = −j (1 − cos nπ) e jnx f (x) = −j
2
(1 − cos n π) e jnx
n=−∞
nπ nπ
n=−∞
Hence, 
8 1 1
j4 jx j4 j3x j4 j5x ≡ sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x
f (x) = − e − e − e π 3 5
3π 5π 
π 1 L
j4 j7x j4 j4 −j3x + sin 7x + · · ·
− e − · · · + e−jx + e 7
7π π 3π
698 FOURIER SERIES

4. Show that the complex Fourier series in

Now try the following exercise. problem 3 above is equivalent to:

1 1
Exercise 249 Further problems on symme- f (t) = 4 sin t − sin 2t + sin 3t
try relationships 2 3

1. Determine the exponential form of the 1
Fourier series for the periodic function − sin 4t + · · ·
4
defined by:
⎧ π
⎪
⎪ −2, when −π ≤ x ≤ −
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
⎨ π π 74.5 The frequency spectrum
f (x) = 2, when − ≤ x ≤ +
⎪
⎪ 2 2 In the Fourier analysis of periodic waveforms seen
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ in previous chapters, although waveforms physically
⎩−2, when + π ≤ x ≤ + π
exist in the time domain, they can be regarded as
2
comprising components with a variety of frequen-
and has a period of 2π cies. The amplitude and phase of these components
∞   are obtained from the Fourier coefficients an and bn ;
9 4 nπ this is known as a frequency domain. Plots of ampli-
f (x) = sin e jnx tude/frequency and phase/frequency are together
n=−∞
nπ 2
known as the spectrum of a waveform. A simple
example is demonstrated in Problem 6 following.
2. Show that the exponential form of the Fourier
series in problem 1 above is equivalent to:
 Problem 6. A pulse of height 20 and width 2
8 1 1 has a period of 10. Sketch the spectrum of the
f (x) = cos x − cos 3x + cos5x waveform.
π 3 5

1
− cos 7x + · · · The pulse is shown in Figure 74.5.
7
The complex coefficient is given by equation (12):
3. Determine the complex Fourier series to rep-  L
resent the function f (t) = 2t in the range −π 1 2 2πnt
cn = f (t)e−j L dt
to +π. L − L2

9∞  
j2  1
e−j
πnt
1
f (t) = cos nπ e jnt 1 −j 2πnt 20 5
n = 20e 10 dt = −jπn
n=−∞ 10 −1 10
5 −1

f(t)

20

−1 0 1 t

L = 10

Figure 74.5
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 699

  
20 5 Figures 74.6 to 74.8 together form the spectrum of
e−j 5 − e j 5
πn πn
= the waveform shown in Figure 74.5.
10 −jπn

− e−j
πn πn
20 ej 5 5
=
πn 2j 74.6 Phasors
20 nπ Electrical engineers in particular often need to anal-
i.e. cn = sin
πn 5 yse alternating current circuits, i.e. circuits con-
taining a sinusoidal input and resulting sinusoidal
from equation (4), page 690. currents and voltages within the circuit.
From equation (13), It was shown in chapter 15, page 157, that a
 L  1
1 2 1 general sinusoidal voltage function can be repre-
c0 = f (x) dx = 20 dt sented by:
L − L2 10 −1
v = Vm sin (ωt + α) volts (19)
1 1
= [20t]1−1 = [20 − (−20)] = 4
10 10 where Vm is the maximum voltage or amplitude
of the voltage v, ω is the angular velocity (=2πf ,
20 π where f is the frequency), and α is the phase angle
c1 = sin = 3.74 and
π 5 compared with v = Vm sin ωt.
Similarly, a sinusoidal expression may also be
20 π expressed in terms of cosine as:
c−1 = − sin − = 3.74
π 5
Further values of cn and c−n , up to n = 10, are v = Vm cos(ωt + α) volts (20)
calculated and are shown in the following table.
It is quite complicated to add, subtract, multiply
and divide quantities in the time domain form of
n cn c−n equations (19) and (20). As an alternative method of
analysis a waveform representation called a phasor
0 4 4 is used. A phasor has two distinct parts—a mag-
1 3.74 3.74 nitude and an angle; for example, the polar form
2 3.03 3.03 of a complex number, say 5∠π/6, can represent a
3 2.02 2.02 phasor, where 5 is the magnitude or modulus, and
4 0.94 0.94 π/6 radians is the angle or argument. Also, it was
5 0 0 shown on page 264 that 5∠π/6 may be written as
6 −0.62 −0.62 5 e jπ/6 in exponential form.
7 −0.86 −0.86 In chapter 24, equation (4), page 264, it is shown
8 −0.76 −0.76 that:
9 −0.42 −0.42
10 0 0
e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ (21)

A graph of |cn | plotted against the number of the which is known as Euler’s formula.
harmonic, n, is shown in Figure 74.6. From equation (21),
Figure 74.7 shows the corresponding plot of cn
against n. e j(ωt+α) = cos(ωt + α) + j sin(ωt + α)
Since cn is real (i.e. no j terms) then the phase
must be either 0◦ or ±180◦ , depending on the sign
of the sine, as shown in Figure 74.8. and Vm e j(ωt+α) = Vm cos(ωt + α)
When cn is positive, i.e. between n = −4 and
n = +4, angle αn = 0◦ . + j Vm sin(ωt + α)
When cn is negative, then αn = ±180◦ ; between L
n = +6 and n = +9, αn is taken as +180◦ , and Thus a sinusoidal varying voltage such as in equa-
between n = −6 and n = −9, αn is taken as −180◦ . tion (19) or equation (20) can be considered to be
700 FOURIER SERIES

cn
4

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n

Figure 74.6

cn
4

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 6 7 8 9 10
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

−1

Figure 74.7

an
180°

90°

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n

−90°

−180°

Figure 74.8
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 701

either the real or the imaginary part of Vm e j(ωt+α) , From equation (11), page 691, the Fourier repre-
depending on whether the cosine or sine function is sentation of a waveform in complex form is:
being considered. 2πnt
Vm e j(ωt + α) may be rewritten as Vm e jωt e jα since cn e j L = cn e jωnt for positive values of n
 
a m+n = am × an from the laws of indices, page X. 2π
The e jωt term can be considered to arise from since ω =
L
the fact that a radius is rotated with an angu-
lar velocity ω, and α is the angle at which the
radius starts to rotate at time t = 0 (see Chapter 15, and cn e−jωnt for negative values of n.
page 157). It can thus be considered that these terms represent
Thus, Vm e jωt e jα defines a phasor. In a particular phasors, those with positives powers being phasors
circuit the angular velocity ω is the same for all the rotating with a positive angular velocity (i.e. anti-
elements thus the phasor can be adequately described clockwise), and those with negative powers being
by Vm ∠α, as suggested above. phasors rotating with a negative angular velocity (i.e.
Alternatively, if clockwise).
In the above equations,
v = Vm cos(ωt + α) volts
n = 0 represents a non-rotating component, since
1  jϑ  e0 = 1,
and cos θ = e + e−jθ n = 1 represents a rotating component with angular
2
velocity of 1ω,
from equation (3), page 690 n = 2 represents a rotating component with angular
velocity of 2ω, and so on.
 
1  j(ωt+α)  Thus we have a set of phasors, the algebraic sum of
then v = Vm e + e−j(ωt+α) which at some instant of time gives the magnitude
2 of the waveform at that time.
1 1
i.e. v= Vm e jωt e jα + Vm e−jωt e−jα
2 2
Problem 7. Determine the pair of phasors that
Thus, v is the sum of two phasors, each with half can be used to represent the following voltages:
the amplitude, with one having a positive value of (a) v = 8 cos 2t (b) v = 8 cos (2t − 1.5)
angular velocity (i.e. rotating anticlockwise) and a
positive value of α, and the other having a negative
value of angular velocity (i.e. rotating clockwise)
and a negative value of α, as shown in Figure 74.9.
1 1 (a) From equation (3), page 690,
The two phasors are Vm ∠α and Vm ∠−α.
2 2 1 jθ
cos θ = (e + e−jθ )
2
Hence,
Imaginary axis

 
1 j2t
ω v = 8 cos 2t = 8 e + e−j2t
2
m
V

1
2

α = 4e j2t + 4e−j2t
0 α Real axis
1
2 This represents a phasor of length 4 rotating anti-
Vm

clockwise (i.e. in the positive direction) with an

ω
angular velocity of 2 rad/s, and another phasor
of length 4 and rotating clockwise (i.e. in the
negative direction) with an angular velocity of L
2 rad/s. Both phasors have zero phase angle.
Figure 74.9 Figure 74.10 shows the two phasors.
702 FOURIER SERIES

Imaginary axis
Problem 8. Determine – the pair of phasors
that can be used to represent the third harmonic
ω = 2 rad/s v = 8 cos 3t − 20 sin 3t

0 2 4 Real axis
1  jt 
ω = 2 rad/s Using cos t = e + e−jt
2
1  jt 
and sin t = e − e−jt from page 690
Figure 74.10 2j

gives: v = 8 cos 3t − 20 sin 3t

(b) From equation (3), page 690,
 
1  1  j3t 
cos θ = e jθ + e−jθ =8 e + e−j3t
2 2

Hence, v = 8 cos(2t − 1.5)  

1  j3t 
  − 20 e − e−j3t
1 j(2t−1.5) 2j
−j(2t−1.5)
=8 e +e
2
10 j3t 10 −j3t
= 4e j3t + 4e−j3t − e + e
j j
= 4e j(2t−1.5) + 4e−j(2t−1.5)

i.e. v = 4e2t e−j 1.5 + 4e−j2t e j1.5 = 4e j3t + 4e−j3t −

10( j) j3t 10( j) −j3t
e + e
j( j) j( j)
This represents a phasor of length 4 and phase
angle −1.5 radians rotating anticlockwise (i.e. in
= 4e j3t + 4e−j3t + 10j e j3t − 10j e−j3t
the positive direction) with an angular velocity
of 2 rad/s, and another phasor of length 4 and
phase angle +1.5 radians and rotating clockwise since j2 = −1
(i.e. in the negative direction) with an angular
velocity of 2 rad/s. Figure 74.11 shows the two
phasors. = (4 + j10) e j3t + (4 − j10) e−j3t

  
10
(4 + j10) = 42 + 102 ∠ tan−1
Imaginary axis

ω = 2 rad/s 4

= 10.77∠1.19
4 and (4 − j10)
1.5 rad
= 10.77∠−1.19
0 1.5 rad Real axis

Hence, v = 10.77 ∠ 1.19 + 10.77 ∠ −1.19

4

Thus v comprises a phasor 10.77∠1.19 rotating anti-

ω = 2 rad/s clockwise with an angular velocity if 3 rad/s, and
a phasor 10.77∠−1.19 rotating clockwise with an
angular velocity of 3 rad/s.
Figure 74.11
 THE COMPLEX OR EXPONENTIAL FORM OF A FOURIER SERIES 703

2. Determine the pair of phasors that can repre-

Now try the following exercise. sent the harmonic given by:
v = 10 cos 2t − 12 sin 2t
Exercise 250 Further problems on phasors
[(5 + j6)e j2t + (5 − j6)e−j2t , 7.81∠0.88
1. Determine the pair of phasors that can be used rotating anticlockwise, 7.81 ∠−0.88
to represent the following voltages: rotating clockwise, each with ω = 2 rad/s]
(a) v = 4 cos 4t (b) v = 4 cos (4t + π/2)
3. Find the pair of phasors that can represent the
[(a) 2e j4t + 2e−j4t , 2∠0◦ anticlockwise, fundamental current: i = 6 sin t + 4 cos t
2∠0◦ clockwise, each with ω = 4 rad/s
[(2 − j3) e jt + (2 + j3) e−jt , 3.61∠−0.98
(b) 2e j4t e jπ/2 + 2 e−j4t e−jπ/2 , 2∠π/2 rotating anticlockwise, 3.61 ∠ 0.98 rotat-
anticlockwise, 2∠ −π/2 clockwise, each ing clockwise, each with ω = 1 rad/s]
with ω = 4 rad/s]