PHYSICS MATERILS

1. ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELD

Five Marks Questions
1. Derive expression for electric field due to electric dipole at a point on the axial line.
Ans:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges – q and +q
separated by a small distance 2a. Let E be the electric intensity at a
point P on the axial line of the dipole at a distance OP = r from the
centre O of the dipole. Magnitude of electric intensity at P due to
charge –q is
1 q 1 q
E q   along PA Magnitude of electric intensity at P due to charge +q is,
4 0 AP 2
4 0 (r  a) 2
1 q 1 q
E q   along BP. Since E q & E q are collinear vector acting in opposite directions
4 0 AP 2
4 0 (r  a) 2
and E q  E q therefore, the magnitude of resultant electric field intensity E at P is
1 q 1 q
E  E q  E q  
4 0 (r  a) 4 0 (r  a) 2
2

q  1 1 
E 

4 0  (r  a ) (r  a) 2 
2

q  (r  a ) 2  (r  a) 2  q 4ar
E   
4 0  (r  a )
2 2 2
 4 0 (r  a )
2 2 2

q  2a  2r
E
4 0 (r 2  a 2 ) 2
Since p=q(2a), is the electric dipole moment
p 2r
E
4 0 (r  a 2 )2
2

For short dipole r2 >> a2

1 2p
E
4 0 r 3
2. Derive expression for electric field due to electric dipole at a point on the equatorial line.
Ans:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges –q at point A and
+q at point B separated by a small distance 2a with center O and dipole
moment p=q(2a).
Let θ be the angle made by AP and BP with dipole axis.
Since, AP 2=OP 2 + OA 2 = r 2 + a 2
Magnitude of electric field intensity at P due to charge –q is
1 q 1 q
E q   along PA
4 0 AP 2
4 0 r  a 2
2

Since, BP2 = OP2 + OB2 = r2 + a2

Similarly, Magnitude of electric field intensity at P due to charge +q is
 1 q 1 q
E q  
4 0 BP 2
4 0 r  a 2
2

The vertical components of E+q and E-q are in opposite direction. E-q sin  and E+q sin  cancels out each
other. The horizontal components E+q and E-q are in same direction. E-q cos  and E+q cos  gets added up.
Since, E q  E q
Resultant electric field intensity at P is given by
E  E q cos   E q cos   2 E q cos 
2 q 2 q  OA 
E cos   2  
4 0 (r  a )
2 2
4 0 (r  a )  AP 
2

2 q a q  2a
E . 
4 0 (r  a ) r  a
22 2 2 3
(r  a )
2 2 2

But q x 2a = p, the dipole moment

p
E 3
4 0 (r 2  a 2 ) 2
For short dipole r2 >> a2
1 p
E
4 0 r 3
3. State Gauss law. Obtain an expression for the electric field due to uniformly charged infinite wire using
Gauss law. Ans: “The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 1/ εo
times the total charge enclosed by the surface.”
  q / 0
Consider an infinitely long thin wire of uniform charge distribution
  q/l
Let E be the field at a point P situated at a distance r from the charged wire. Draw
a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length l and radius r enclosing the charge
distribution.
The total flux due to the wire is the sum of electric flux through the circular
surfaces of cylinder( 1 )which is
1   E. dS cos90o  0
And, Electric Flux through the body of the cylinder ( 2 )which is
2   E. dS cos 0o   E. dS
The total flux through the entire surface is
  1  2  0   E. dS
  E  dS  E (2 rl ) ………(1)
From Gauss law electric flux is given by
q l
  …………(2)
0 0
From eqns(1) and (2)
l
E (2 rl ) 
0
Therefore, electric field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged conductor is,

E
2 r 0
4. State Gauss law. Obtain an expression for the electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
using Gauss law.
Ans: “The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 1/ εo times the total charge enclosed by the
surface.”
  q / 0
Consider a thin infinite plane sheet of a uniform charge density .
Let E be the electric field at a point P situated at a distance r from the plane sheet.
The total flux through the entire Gaussian surface is the algebraic sum of the flux through circular faces (1
and 2) and the flux through the body of the cylinder (3). On the circular faces flux is,
𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑S
On the cylindrical face flux is,
𝜙3 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 0
Total flux through the entire surface
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3
𝜙 = 2∮ 𝐸𝑑𝑆 = 2𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆
𝜙 = 2𝐸𝐴 …………..(1)
From Gauss Law, we have
q
  ………….(2)
0
From eqns (1) and (2)
q
2𝐸𝐴 =
0
For Surface charge distribution, 𝑞 = 𝐴 where  is surface charge density
A
2 EA 
0

E
2 0
Electric field E is independent of distance r.
5. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an uniformly charged spherical shell. Electric field due to
charged spherical shell :
 Consider an uniformly charged spherical shell of radius ‘R’ and charge ‘Q’
1) At a point outside the shell (𝒓 > 𝑹) :

 Let P be the point outside the shell at a distance ‘r’ from its centre.
 Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’ which encloses the total charge ‘Q’
 Since E and dA are along radially outwards, we have 𝜃 = 0
 The electric flux through the Gaussian surface
 2) At a point on the surface of the shell (𝒓 = 𝑹):
 If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell, then = . Then the electric field,
1 Q
E
4 0 R 2
3) At a point inside the shell (𝒓 < 𝑹) ∶
 Let ‘P’ be the point inside the charged shell at a distance ‘r’ from its centre.
 Consider the spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
 Since there is no charge inside the Gaussian surface, Q = 0
 Then from Gauss law,

 Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.
Three Marks Questions
1. Mention any three properties of electric charges.
i. Charges are additive.
ii. Charges are conserved.
iii. Charges are quantized.
2. Mention any three properties of electric field lines.
i. Electric field lines start from positive charge and terminate on negative charge.
ii. Two electric field lines never intersect each other.
iii. Tangent to the curve at a point shows direction of field.
3. Derive an expression for torque acting on electric dipole on uniform electric field.
Ans:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges –q
& +q at points A and B respectively placed in a
uniform electric field. Let 2a be the dipole
length and θ be the angle between dipole
moment p and electric field E .
The magnitude of torque experienced by the
dipole is,
τ = Magnitude of force on either charge × perpendicular distance between the two forces
i.e., τ = (qE) ( BC) = qE(2a sinθ )
= (q 2a)E sinθ
Since magnitude of dipole moment, p = (q 2a)
τ = p E sinθ
4. State and explain Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

Ans:
Statement: The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between
any two point charges is directly proportional to the product of
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them, acting along the line joining the two point
charges.
Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by separated by a distance ‘r’. According to
Coulomb’s Law, the force ‘F’ acting between them is
qq
F  1 22
r
qq
F  k 1 22
r
1
Where k  , proportional constant and  0 is permittivity of free space.
4 0
5. State and explain Gauss’s law in electrostatics.
Ans:
Statement: “The total electric flux through a closed surface in free space is equal to 1 /  o times the net charge
enclosed by the surface.”
Explanation: If there are ‘n’ point charges q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 .........  .qn lying inside a closed surface, then
from Gauss law,
1
Total electric flux,    q1  q2  q3  q4  q5  ...........
0
1

0
 q Where  0 is permittivity of free space.
6. State and explain the principle of superposition to calculate electric field between multiple charges.
Ans:
Statement: “The total electric field at a point due to a number of charges is equal to the vector sum of all the
electric field due to all other charges”.
Consider point charges q1 & q2 at a distance
r1 & r2 respectively from a point ‘P’.
According to superposition principle;
Resultant electric field, E  E1  E2
Where E1 is electric field at P due to q1
E 2 is electric field at P due to q2
7. Derive the expression for electric field intensity due to a point charge.
Ans:
Consider a test charge ' q0 ' located at a distance ‘r’ from the point charge ‘q’.
From Coulomb’s Law, the force acting on unit positive charge is
1  qq0 
F  
4 0  r 2 
F
Electric intensity at ‘P’ is E 
q0
 1  qq0 
4 0  r 2 
E 
q0
1 q
E   .......... along OP
4 0  r 2 
Two Marks Questions
1. What is electric flux? Mention the SI unit of electric flux
Ans:
Electric flux over a given surface is the number of electric lines of force passing normally through a given
surface.
SI unit of electric flux is Nm2C 1
2. An infinite linear charge density produces field of 20 10 N / C , at the distance of 4cm. Find the value of
4

linear density of charge.

Ans:
Linear density of charge;
  E  2 0 r  20 104  2  3.14  8.85 1012  4 102
 4.446 107 C / m
3. The surface charge density of a thin conducting plate is 18 105 Cm2 . Find the electric intensity at a point
near the plate
Ans:
 18 105
Electric intensity; E    1 107 N / C
2 0 2  8.85 1012
4. Two point charges 0.3C and 0.6C are separated by a distance of 0.01m. Find the force between charges.
What is the new force between them if a medium of relative permittivity 5 is introduced?
Ans:
Given, q1  0.3C  0.3 106 C ; q2  0.6 C  0.6 106 C and d = 0.01m
 1  q1q2
Case – 1: Force between two point charges, F1   . 2
 4 0  d
9 109  0.3 106  0.6 106
F1 
0.012
F1  16.2 N , Negative sign indicates that force is attractive in nature.
 1  q1q2 F1 16.2
Case – 2: Force between two point charges, F2   . 2  
 4 0 r  d r 5
F2  3.24 N
5. The electrostatic force on a metal sphere of charge 0.4 C due to another identical metal sphere of charge
0.8C in air is 0.2N. Find the distance between the two spheres and also the force between the same two
spheres when they are brought into contact and then replaced in their initial positions.
Ans:
Given q1  0.4 106 C ; q2  0.8 106 C ; F  0.2 N
 1  q1q2
Force between two point charges, F    . 2 .......(1)
 4 0  d
9 109  0.4 106  0.8 106
0.2 
d2
d 2  14.4 103  144 104
 d  144 104  12 102 m  0.12m
 q  q   0.4  0.8  6 6
After contact, q   1 2     10  0.2 10 C
 2   2 
6
 q1  q2  0.2 10 C
9 109  0.2 106  0.2 106
Force between two point charges, F  From equ(1)
 0.12 
2

F  25 103 N
= 0.025 N.

6. Two point charges of +3nC and -3nC are placed at corners A and B of an equilateral triangle ABC of side
0.3m. If a charge +2nC is placed at the point C, what is the force acting on it?
Ans:
 1  q1q2
Force between two point charges, F    . 2 .......(1)
 4 0  d
Force on 2nC due to 3nC;
9 109  3 109  2 109
Eq(1)  F1
0.32
 6 107 N along AC
Force on 2nC due to – 3nC;
9 109  2 109  3 109
Eq(1)  F2
0.32
 6 107 N along CB
Net force on 2nC;
F  F12  F22  2 F1F2 cos 
Here   1200 (between F1 and F2 ) and F1  F2
 2  2 

 F  2 F1 cos  F  2 F1 1  cos    2 F1  2 cos  
2

2   2  
 2  6 107  0.5
F  6 107 N along CF
7. Two charges +6nC and -6nC are placed at 0.2m apart. Calculate the dipole moment and electric field due to
the dipole at a point perpendicular to the axis at distance 0.2m from the midpoint of electric dipole.
Ans:
Given q = 6nC, 2a = 0.2m, x = 0.2m
9
Electric dipole moment, p  q  2a  6 10  0.2
 1.2 109 Cm
1 P 9 109 1.2 109 10.8
Electric field, E   
4 0 2 3 3

 x  a 2  2  0.22  0.12  2 0.0111

E  9.729 102 NC 1
8. Two charges +6nC and -6nC are placed at 0.2m apart. Calculate dipole moment and axial field at a distance
of 0.2m from the center of dipole.
Ans:
Given q= 6nC, 2a = 0.2m, x = 0.2m
9 9
a) Electric dipole moment, p  q  2a  6 10  0.2  1.2 10 Cm
 1 2 px 9 109  2 1.2 109  0.2 4.32
b) Electric field; E   
4 0  x  a
2

2 2
 0.2 2
 0.12 2
 0.032

 4.8 103 NC 1
9. An electric dipole contains two charges 10C and 10C separated by 5mm apart. What is its electric
dipole? Calculate the electric field at a point P 1m away from the center of dipole when P is on a ) axial line
and b) equatorial line of the dipole.
Ans:
Given q  10C, 2a  5mm, a  2.5mm; x  1m.
Here x >> a [Short dipole]
6 3
Electric dipole moment, p  q  2a  10 10  5 10
 50 109 C  m
1 2 p 9 109  2  50 109 900
Axial field; E     900 NC 1
4 0 x3 13 1
1 P 9 109  50 109 450
Equatorial field, E   
4 0 x3 13 1
E  450 NC 1
10. Calculate the torque of electric dipole of dipole moment 4 106 Cm is placed in an electric field of
10 104 N / C with its axis making a angle of a) 00 b) 600 and c) 900 with field.
Ans:
6 4
Given: p  4 10 Cm; E  10 10 N / C
Torque,   pE sin 
 a)  4 106 10 104  sin 00  0
b)  4 106 10 104  sin 600  40 1010  0.8660
 34.64 1010 Nm
c)  4 106 10 104  sin 900  4 106 10 104 1
 40 1010 Nm
11. A charge q is located at the centre of a cube. The electric flux through any face is
4 q q q 2 q
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6(4 0 ) 6(4 0 ) 6(4 0 ) 6(4 0 )
Ans:
q 4 q
(a) We have  face  
6 0 4(4 0 )
12. Electric charge is uniformly distributed along a long straight wire of radius 1mm. The charge per cm
length of the wire is Q coulomb. Another cylindrical surface of radius 50 cm and length 1m
symmetrically encloses the wire as shown in the figure. The total electric flux passing through the
cylindrical surface is

Q 100Q 10Q 100Q

(a) (b) (c) (d)
0 0  0   0 
 Ans:
(b) Charge enclosed by cylindrical surface (length 100 cm) is Qenc  100Q.
1 1
By applying Gauss’s law;    Qenc.   (100Q)1
0 0
13. The inward and outward electric flux for a closed surface in units of N-m2/C are respectively 8 103 and
4 103 . Then the total charge inside the surface is [where  0 is permittivity constant]
(4 103 )
(a) 4 103 C (b) 4 103 C (c) C (d) 4 103  0C


Ans:
1
(d) By Gauss’s law;    Qenclosed 
0
 Qenclosed   0   8 103  4 103   0
 4 103  0C

14. A cylinder of radius R and length L is placed in a uniform electric field E parallel to the cylinder axis. The
total flux for the surface of the cylinder is given by
(a) 2 R 2 E (b)  R2 / E (c) ( R   R) / E
2
(d) Zero
Ans:
(d) Flux through surface A;  A   E   R 2 and  B  E   R 2
Flux through curved surface C   E.ds   Eds cos900  0
Total flux through cylinder   A   B  c  0

15. A charge QC is placed at the centre of a cube. What would be the flux through one face?
Ans:
Q 1Q
Electric flux through whole cube  . Electric flux through one face  Vm.
0 6 0

2. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Two Marks Questions:
1. Write the properties of equipotential surfaces.
 The work is done in moving a test charge from one point to another on an equipotential surface is zero.
 For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field at that
point.
 Two equipotential surfaces will never intersect.
2. Define capacitance of capacitor. Write its SI unit.
Ans: It is defined as the ratio of the charge stored in the capacitor to the potential difference between the
plates. Its SI unit is farad (F)
3. What is a non-polar molecule? Give the examples.
A non-polar molecule is one in which centers of positive and negative charges coincide. As a result, it has no
permanent dipole moment.
Ex: H2, O2, CO2.
4. What is a polar molecule? Give the examples.
A polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and negative charges are separated even in the
absence of an external electric field. They have a permanent dipole moment.
Ex: H2O, N2O, HCl, NH3.
5. Define Polarisation.
Polarisation is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric.
6. Define electric susceptibility.
The electric susceptibility is defined as the polarisation per unit external electric field. It has no unit.

7. What is dielectric breakdown?

When the external electric field applied to a dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms apart so that the bound
charges become free charges. Then the dielectric starts to conduct electricity. This is called dielectric
breakdown.
8. What is dielectric strength?
The maximum electric field the dielectric can withstand before it breakdowns is called dielectric strength. For
example, the dielectric strength of air is 3 x 106 V m-1
Three Marks Questions:
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

6.

7.
8.

9. Draw the equipotential surfaces of

a) Positive charge b) Negative charge
c) An electric Dipole d) Uniform electric field
a) b) c) d)

Five Marks Questions:

1.
2.

3. Obtain an electrostatic potential at a point due to an electric dipole. Discuss the special cases.
,

Problems:

4.
5.

6.
7.

8.
9.

10.

3. CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Two Mark Questions

8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

Three mark Questions

2.
 3.

Five Mark Questions

1.
2.

3.
4. A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 A which
settles after a few seconds at a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of the heating
element if the room temperature is 27°C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome averaged
over the temperature range involved is 1.7 × 10–4 per °C.
Ans:

5. A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section
6.0 × 10–7 m2 and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 W. What is the resistivity of the material at the
temperature of the experiment?

ANS :

6. A silver wire has a resistance 2.1 W at 27.5°C and a resistance of 2.7 W at 100°C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of the resistivity of silver.
ANS :
7. The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 Ω, what is
the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery?
ANS :

8. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in the circuit
is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery when the
circuit is closed.

4. Moving Charges and Magnetism

1. Show graphically the variation of magnetic field due to a straight thick wire from its axis to any
distance r greater than double its radius.
Sol:

Two Mark Questions

1. The strength of magnetic induction at the centre of a current carrying circular coil is B 1 and B2at a
point on its axis at a distance equal to its radius from the centre. Then find B1/B2.
Sol:At any point on the axis (x) ( )

At centre:
At a distance ( ) √ √
√
√
2. Which one of the following will experience maximum force when projected with the same
velocityperpendicular to the magnetic field - an alpha particle or a proton. Give reason.
Sol:Since 𝑞 for 𝑑 𝑞 𝑑 we have alpha particle with charge 2q experience
more force than a proton.
3. What is the advantage of using radial magnetic field in a moving coil galvanometer?
Sol:Radial magnetic field
 1. Ensures a constant magnetic field along the plane of the coil
2. Removes the non-linearity in the scale of measurement by removing (sin𝜃) the trigonometric
constant in the deflection or twist per unit current.
4. State the property of the material of the wire used for suspension of coil in a moving coil
galvanometer. How does it help in improving the current sensitivity?
Sol:Torsional constant (C) for the material to be the least.
Since low value of C gives a higher current sensitivity
5. An electron and a proton moving parallel to each other in the same direction with equal moments
enter into a uniform magnetic field which is at right angle to their velocities. Compare their
trajectories in the magnetic field.
Sol:Since 𝑞 𝑜

𝑜
𝑞 𝑞
𝑠 is same and they posses same charge.
6. What do you mean by current sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer? How is it related to voltage
sensitivity.
Sol:Twist per unit current in the coil of the galvanometer is called current sensitivity. It is

Voltage sensitivity is twist per unit potential .

7. A straight wire of length ‘L’ carrying current ‘I’ stands suspended horizontally in mid-air in a region
where there is a uniform magnetic field B. The linear density of the wire is λ Kg m Find the
magnitude and direction of this magnetic field which can support the wire.
Sol:Weight of the wire has to be balanced by the force exerted by the magnetic field.
For a current I flowing to the right in earth’s magnetic field (horizontal) the force experienced will
be upward.
Third upward force will nullify

8. A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500 turns. It carries a current of 5 A.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid and its edge?
Sol:Magnetic field at the core of a solenoid is given by

𝑠
At the edges, due to diverging nature of field, 𝑠

9.
 10.

11.

12.

13.

Three Marks Questions

1. An electron and a proton enter a region uniform magnetic field ‘B’ with uniform speed ‘V’ in
perpendicular direction a) Which particle has the larger radius of circular path? b) What is the ratio
of circular paths of electron to proton?
Sol:a) 𝑞
Mass of ̅ mass of proton. The speed, charge and magnetic field are the same. So, Radius of proton
will be more than the radius of electron.
a)
2. A rectangular current 2A carrying loop is placed 2 cm away from a long straight current 2A carrying
conductor, in the same plane parallel to its length. What is the direction and magnitude of the net
force acting on the loop? [Length – 10cm and breadth – 5cm]
Sol:Loop will have attractive force towards the straight wire.

Net force [ ]

So net force ( )
3. A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter to measure uptoa) V volts by connecting a
resistance ‘R1 in series with coil
b) V/2 volts by connecting a resistance R2 in series with its coil.
Find the resistance R in terms of R1 and R2 required to convert it into a voltmeter that can read
upto 2 Volts
Sol:(a) subracting we get

(b) ( ) ( )

For 2 volts,
Solving for 𝑜 ( ) 𝑑( )
( )

( )

4. What is the magnitude of magnetic force per unit length on a wire carrying a current of 8 A and
making an angle of 30º with the direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T?
Sol:Component of length perpendicular to the magnetic field will be 𝑠

𝑜 𝑐 𝑠 𝜃

5. A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20 turns and carries a current of 12 A. The coil is suspended
vertically and the normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle of 30º with the direction of a
uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.80 T. What is the magnitude of torque experienced
by the coil?
Sol: 𝑜 𝑞 𝐴 𝑠 𝜃
𝑠

6. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 12 W and the metre shows full scale deflection for a current of
3 mA. How will you convert the metre into a voltmeter of range 0 to 18 V?
Sol: I mA oltmeter range V
𝑠𝑠 𝑐 𝑜 𝑐𝑜 𝑐 𝑑 𝑠 𝑠 𝑜 𝑜

7. Agalvanometer coil has a resistance of 15 W and the metre shows full scale deflection for a current of
4 mA. How will you convert the metre into an ammeter of range 0 to 6 A?
Sol: I mA Range A
𝐴 𝑜 𝑠𝑠 𝑐 𝑆 𝑠 𝑜 𝑐𝑜 𝑐 𝑑 𝑜 𝐴

𝑆
8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

13.
Five Mark Questions
1.

2.
3.
 4.

5. Magnetism and Matter

One mark questions
1. A wire of length ‘L’ and mass m’ carrying a current of 1 A is bent in the form of a circle.
Its magnetic moment will be …………..
Ans. Magnetic moment is given by,
M=NIA (where N is number of turns, I is current , A is area of loop)
Here N=1 , I=1 A
A= ( )

𝐴 ( )

( )

Two mark Questions

1. Three identical specimens of magnetic materials nickel antimony and Aluminium are kept in a
nonuniform magnetic field. Draw the modifications in the field lines in each case. Justify your answer.
2. A magnetizing field of 1500 A/m produces a flux of 2.4 x 10-5 weber in a bar of iron of cross sectional
area 0.5 cm2 Calculate the permeability and susceptibility of the iron bar used.
Ans. To calculate the permeability and susceptibility of the iron bar, we can use the following formulas:

1. Magnetic Flux Density (B):

where ( 𝜙) is the magnetic flux and ( A) is the cross-sectional area.

2. **Permeability ( ):

where ( H ) is the magnetizing field.

3. Susceptibility ( ):
Or
Step 1: Calculate the Magnetic Flux Density ( B )

Given:
𝜙 𝐴
( )

Step 2:Calculate the Permeability ( )

Given
H = 1500 A/m:
=0.0032H/m
Step 3: Calculate the Susceptibility( )

using ∶

Calculating

Now substituting:

3. A short bar magnet placed with its axis 30o with a uniform external magnetic field 0.25 Tesla
experiences a torque of magnitude 4.5 x 10 -2 J. What is the magnitude of the magnetic moment of the
magnet?
Ans. 𝑠 𝜃
i en 𝜃
 𝐴

4.

5.

6.

7.

Three marks questions

1. A dipole is placed in a magnetic field. Express and draw the orientations having the i) least Torque and
ii) Maximum Torque. Also express the potential energy at these orientations. Will the dipole be in stable or
unstable equilibrium in these orientations.
Ans.
For least torque 𝜃 and for ma imum tor ue 𝜃

2. Define the following terms –

i) Intensity of Magnetisation ii) Susceptibility and iii) Relative Magnetic Permeability
i) Intensity of Magnetisation (M)
Intensity of magnetisation is a measure of the degree to which a material is magnetized in response to an applied
magnetic field. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume of the material. The formula is:
 m
V
where ( m ) is the magnetic moment and ( V ) is the volume of the material. The unit of magnetisation is A/m
(amperes per meter).

ii) Susceptibility (χ)

Susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity that indicates how much a material will become magnetized in an
applied magnetic field. It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization ( M ) to the strength of the
applied magnetic field ( H ):

A positive susceptibility indicates that the material is paramagnetic or ferromagnetic, while a negative value
indicates diamagnetism.

iii) Relative Magnetic Permeability (μr)

Relative magnetic permeability is a dimensionless measure of a material's ability to conduct magnetic lines of
force compared to vacuum. It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of the material ( μ) to the permeability of
free space ( μ_0 ):

A relative permeability greater than 1 indicates that the material is magnetic (ferromagnetic or paramagnetic),
while a value less than 1 indicates that the material is diamagnetic.
3. A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and area of cross section 2.5 x 10-4 m2 carries a current of 3
Ampere. Explain the sense in which the solenoid acts like a Bar Magnet. What is its associated magnetic
Moment.
Ans. 𝐴
gi en 𝐴 𝐴

𝐴
( )
𝐴

4.
5.

6.

7.
 6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Two Mark Questions

1.

2.

3.

4. Write Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Ans:
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of induced current in a circuit is such that it opposes the cause or the
change which produces it. i.e., it opposes the change in magnetic flux.
e
5. A bar magnet is moved in the direction indicated by the arrow between two coils PQ and CD . Predict the
directions of induced current in each coil.

Ans:
From the figure, it is clear that North pole of the magnet is moving away from coil PQ, so the direction
of current at end will flow in such a way that it will oppose the away moment of North pole, so it has to
act as South pole. Hence, the direction of current will be anti-clockwise. Again, the South pole is
approaching towards coil CD, so end C of the coil will act as South pole (to oppose the approaching of
South pole). Hence, the direction of current will be clockwise.
The near face of the coil C2 will also become S-pole to oppose the approach of magnet, so the current
in coil C2 will also be clockwise.

6. Define the term magnetic flux. Is it a scalar or vector quantity?

Ans:
The magnetic flux through any surface placed in a magnetic field is the total number of magnetic lines of force
crossing this surface normally.
Magnetic Flux Through a Given Surface Area
As shown in figure, if the magnetic B field makes an angle 𝜃 with the normal drawn to a surface area A, then the
flux linked with this area is,
φ = Normal component of B
=Surface area
= B cos 𝜃 x A
Φ = BA cos 𝜃 𝐴

Here the direction of vector A is the direction of the outward drawn normal to the surface. Clearly. magnetic flux is
a scalar quantity.
7. When is the magnetic flux taken as positive and negative?
Ans:
A normal to a plane can be drawn from either side. If the normal drawn to a plane points out in the direction of
the field, then theta = 0 deg and the flux is taken as positive. If the normal points in the opposite direction of the
field, then Theta = 180 deg and the flux is taken as negative.

Three Mark Questions

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

6. A metallic rod of length L is rotated with angular frequency of ω with one end hinged at the centre
and the other and at the circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius L , about an axis passing
through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring. A constant and uniform magnetic
field B parallel to the axis is present everywhere. Deduce the expression for the emf between the
centre and the metallic ring.
Ans:
Angular velocity of rod, ω
Where, T=time period
Hence, charge in flux in one revolution
BA
B( L )
According to Faraday’s law of EMI, Magnitude of induced emf

= 𝑠 𝑐

Five Mark Questions

7. Find an expression of self induction of an ideal solenoid.
Ans:
A long solenoid is one whose length is very large as compared to its area of cross-section. The magnetic field B
at any point inside such a solenoid is practically constant and is given by
8. (i) Define mutual inductance. Write its SI unit.
(ii) A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A
in 0.5 s, what is the charge of flux linkage with the other coil ?
Ans:
(i) Mutual inductance of two coils in the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil when a unit current
flows through the primary coil,

SI unit of mutal inductance is Henry (H).

9. Define mutual inductance between a pair of coils. Derive an expression for the mutual inductance of two
long coaxial solenoids of same length round one over the other.
Ans:
Let a current of i1 ampere flow in the primary coil. Let, due to this current, the magnetic flux linked with each
turn of the secondary coil be φ2. If N2 be the number of turns in the secondary coil, then the number of flux-
linkages in the coil will be N2 φ 2. This number is proportional to the current i1 flowing in the primary coil, that is

Where, M is constant, called the coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance of the two coils.
From the equation, we have,

inductance or coefficient of mutual induction of the two coil. Any change in the current I sets up an
induced emf in the secondary coil which is given by,

Let n1, be the number of turns per unit length of S2

, n2 be the number of turns per unit length of S1, I1 be current passed through solenoid S1 and φ 21 be flux
linked with S2 due to current flowing through S1.

Where M21 is the coefficient of mutual induction of the two solenoids.

When current is passed through solenoid (S1) an emf is induced in solenoid (S2).
Magnetic field produced inside solenoid (S1) on passing current through it.

Magnetic flux linked with each turn of solenoid (S1) will be equal to B1 times the area of cross-section of solenoid
(S1).
Magnetic flux linked with each turn of the solenoid
𝑆 𝐴
Therefore, total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid (S2),

Similarly, the mutual inductances between the two solenoids, when current is passed through solenoid
(S2) and induced emf is produced in solenoid (S1) and is given by

Hence, coefficient of mutual induction between the two long solenoids

We can rewrite eq. (1) as

10. Describe the various experiments performed by Faraday and Henry which ultimately led to the discovery of
the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
Ans :
Faraday’s Experiments
Experiment 1 : Induced emf with a stationary coiland moving magnet.

When the Bar Magnet is Pushed Towards the Coil,the Pointer in the Galvanometer G Deflects
As shown in figure, take a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer G . Whenever the N -pole of a bar
magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, a current is induced in the coil as is shown by
deflection in the galvanometer. Faster the motion of the magnet, larger is the current induced in the
coil. The galvanometer does not show any deflection when the magnet is held stationary.
The motion of the magnet towards or away from coil C1 changes the magnetic flux linked with coil C1. The
change in the magnetic flux induces an emf in coil C1 which causes a current to flow through C1.
Experiment 2 : Induced emf due to the motion of current carrying coil.

Current is Induced in Coil C1 due to Motion of Current Carrying Coil C2

Figure shows a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer and coil C2 connected to a battery. The steady current in
coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field. As the coil is moved towards C1, the galvanometer shows a deflection.
This indicates an induced current flowing through C1. When C2 is moved away from C1, the direction of current
through C1 is reversed.
Due to the relative motion between coils C1 and C2, the magnetic flux linked with C1 changes and an
emf is induced in it.
Experiment 3 : Induced emf by changing current inthe neighbouring coil.

Figure shows a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer and another coil C2 connected to a battery
through a tapping key K. When the key K is pressed, the galvanometer shows a momentary deflection.
As the key is kept pressed continuously, the galvanometer shows no deflection. When the key is
released, a momentary deflection is observed again, but in the opposite direction.
When the key K is pressed, the current through C2 increases from zero to a maximum value in a short
time. The flux through C1 increases. This induces an emf in C1. When the key is kept pressed
continuously, the current through C2 becomes constant. There is no change in flux linked with C1 and
hence induced current becomes zero. When the key is released, the current through C2 decreases, the
flux linked with C1 decreases and hence induced current in C1 flows in the opposite direction.
11. (a) State Lenz’s law. Give one example to illustrate the law. “The Lenz’s law is a consequence of the
principle of conservation of energy.” Justify the statement.
Ans :
Lenz’s law : The direction of the induced emf, or the current, in any circuit is such as to oppose the cause that
produces it.
Example & Explanation

In the magnet and coil experiment, the direction of the induced current is in accordance to Lenz’s law, that is, it
opposes the motion of the magnet which produces it when the north pole of the magnet is moved
towards the coil, the induced current flows in a direction so that the near (left) face of the coil acts as
a magnetic north pole (fig. a). The repulsion between the two poles opposes the motion of the magnet
towards the coil. Similarly, when the north pole of the magnet is moved away from the coil, the direction of
the induced current is such as to make the near face of the coil a south pole (fig. b).The attraction between the
two pole opposes the motion of the magnet away from the coil. In either case, therefore, work has to be done in
moving the magnet. It is this mechanical work which appears as electrical energy in the coil. If the direction of
the induced current were such as not to oppose the motion of the magnet, then we would be obtaining
electrical energy continuously without doing and work, which is impossible. Thus, Lenz’s law is in accordance
with the principle of conservation of energy

7. Alternating Current
SHORT ANSER QUESTIONS

1. The graphs(i)and(ii)represent the variation of the opposition offered by the circuit element to the flow
of alternating current with frequency of the applied emf Identify the circuit element corresponding to

each graph. 11]

Ans:
(i) From graph (i), it is clear that resistance (opposition to current) is not changing with frequency, i. e.,
resistance does not depend on frequency of applied source, so the circuit element here is pure
resistance (R) From graph (ii), it is clear that resistance increases linearly with frequency, so the circuit
element here is an inductor.
X  2 L
Inductive resistance, L
 XL  
2.

3.

4.

5.

Three Mark Questions

1. Derive an expression for the average power consumed in a series LCR circuit connected to a. c. source in
which the phase difference between the voltage and the current in the circuit is  .
Ans:
The instantaneous voltage and current in an LCR circuit are given by,
E  E0 sin t
and I  I 0 sin (t   ) )
Power,
T T
1 1
p 
T 0
EI  E0 sin tI 0 sin (t   )dt
T 0
T
EI
 0 0 ( sin t (sin t cos   cos t. sin  )dt
2T 0
E0 I 0  
T T
   sin cos  dt  sin t.cos t.sin  )dt 
2

T 0 0 
E0 I 0  
T T
     0   
2
2sin cos dt sin t.cos t.sin ) dt 
2T  0 
E0 I 0  
T T
   (1  cos2 t)cos dt   2sin t.cos t.sin  )dt 
T 0 0 
T T

 cos 2tdt  0  sin2tdt  0

0 and 0
 E0 I 0 E I
P .T cos   0 . 0 cos 
2T 2 2
P  Erms I rms cos 
, where cos  is called power
factor

2.

3.
4.
5.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. (i)Draw a labelled diagram of a step‐down transformer. State the principle of its working.(ii) Express
the turn ratio in terms of voltages. ( Error :: 0 x 0000 ) Find the ratio of primary and secondary currents in
terms of turn ratio in an ideal transformer.(iv) How much current is drawn by the primary of a
transformer connected to 220 V supply when it delivers power to a 110V‐550 W refrigerator?
Ans:
A labelled diagram of a Step‐down transformer

Principle : A transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic mutual induction, i. e., whenever the
amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m. f . is induced in the neighbouring coil.
Working : Alternating emf is supplied to the primary coil pp † , the resulting current induces a current in
secondary coil.
Magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked with the secondary The induced emf in each turn of the
secondary is equal to that induced in each turn of the primary
E n
Let, P ‐alternating emfapplied to primary and P number of mms in the primary
d
dt ‐Rate of change of flux through each turn of primarycoil
 d
E p  np
dt (i)
Es  n
alternatingemfof secondary and s ‐number of turns in secondary
d
Es  ns
dt (ii) Dividing equation (ii) by (i),
Es ns
 k
E p np
(transformation ratio)
E  Ep
For step‐up transformer, K  1 s
N s Es
n 
E  Ep
For step‐down transformer, K  1 s
N p Ep
(ii) Turn ratio,
(iii) In an ideal transformer
Input electrical power  Output electrical power
E p I p  Es I s
Es I p

Ep Is
Ip Es N s l p
   n
Is E p N p ls
V  110V , P  550W ,V p  220V , I p 
(iv) Given, s ?
P  VP I P
Power,
P 550
IP    2.5 A
VP 220

2.
 8. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Three Marks Questions :
1. A capacitor, made of two parallel plates each of plate area A and separation d, is being charged by an
external ac source. Show that the displacement current inside the capacitor is the same as the current
charging the capacitor ?

2. (a) How are electromagnetic waves produced by oscillating charges?

(b) State clearly how a microwave oven works to heat up a food item containing water molecules.
(c) Why are microwaves found useful for the radar systems in aircraft navigation?
Ans. (a) If a charge particle oscillates with some frequency, produces an oscillating electric field in space,
which produces an oscillating magnetic field, which inturn, is a source of electric field, and so on. Thus
oscillating electric fields and magnetic fields regenerate each other, and an electromagnetic wave propagates
in the space.
(b) In microwave oven, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match the resonant frequency of water
molecules so that energy from the waves get transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules. This
kinetic energy raises the temperature of any food containing water.
(c) Microwaves are short wavelength radio waves, with frequency of order of few GHz. Due to short
wavelength, they have high penetrating power with respect to atmosphere and less diffraction in the
atmospheric layers. So these waves are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
3. Identify the part of the electromagnetic spectrum which:
(a) produces heating effect,
(b) is absorbed by the ozone layer in the atmosphere,
(c) is used for studying crystal structure.
Write any one method of the production of each of the above radiations.
Ans. (a) Infrared waves are produced by vibration of atoms and molecules hot bodies and molecules
(b) UV Rays is produced and released when inner shell electrons in atoms moving from one energy
(c) One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high energy electrons.
Five Marks Questions:
1. Explain the sources of electromagnetic waves?
Ans. Sources of electromagnetic waves :
 1. Any stationary source charge produces only electric field. When the charge moves with uniform velocity,
it produces steady current which gives rise magnetic field around the conductor in which charge flows.
2. If the charged particle accelerates, in addition to electric field, it also produces magnetic field. Here both
electric and magnetic fields are time varying fields.
3. The linked electric and magnetic fields have wave property which propagate in the direction perpendicular
to the plane containing electric and magnetic field vectors.
4. This is known as electromagnetic waves and it is transverse in nature.
5. Any oscillatory motion is also an accelerating motion, so when the charge oscillates about their mean
position, it produces electromagnetic waves.
6. Let, electric and magnetic vectors are given by,
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑜 sin( 𝑧 )
= 𝑜 sin( 𝑧 ) then the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves are along Z -axis
7. Here the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is equal to the frequency of the source (oscillation
charge) In free space or vacuum, the ratio between 𝑬𝒐 and 𝑩𝒐 is equal to the speed of electromagnetic
wave which is equal to speed of light (c)
𝒄 =𝑬𝒐/𝑩𝒐
2. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves?
Ans. Properties of electromagnetic waves :
a)Electromagnetic waves are produced by any accelerated charge.They do not require any medium for
propagation. So electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical wave.
b)They are transverse in nature, (i.e) the oscillating electric field vector, oscillation magnetic field vector and
direction of propagation are mutually perpendicular to each other.
c)They travel with speed of light in vacuum or free space and it is given by,

𝒄 =𝟏 √𝜺𝒐𝝁𝟎= 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔 𝟏
d) In a medium with permitti ity ‘ ’ and permeability ‘ ’ the speed of electromagnetic wa e is less
than speed in free space or vacuum. (i.e.) 𝒗 < 𝒄 Hence, refractive index of the medium is,
𝝁 = 𝒄/𝒗 √𝜺𝒓 𝝁𝒓
e)They are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
f)They show interference, diffraction and polarization.
g)Like other waves, electromagnetic waves also carry energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.
NCERT problems
1. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along Z-direction. What can you say about the
directions of electric and magnetic field vectors? If the frequency of the wave is 30 MHz, what is its
wavelength ?

2. The amplitude of the magnetic field of a harmonic electromagnetic wave in vacuum is B = 510 nT. What
is the amplitude of the electric field part of the wave ?
3. About 5% of the power of a 100 W light bulb is converted to visible radiation. What is the average
intensity of visible radiation
(a) at a distance of 1 m from the bulb?
(b) at a distance of 10 m?
Assume that the radiation is emitted isotopically and neglect reflection.

9. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUEMNTS

TWO AND THREE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Give the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of spherical mirror.
Ans: f = R/2.
2. What is refraction of light?
Ans: The phenomenon of bending of light ray (obliquely incident ray) when it passes from one medium to
another medium of different optical density is known as refraction of light.
3. State Snell’s law of refraction.
Ans: “The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant
and is equal to the refractive index of the second medium with respect to first medium”.
4. When does the Snell’s law of refraction is not valid?
Ans: Snell’s law is not valid for normal incidence (For i = 900).
5. Define critical angle for total internal reflection.
Ans: The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which angle of refraction in rarer medium
is 900 is called critical angle for given pair of media and for given wavelength.
OR The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray grazes the surface
separating the two media is called critical angle for given pair of media and for given wavelength.
6. What is the principle of an optical fibre?
Ans: Total Internal Reflection
7. What is meant by dispersion of light?
The phenomenon of splitting of composite/white light into its constituent colours is called
dispersion of light.
8. Define power of a lens. Mention its unit.
Ans: The power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length ( P = 1/f ). The
unit of power of lens is dioptre (D).
9. How does the power of a lens vary with focal length? Ans:
Power of a lens varies inversely with focal length.
10. Define linear magnification produced by a lens. Mention its unit.
Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of the linear size of the image to the linear size of the
object.
Magnification has no units.

11. State laws of refraction.

Ans: I law of Refraction : The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
II law of Refraction : The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
a constant for a given pair of media and for given wavelength of light.
sini
i. e. sinr = constant.
12. State and explain Snell’s law of refraction.
Ans: “The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant and is
equal to the refractive index of the second medium with respect to first medium”.
sini
Refractive index of second medium relative to first medium is, n21 = sinr
13. What are the conditions for Total Internal Reflection?
 Light ray must travel form denser medium to Rarer medium
 The angle of incidence in denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for thepair
of media.



14. What is total internal reflection of light? Explain. (3 M)
Ans: When a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium such that the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray is totally reflected back into the denser medium. This
phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Explanation: Let A is the object in the denser medium (water).The light from the object
incident on the interface separating two media, it is partly reflected back into the same
medium and partly refracted to the second medium. The refracted ray bends away from the normal. For
the certain angle of incidence called critical angle (iC), the angle of refraction is 90. For the angle of
incidence greater than the critical angle (i >iC), incident ray gets completely reflected back to the denser
medium. This is called total internal reflection.
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
 The ray must travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
 Angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle, for the pairof
media and for the given colour (wavelength) of light.
15. Mention the applications of total internal reflection of light.
Ans: The applications of total internal reflection are
 In the brilliance of diamond
 In optical fibres (for sending light sals)
 In prisms to bend a light ray by 900 or 1800 or to invert the images.
16. Give the applications of optical fibres.
Ans: The applications of optical fibres are
 used in communication system for transmitting and receiving optical signals.
 used as a ‘light pipe’ to facilitate visual examination of internal organs like oesophagus,
stomach and intestines.
17. Draw the ray diagram of a Compound Microscope when the image is formed at near point orleast
distance of distinct vision.
Ans:

FIVE MARK QUESTIONS

18. Derive the Mirror formula.
OR Obtain the relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length (f)of a
spherical mirror.
Ans: The geometry of formation of image B’A’ of object BA by a concave mirror is as shown in figure.

MPN = spherical mirror,

AB = linear size of the
object, A’B’ = linear size of
the image, BP = u = object
distance
B’P = v = image
distance FP = f =focal
length
CP= R = radius of curvature
′ ′ 0 ′ ′
In triangles A′ B′ F and MPF, ∠A B F = ∠MPF = 90 and ∠A FB = ∠MFP
Hence the triangles A′ B′ F and MPF are similar

In triangles A′B′P and ABP, ∠A′B′P = ∠ABP = 900 and ∠A′PB′ = ∠APB ,
Hence the triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
 _________(1)
___________________(2)

Comparing Equations (1) and (2),

Applying the sign conventions, B′P = –v, FP = –f, BP = –u, to equation (3) we get,
−v + f −v
=
−f −u
v−f v
=
f u
uv − fu = fv,
Dividing through out by uvf and rearranging, we get
1 1 1

This relation is known as the mirror equation

19. Derive the relation between n1, n2, u, v and R for refraction through the spherical surface. Where the
symbols have usual meanings.
Ans: Consider a an object O placed on the principal axis of a spherical surface with centre of curvature C
and radius of curvature R, which forms an image I. The geometry of formation of image of an object O
placed on the principal axis of a spherical surface is as shown in figure.

OM = u = object distance MI = v
= image distance
MC = R = radius of curvature Angle i =
angle of incidence Angle r = angle of
refraction ON = incident ray
NI = refracted ray
NC = normal to surface at N & n1, n2
are the refractive indices
For small angles,
MN
tan ∠NOM = ≈ ∠NOM
OM
MN
tan ∠NCM = ≈ ∠NCM
MC
MN
tan ∠NIM = ≈ ∠NIM
MI
In ΔNOC, i is the exterior angle and NOM & NCM are interior opposite angles,
Therefore, i = ∠NOM +∠ NCM
MN MN … … … … … (3)
i= +
OM MC
Similarly, In ΔNIC, ∠ NCM = r + ∠ NIM
r =∠ NCM − ∠ NIM

Now, by Snell’s law, n1 sin i = n2 sin r

for small angles, n1 i = n2 r (since sin i i and sin r r)
Substituting i and r from Equations (3) and (4),
 MN MN MN MN
n1 + = n2
MC OM MC MI
n1 n1
n2 n2
+ = −
OM MC MC MI
n1 n2 n2 − — − − −(5)
+ =
n1
OM MI MC
Applying the Cartesian sign convention, OM = – u, MI = + v, MC = + R
Substituting these in Equation (5) and rearranging, we get

− — − − −(6)
−
20. Derive of Lens Maker’s Formula.
Ans: Consider a thin convex lens of
RI n2 is placed in medium of RI n1.
Let,
R1 – radius of curvature of surface
ABC R2 – radius of curvature of
surface ADC O – point object on
principal axis
I – final image of the object

The geometry of image formation by a double convex lens is as shown in

figure. The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps:-
(i) Refraction at surface ABC: The refraction at the surface ABC, forms the real image I1 in medium of
RI n2 of the point object placed in medium n1.
n2 n1 n2 − — − − − − (1)
− = n2 n1 n2 − n1
− =′
v u R1
— − − − − (1)

n1
v′ u R1
(ii) Refraction at surface ADC: The image I1 (in medium of RI n2) acts as a virtual object for the
second surface ADC that forms the final real image at I in medium of RI n1.
n1 n2 n1 − n2
− =
v v′ R2
n1 n2 n2 − n1 — − − − − (2)
− =−
v v′ R2
Adding Equations (1) and (2), we get
 1 1 n2 1 1
− = ( − 1) ( − )
v u n1 R1 R2

R
Suppose the object is at infinity, i.e., u → ∞ then, v → f
1 — 1 − − − − (3)
— 1) ( − )

This is lens maker’s formula

21. Derive expression for equivalent focal length of the two thin convex lenses in contact with eachother.
Ans:
Let,
A and B – two thin convex lenses f1 –
focal length of lens A
f2 – focal length of lens B
O – point object placed beyond focus of lens A

The geometry of image formation by combination of lenses is as shown in figure. The

image formation takes place in two stages.
 The first lens forms the real image at I1 of the object O. For the image formed by the first lens A,
1 1 1
− = − − − − − (1)
v1 u f1
 The image I1 acts as virtual object for the second lens B and the lens B forms final image I. For the
image formed by the second lens B,
 Adding Equations (1) and (2), we get
1 1 1 1
− = + − − − − − (3)
v u f1 f2
If the two lens-systems is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length f, then,
1 1 1
− = − − − − − (4)
v u f
From equations (3) and (4)
— − − − − (5)

22. Derive the refractive index of material of prism in terms of its refracting angle A and angle
ofminimum deviation Dm.

in the quadrilateral AQNR

Q=R=900 A+N=1800 ____________(1_
In triangle QNRr
R1 +r2 +N =1800_________(2)
By comparing 1 and 2
A= r1 + r2___________(3)
In triangle QTR
δ =(i1-r1) +(i2-r2)
δ =i1 +i2 -A______________(4)
for minimum deviation r1 =r2 =r
i1 = i2 =i
from above equations
A+δm =2i
A=2r
From snells law
𝒎
𝒔 𝒔
𝒔 𝒓
= 𝒓
𝒔
23 Explain the magnification of microscope?
 The simple microscope is used to observe the magnified images of small objects.
It consists a convex lens of small focal length
IMAGE AT NEAR POINT:
If the object is placed at a distance u less than focal length then the erect and magnified
image is formed at near point D (fig:a)

𝒗 𝟏 𝟏
Then magnification m= 𝒗(𝒗 )D
𝒗
m = (𝟏 )
from sign convention v=-D
then m = (𝟏 )
IMAGE AT FAR POINT:
For clear vision the object should be at near point D from the eye without lens the
tan 𝟎= hear 𝟎 is small so 𝟎= -----------------(1)
for image at infinity the object should be at focal length the the image is formed with a
magnified size of height h’ and distance v
then tan = -----------------------(2)
from equ.1 and 2 the angular magnification magnification m=
24 Explain the magnification of compound microscope?
The compound microscope is used for large magnification of small object. It consisting two convex
lenses one lens of small focal length fo is kept nearer to object is called objective lens. Which forms
real inverted magnified image of the object>
The second convex lens of focal length fe is placed nearer to observers eye called eyelens or eyepiece
which works as simple microscope and produce inverted virtual and magnified final image.
The ray diagram is shown in above diagram
The magnification of objective lens is
tanβ= =

=
m= -------(1)
Where L is the distance between Fe and Fo is called tube length of compound microscope.
The magnifying power of eye piece is me = (𝟏 ) from simple microscope formula
If the final image is formed at infinity me =
The total magnification of compound microscope when the image is at infinity is
m=memo =
25 Explain the magnification of Astronomical` microscope?

The telescope is used to observe the distance objects clearly and magnified.
It consisting two convex lenses are called eyepiece and objective.
The objective lens has large focal length than eyepiece and arge aperture.
The light rays from distant object fall on objective and a real image is formed at second focal point in
telescope. Then the eye piece magnifies this real image an produce final inverted image. The ray
diagram of telescope is shown in figure.
The magnifying power is the ratio of angle β at the eye by final image to the angle α which the object
subtends at the eye then

m= = =

26 Explain working of reflecting telescope?

Modern telescopes consisting a concave mirror as objective instead of convex lens.

Telescope with mirror objective are called reflecting telescope.
By using concave mirror chromatic aberrations can be eliminated and by using parabolic reflecting
surface eliminate spherical aberrations.
These telescopes form the brighter mages and having ore resolving power than refracting telescopes. So
such telescopes are known as Cassegrain telescope.
In this telescope the parallel rays from distant object fall on concave mirror and they are reflected to
secondary mirror at focus of concave mirror.
And these rays are again reflected by secondary convex mirror on to the eyepiece. The final image is
inverted.
The magnification is m = =
10.WAVE OPTICS
Very Short Answer Questions [1 mark]
Q. 1. When monochromatic light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength
changes but frequency remains the same. Explain?
Ans. Frequency is the fundamental characteristic of the source emitting waves and does not
depend upon the medium. Light reflects and refracts due to the interaction of incident light
with the atoms of the medium. These atoms always take up the frequency of the incident light
which forces them to vibrate and emit light of same frequency. Hence, frequency remains
same.
Q. 2. Light of wavelength 5000 Å propagating in air gets partly reflected from the surface of
water.How will the wavelengths and frequencies of the reflected and refracted light be
affected?
Ans. 5000 Å = 5000 × 10-10 = 5 × 10–7 m
Reflected ray: No change in wavelength and frequency.
Refracted ray: Frequency remains same, wavelength decreases
Wavelength = ' ’ = /n
Q. 3. Why are coherent soruces required to create interference of light?
Ans. Coherent sources are required for sustained interference. If sources are incoherent, the
intensity at a point will go on changing with time.
Q. 4. Differentiate between a ray and a wave front.
Ans. A wave front is a surface of constant phase. A ray is a perpendicular line drawn at any
point on wave front and represents the direction of propagation of the wave.
Q. 5. What type of wavefront will emerge from a (i) point source and (ii) distant light source?
Ans. (i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Plane wavefront.
Q. 6. What will be the effect on interference fringes if red light is replaced by blue light?
Ans. β ie ..βα the wavelength of blue light is less than that of red light; hence if red
light is replaced by blue light, the fringe width decreases, i.e., fringes come closer.
Q. 7. Which of the following waves can be polarized (i) Heat waves (ii) Sound waves? Give
reason to support your answer.
Ans. Heat waves are transverse or electromagnetic in nature whereas sound wave are not.
Polarisation is possible only for transverse waves.
Q. 8. At what angle of incidence should a light beam strike a glass slab of refractive index√𝟑 ,
such that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other?
Ans. The reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular at polarising angle; so from
Brewster’s law
I= tanType e uation here (n ) =tan(√ )=60
Q. 9. How does the fringe width of interference fringes change, when the whole apparatus of
Young’s experiment is kept in water (refractive index 4/3)?
Ans. Fringe width, β =Dλ/d β α for same D and d. When the whole apparatus is immersed
in a transparent liquid of refractive index n = 4/3, the wavelength decreases to λ = λ/n= 4/3 .
So
fringe width decreases to ¾ times.
Q. 10. In what way is the diffraction from each slit related to interference pattern in double
slit experiment?
Ans. The intensity of interference fringes in a double slit arrangement is modulated by the
diffraction pattern of each slit. Alternatively, in double slit experiment the interference pattern
on the screen is actually superposition of single slit diffraction for each slit.
Q. 11. A polaroid (I) is placed in front of a monochromatic source. Another polaroid (II) is
placed in front of this polaroid (I) and rotated till no light passes. A third polaroid (III) is now
placed inbetween (I) and (II). In this case, will light emerge from (II)? Explain.
Ans. Only in the special cases when the pass axis of (III) is parallel to (I) or (II) there shall be no
light emerging. In all other cases there shall be light emerging because the pass axis of (II) is no
longer perpendicular to the pass axis of (III).
Q. 12. Give reason for the following:
The value of the Brewster angle for a transparent medium is different for lights of different
colours.
Ans. Brewster’s angle, iB = tan–1(n)
As refractive index n varies as inverse value of wavelength; it is different for lights of different
wavelengths (colours), therefore, Brewster’s angle is different for lights of different colours.
Short Answer Questions–I [2 marks]
Q. 1. When are two objects just resolved? Explain. How can the resolving power of a
compound microscope be increased? Use relevant formula to support your answer.
Ans . Two objects are said to be just resolved when, in their diffraction patterns, central
maxima of one object coincides with the first minima of the diffraction pattern of the second
object. Limit of resolution of compound microscope
D min=
.Resolving power of a compound microscope is given by the reciprocal of limit of resolution
(dmin).
Therefore, to increase resolving power, λ can be reduced and refractive index of the medium
can be increased.
Q.2. Explain the following, giving reasons:
(i) When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected
and refracted light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency.
(ii) When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this
decrease in speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by the wave?
(iii) In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the square of the
amplitude of the wave. What determines the intensity in the photon picture of light?
Ans. (i) Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with atomic
constituents of matter which vibrate with the same frequency as that of the incident light.
Hence frequency remains unchanged.
(ii) No; when light travels from a rarer to a denser media, its frequency remains unchanged.
According to quantum theory of light, the energy of light photon depends on frequency and not
on speed.
(iii) For a given frequency, intensity of light in the photon picture is determined by the number
of photon incident normally on a crossing an unit area per unit time.
Q 3. Draw the diagrams to show the behaviour of plane wave fronts as they (a) pass through
a thin prism, and (b) pass through a thin convex lens and (c) reflect by a concave mirror.
Ans. The behaviour of a thin prism a thin convex lens and a concave mirror are shown in figs.
(a), (b)and (c) respectively
 Long Answer Questions [5 marks]
Q. 1. Using Huygens’ principle, draw a diagram to show propagation of a wavefront
originating from a monochromatic point source. Explain briefly.

Ans. Propagation of Wavefront from a Point Source: This principle is useful for determining
the position of a given wavefront at any time in the future if we know its present position. The
principle may be stated in three parts as follows:
(i) Every point on a given wavefront may be regarded as a source of new disturbance.
(ii) The new disturbances from each point spread out in all directions with the velocity of
light and are called the secondary wavelets.
(iii) The surface of tangency to the secondary wavelets in forward direction at any instant
gives the new position of the wavefront at that time.
Let us illustrate this principle by the following example:
Let AB shown in the fig. be the section of a wavefront in a homogeneous isotropic
medium at t = 0. We have to find the position of the wavefront at time t using Huygens’
principle. Let v be the velocity of light in the given medium.
(a) Take the number of points 1, 2, 3, … on the wavefront AB. These points are the
sources of secondary wavelets.
(b) At time t the radius of these secondary wavelets is vt. Taking each point as centre,
draw circles of radius vt.
(c) Draw a tangent A1B1 common to all these circles in the forward direction. This
gives the position of new wavefront at the required time t.
The Huygens’ construction gives a backward wavefront also shown by dotted line A2B2
which is contrary to observation. The difficulty is removed by assuming that the
intensity of the spherical wavelets is not uniform in all directions; but varies
 continuously from a maximum in the forward direction to a minimum of zero in the
backward direction.
The directions which are normal to the wavefront are called rays, i.e., a ray is the
direction in which the disturbance is propagated.

Q. 2. Define the term wavefront. Using Huygen's wave theory, verify the law of reflection.

Ans. Wavefront: A wavefront is a locus of particles of medium all vibrating in the same
phase.
Law of Reflection: Let XY be a reflecting surface at which a wavefront is being incident
obliquely. Let v be the speed of the wavefront and at time t = 0, the wavefront touches
the surface XY at A. After time t, the point B of wavefront reaches the point B′ of the
surface. According to Huygen’s principle each point of wavefront acts as a source of
secondary waves. When the point A of wavefront strikes the reflecting surface, then
due to presence of reflecting surface, it cannot advance further; but the secondary
wavelet originating from point A begins to spread in all directions in the first medium
with speed v. As the wavefront AB advances further, its points A1, A2, A3 ... etc. strike
the reflecting surface successively and send spherical secondary wavelets in the first
medium.
First of all the secondary wavelet starts from point A and traverses distance AA' (= vt)
in first medium in time t. In the same time t, the point B of wavefront, after travelling a
distance BB', reaches point B' (of the surface), from where the secondary wavelet now
starts. Now taking A as centre we draw a spherical arc of radius AA' (= vt) and draw
tangent A'B' on this arc from point B'. As the incident wavefront AB advances, the
secondary wavelets starting from points between A and B', one after the other and will
touch A'B' simultaneously. According to Huygen’s principle wavefront A'B' represents
the new position of AB, i.e., A'B' is the reflected wavefront corresponding to incident
wavefront AB.
Now in right-angled triangles ABB' and AA'B'
∠ABB' = ∠AA'B' (both are equal to 90°)
side BB' = side AA' (both are equal to vt)
and side AB' is common.
i.e., both triangles are congruent
 . ∠ BAB' = ∠ AB'A'
i.e., incident wavefront AB and reflected wavefront A'B' make equal angles with the
reflecting surface XY. As the rays are always normal to the wavefront, therefore the
incident and the reflected rays make equal angles with the normal drawn on the
surface XY, i.e.,
Angle of incidence i = Angle of reflection r
This is the second law of reflection.
Since AB, A'B' and XY are all in the plane of paper, therefore the perpendiculars
dropped on them will also be in the same plane. Therefore we conclude that the
incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane. This is the first law of reflection. Thus Huygen’s principle explains both the laws of
reflection.
11. DUAL NARURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
1. The energy that should be supplied to an electron to reduce its de Broglie wavelength
from 10-10 m to0.5  10-10 m will be …………………… times initial kinetic energy,
Ans :
Three

2. The wavelength corresponding to a beam of electrons whose kinetic energy is 100 eV is

(h = 6.6 x 10 – 34 Js; eV = 1.6 x 10 – 19 J; me = 9.1 x 10 – 31 kg)
Ans:

3. The work function for a metal surface is 4.14 eV. The threshold wavelength for this
metal surface is
   
A) 4125 A B) 2062.5 A C) 3000 A D) 6000 A
 Ans:
Option (C) is correct.

4. The wavelength of a photon needed to remove a proton from a nucleus which is bound
to the nucleus with 1 MeV energy is nearly
A) 1.2 nm B) 1.2 x 10 – 3 nm C) 1.2 x 10 – 6 nm D) 1.2 x 10
nm
Ans.
Option (B) is correct
Explanation: Energy of the photon must be equal to the binding energy of proton.

5. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelength associated with two electrons accelerated through 25
V and 36 V is
A) 25 / 36 B) 36/25 C) 5/6 D) 6/5
Ans.
Option (D) is correct.
Explanation :  1/ V
1 / 2  (V2 / V1 )  6 / 5
2 Marks Questions
1. State the laws of photoelectric emission.
Ans :
(i) For a given photosensitive surface, photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
(ii) The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not depend on intensity but it
depends on frequency of incident radiation and is directly proportional to it.
(iii) For a given photosensitive surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident
radiation, called threshold frequency below which no photoelectric emission takes place,
whatever may be the intensity of incident radiation.
 (iv)The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process
2. Plot a graph showing the variation of photoelectric current as a function of anode
potential for two light beams having the same frequency but different intensities I1, I2
and I3(I1< I2<I3).
ANS : 2 :

3. Write two characteristic features in photoelectric effect which cannot be explained on

the basis of wave theory of light, but can be explained only using Einstein’s equation.
Ans :
(i) Maximum Kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is independent of intensity of incident
light
(ii) Instantaneous emission of photoelectrons
(iii) Existence of threshold frequency
4. A proton and an α- particle have the same de-Broglie wavelength. Determine the ratio
of (i) their accelerating potentials (ii) their speeds.

Ans:

5. An alpha (α) particle and a proton are accelerated from rest through the same potential
difference. Find the ratio of their de-Broglie wavelengths associated with them.
6. A proton and an electron have same velocity. Which one has greater de Broglie
wavelength and why?
Ans:
h
de Broglie wavelength (  ) is given as  
m
Given  p  e
Where  p = velocity of proton and e = velocity of electron
Since m p  me
From the given relation
1
  , hence  p  he
m
Thus, electron has greater de Broglie wavelength, if accelerated with same speed.
7. What is meant by work function of a metal? How does the value of work function
influence the kinetic energy of electrons liberated during photoelectron emission?
Ans:
Work Function: The minimum energy required to free and electron from metallic surface is
called the work function.
Smaller the work function, larger the kinetic energy of emitted electron.
8. Monochromatic light of frequency 6 x 1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power
emitted is 2.0 x 10 – 3 W. How many photons per second on a average are emitted by the
source?
Ans.
nhv
Power of radiation, P   Nhv, where N is number of photons per sec.
t
P 2.0 103
Or N 
hv 6.63 1034  6 1014
= 5 x 1015 photons per second
9. Plot a graph showing the variation of photoelectric current with intensity of light. The
work function for the following metals is given:
Na : 2.75 eV and Mo : 4.175 eV.
Which of these will not give photoelectron emission from a radiation of wavelength

3300 A from a laser beam? What happens if the source of laser beam is brought closer?
Ans.
hc
Energy of photon E  Joule

hc
= eV
e
6.63 1034  3 108
= eV  3.76 eV
1.6 1019  3.3 107
 Since Wo of Mo is greater than E, Mo will not give photoemission. There will be no effect
of bringing source closer in the case of Mo. In case of Na, photocurrent will increase.

11.Name any two types of electron emission.

Ans:
The types of electron emission are
 Thermionic emission
 Photoelectric emission
 Field emission

3 Marks Questions (Answers must be point wise)

1. Write the experimental observations (or laws) of photoelectric effect.

Ans:
The experimental observations of photoelectric effect are
 The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
(Time lag between incidence of photon & electron emission is nearly 10– 9 s)
 For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (and v  v0 ) the
photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
 For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current
is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation
 For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the
incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no emission of
photoelectrons takes place.
 Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or the maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation.
2. Write Einstein’s photo electric equation. Explain symbols.

3. Mention the properties of photons.

Ans:
The properties of photons are
 In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as particles called photons.
 Energy of each photon is E =h
 Momentum of each photon is p = h/c.
 Photons travel with a speed c in vacuum.
 Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
 In a photon-particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved.
4. What are matter waves (de Broglie waves)? Write the expression for ‘de Broglie’
wavelength.
Ans: The waves associated with a material particle in motion are called matter waves or
deBroglie waves.
The wavelength of de Broglie waves/ matter waves is given by,

Where, h – Plank’s constant, p = mv - momentum of moving particle Q . The threshold

frequency of a
metal is f. When the light of frequency 2f is incident on the metal plate, the maximum
velocity of photo electrons is ν1. When the frequency of the incident radiation is increased to
5f, the maximum velocity of photo-electrons is ν2 . Find the ratio ν1 : ν2 .

5. Figure shows the variations of stopping potential Vo with the frequency ν of the
incident radiations of the incident radiation for two photosensitive metals P and Q:
(i) Explain which metal has smaller threshold wavelength.
(ii) Explain, giving reason, which metals emits photo electrons having smaller kinetic
energy, for the same wavelength of incident radiation.
Ans :
6. The de Broglie wavelenths associated with an electron and a proton are equal. Prove
that the kinetic energy of the eelctron is greater than of the proton.

Ans:

7. Define the terms (i) ‘cut – off voltage’ and (ii) ‘threshold frequency’ in relation to the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation show how the cut – off voltage and threshold
frequency for a given photosensitive material can be determined with the help of a
suitable plot/ graph.

Ans:

8. Write two characteristic features observed in photoelectric effect which support the
photon picture of electromagnetic radiation.
Draw a graph between the frequency of incident radiation (v) and the maximum kinetic
energy of the electrons emitted from the surface of a photosensitive material. State
 clearly how this graph can be used to determine (i) Planck’s constant and (ii) work
function of the material.
Ans:

9. Sketch the graphs showing variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident
radiation for two photosensitive materials A and B having threshold frequencies VA >
VB.
(i) In which case is the stopping potential more and why?
(ii) Does the slope of the graph depend on the nature of the material used? Explain.
Ans:

10. An electron and a proton, each have de Broglie wavelength of 1.00 nm.
(a) Find the ration of their momenta.
 (b) Compare the kinetic energy of the proton with that of the electron.
Ans:

11.

SECTION IV
5 Marks Questions (Answers must be point wise)

1. Write the experimental observations of photoelectric effect.

( 3/5 M )
Ans: The experimental observations of photoelectric effect are,
1) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
2) For every photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the
incident radiation below which there is no photoelectric emission. This minimum frequency
is called the threshold frequency.
2. Above threshold frequency, the photo current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or the maximum kinetic energy of
the
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
4. Above the threshold frequency, saturation current is proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
5. The photo current decreases with increase in negative potential of collector and reaches zero
at a negative potential known as stopping potential.
6. Write the Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Using the equation, explain any two
experimental observations of photoelectric effect.
(3/5 M)
Ans: Albert radiation energy is built up of discrete units called quanta of energy of radiation.
Each quantum of radiation has energy E= hν, Where, h is Planck’s constant and ν- the
frequency of light.
In photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a quantum of energy (hν) of radiation and the
electron is
emitted with maximum kinetic energy: Kmax = hν – ϕo where, ϕo – work function
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
(i) According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Kmax depends linearly on frequency
ν and Kmax is independent of intensity of radiation.
(ii) Since Kmax must be non-negative, photoelectric emission is possible only if hν > ߶߶
or ν > ν0. Thus, there exists a threshold frequency νo for every metal surface, below
which no photoelectric emission is possible.
(iii)Intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of photons per unit area per
unit time. The greater the number of photons available, the greater is the number of
electrons coming out of the metal.
Therefore, (for frequencies ν>νo) photoelectric current is directly proportional to
intensity of incident radiation.
(iv)According to Einstein, the photoelectric effect is instantaneous process. This is
because photoelectric effect process involves absorption of light quantum by single
electron, which takes place instantaneously.
In this way Einstein’s theory successfully explains the experimental observations of
photo electric effect.
7. (i) Write three observed features of photoelectric effect which cannot be explained by
wave theory of light.
Explain how Einstein’s photoelectric equation is used to describe these features
satisfactorily.
(ii) Figure shows a plot of stopping potential (V0) with frequency (v) of incident
radiation for two photosensitive materials M1 and M2. Explain
a) Why the slope of both the lines is same?
b) For which material emitted electrons have greater kinetic energy for the same
frequency of incident radiation?
Ans:
8. a) Consider a beam of electron (each electron with energy E0) incident on a metal
surface kept in an evacuated chamber. What may happen?

b) What should be the wavelength of a photon required to remove a proton from a

nucleus which is bound to the nucleus with 1 MeV energy?
c) Define intensity of radiation on the basis of photon nature of light. Write its SI
unit.
Ans:

Simple problems as per NCERT & Previous Year Questions

1. Find the
a) maximum frequency, and
b) minimum wavelength of X – rays produced by 30 kV electrons.

2. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 x 1014 Hz is
incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the
a) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
b) stopping potential, and
c) maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons?

3. The photoelectric cut-off voltage in a certain experiment is 1.5 V. What is the

maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted?
 Ans:
Here, V0 = 1.5 V
Therefore, maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons,
1
m  max
2
 eV0  e  1.5 J  1.5 eV
2
4. Monochromatic light of waelength 632.8 nm is produced by a helium – neon laser. The
power emitted is 9.42 nW.
a) Find the energy and momentum of each photon in the light beam.
b) How many photons per second, on the average, arrive at a target irradiated by this
beam?(Assume the beam to have uniform cross-section which is less than the target area),
and
c) How fast does a hydrogen atom have to travel in order to have the same momentum as
that of the
photon?

5. In an experiment on photoelectric effect, the slope of the cut – off voltage versus frequency
of incident light is found to be 4.12 x 10 – 15 Vs. Calculate the value of Planck’s constant.

6. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3 x 1014 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2 x
1014 Hz is incident on the metal, predict the cut off voltage for the photoelectric emission.
7. The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV. Will this metal given hotoelectric
emission for incident radiation of wavelength 330 nm?

8. Light of frequency 7.21 x 1014 Hz is incident on a metal surface. Electrons with a

maximum speed of 6.0 x 105 m/s are ejected from the surface. What is the threshold
frequency for photoemission of electrons?

9. Light of wavelength 488 nm is produced by an argon laser which is used in the

photoelectric effect. When light form this spectral line is incident on the emitter, the
stopping (cut – off) potential of photoelectrons is 0.38 V. Find the work function of the
material from which the emitter is made.
10. What is the de Broglie wavelenth of
a) a bullet of mass 0.040 kg travelling at the speed of 1.0 km/s,
b) a ball of mass 0.060 kg moving at a speed of 1.0 m/s, and
c) a dust particle of mass 1.0 x 10 – 9 kg drifting with a speed of 2.2 m/s?

11. Show that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is equal to the de Broglie
wavelentth of its quantum (photon).
 12. Atoms

Short Questions Answers :

1.

2.

3.

4.
Long Questions Answers :
Question E plain Rutherford’s e periment on the scattering of alpha particles
and state the significance of the results.

1. Answer: The schematic arrangement in the Geiger Marsden experiment is

shown in the figure.

Alpha-particles emitted by a Bismuth (21483Bi) radioactive source were collimated

into a narrow beam by their passage through lead bricks. The beam was allowed
to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10-7 m. The scattered alpha-particles
were observed through a rotatable detector consisting of a zinc sulfide screen and
a microscope. The scattered alpha-particles on striking the screen produced
bright light flashes or scintillations. These scintillations could be viewed through
the microscope and counted at different angles from the direction of the incident
beam.
Significance: The experiment established the existence of a nucleus that
contained the entire positive charge and about 99.95% of the mass.
Question Using Bohr’s postulates, obtain the expression for the total energy of
the electron in the stationary states of the hydrogen atom. Hence draw the energy
level diagram showing how the line spectra corresponding to the Balmer series
occur due to the transition between energy levels.

2. Answer: The electron revolving around the nucleus has two types of energy:
Kinetic energy due to its motion.
Potential energy due to it lying in the electric field of the nucleus.
Thus the total energy of the electron is given by
E = K. E. + P. E. …( )
An electron of mass m moving around the nucleus with an orbital velocity v has
kinetic energy given by

Now the potential energy of the electron at a distance r from the nucleus is given
by
PE = potential due to the nucleus at a distance r × charge on the electron = V × –
e …( )
Now the potential at a distance r from the nucleus having a charge e is given by

Substituting in equation (3) we have

Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation 1 we have

But the radius of the nth orbit is given by

Substituting in equation (6) we have

This gives the expression for the energy possessed by the electron in the nth orbit
of the hydrogen atom.
Question 3. Hydrogen atoms are excited with an electron beam of energy of 12.5
eV. Find
(a) The highest energy level up to which the hydrogen atoms will be excited.
(b) The longest wavelengths in the (i) Lyman series, (ii) Balmer series of the
spectrum of these hydrogen atoms.
3. Answer: (a) The maximum energy that the excited hydrogen atom can have is

The electron can only be excited up to n = 3 states.

(b) From energy tevet of hydrogen atom,
we have

Longest wavelength of Lyman senes

Question Using Bohr’s postulates of the atomic model deri e the e pression for
the radius of the 11th electron orbit ence obtain the e pression for Bohr’s radius
4. Answer: Let us consider a mechanical model of the hydrogen atom as shown in
the figure that incorporates this quantization assumption.

This atom consists of a single electron with mass m and charge – e revolving
around a single proton of charge + e. The proton is nearly 2000 times as massive
as the electron, so we can assume that the proton does not move. As the electron
revolves around the nucleus the electrostatic force of attraction between the
electron and the proton provides the necessary centripetal force. Therefore, we
have

This gives the radius of the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom.
If n = 1 we have r = ao which is called Bohr’s radius

Question 9.
(a) Using postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom show that
(i) the radii of orbits increases as n², and
(ii) the total energy of the electron increases as 1/n², where n is the principal
quantum number of the atom.
(b) Calculate the wavelength of H2 line In Balmer series of hydrogen atom, given
Rydberg constant R = 1.097 × 107 m-1.

9. Answer: Let us consider a mechanical. model of the hydrogen atom as shown in

the figure.

This atom consists of a single electron with mass m and charge – e revolving
around a single proton of charge + e. As the electron revolves around the nucleus
the electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and the proton provides
the necessary centripetal force. Therefore we have,

Substituting equation 3 in equation 2 we have

This gives the radius of the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom which shows that E

(ii) the total energy possessed by an electron in the nth orbit of the hydrogen
atom is given by
E T U …( )
i.e. the sum of its kinetic and electrostatic potential energies.
An electron of mass m moving around the nucleus with an orbital velocity v has
kinetic energy given by

Now the potential energy of the electron at a distance r from the nucleus is given
by
PE = potential due to the nucleus at a distance r × charge on the electron
= V × – e …( )
Now the potential at a distance r from the nucleus having a charge e is given by

Substituting in equation 2 we have

Substituting equations 2 and 5 in equation 1 we have

But the radius of the nth orbit is given by

Substituting in equation 6 we have

This gives the expression for the energy possessed by the eLectron in the nth
orbit of the hydrogen atom which shows that E
(a) For H2 Line in Balmer series n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

Question State Bohr’s uantization condition for defining stationary orbits ow

does de Brogue hypothesis explain the stationary orbits?
Find the relation between the three wa elengths λ λ and λ from the energy le el
diagram shown below.

10. Answer: It states that only those orbits are permitted in which
the angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus is an
integral multiple of where his Planck’s constant
According to de Broglie, an electron of mass m moving with speed v would have a
wa elength λ gi en by
λ h m
Now according to Bohr’s postulate

But h / mv = A is the de BrogUe wavelength of the electron, therefore, the above

e uation becomes πrn nλ where πrn is the circumference of the permitted
orbit. If the wavelength of a wave does not close upon itself, destructive
interference takes place as the wave travels around the loop and quickly dies out.
Thus only waves that persist are those for which the circumference of the circular
orbit contains a whole number of wavelengths.

Numerical Problem :
Formulae for solving numerical problems
 13. NUCLEI

Short Answer Questions-

Question 1. Draw the curve showing the binding energy/nucleon with a mass
number of different nuclei. Briefly state, how nuclear fusion and nuclear fission can
be explained on the basis of this graph.
Ans:
Answer: The diagram is as shown.

Light nuclei have a small value of binding energy per nucleon, therefore to
become more stable they fuse to increase their binding energy per nucleon.
A very heavy nucleus, say A 240, has Lower binding energy per nucleon
compared to that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks
into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly bound. This implies energy
would be released in the process.
Question 2. Draw a plot of the potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of
their separations. Mark the regions where the nuclear force is (i) attractive and (ii)
repulsive. Write any two characteristic features of nuclear forces.
Answer:
For r > r0 (attraction), For r < r0 (repulsion)
1. Strong attractive force (stronger than the repulsive electric force between
the protons)
2. Are short-range forces.

Question 5.
(a) Write the relation for binding energy (BE) (in MeV) of a nucleus of mass ZA M
atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) in terms of the masses of its constituents –
neutrons and protons.
Answer:
(a) The required expression is
ΔE (Zmp + (A – Z) mn – M) × 931 MeV

Question 6. If both the number of neutrons and the number of protons are conserved
in each nuclear reaction, in what way is mass converted into energy (or vice versa) in
a nuclear reaction? Explain.
Ans:

We know that the binding energy of a nucleus gives a negative contribution to the
mass of the nucleus (mass defect). Now, since proton number and neutron
number are conserved in a nuclear reaction the total rest mass of neutrons and
protons is the same on either side of a reaction. But the total binding energy of
nuclei on the left side need not be the same as that on the right-hand side.
The difference in these binding energies appears as the energy released or
absorbed in a nuclear reaction. Since binding energy contributes to mass, we say
that the difference in the total mass of nuclei on the two sides gets converted into
energy or vice-versa.
Question 9. Explain with the help of an example, whether the neutron-proton ratio
in a nucleus increases or decreases due to beta decay.
Answer:
Consider the following decay

Number of neutrons before beta decay

= 234-90 = 144
Number of neutrons after beta decay
= 234-91 =143
Number of protons before beta decay
= 90
Number of protons after beta decay
= 91
Neutron-proton ratio before beta decay
= = 1.6
Neutron-proton ratio after beta decay
= = 1.57
Question 10. How is the size of a nucleus experimentally determined? Write the
relation between the radius and mass number of the nucleus. Show that the density
of the nucleus is independent of its mass number.
Answer: The size of the nucleus can be determined by the Rutherford experiments
on alpha particles scattering. The distance of the nearest approach is
approximately the size of the nucleus. Here it is assumed that only coulomb
repulsive force caused scattering. With alpha rays of 5.5 MeV, the size of the
nucleus was found to be less than 4 × 10-14 m. By doing scattering experiments
with fast electrons bombarding targets of different elements, the size of the nuclei
of various elements determined accurately.
The required relation is
R = RoA1/3, where Ro = 1.2 × 10-15 m
The density of a nucleus of mass number A and radius R is given by

which is independent of the mass number A.

1.
 2.

3.

4.

14. SEMICONDUCTORS

1.Silicon atoms are doped with Arsenic and the majority charge carrier concentration is 4.5×
10^16 m^-3.Silicon atoms are doped with Indium and majority charge carrier concentration is
5×10^15 m^-3. What is the intrinsic carrier concentration of Si.
(a) 1.5×10^16 m^-3,
(b) 15×10^16 m^-3,
(c) 0.9×10^15 m^-3,
(d) 9×10^16 m^-3.
A: (a) 1.5×10^16 m^-3.
ne=4.5×10^16 m^-3, nh=5×10^15 m^-3. Laws of mass action ne×nh=ni^2.
2.n-type semiconductor is made by doping Pentavalent elements with pure Tetravalent
semiconductor.Which one of the following will be a dopant for n-type semiconductor
(a) 31Ga, (b) 49In,
(c) 33As, (d) 13Al
Al=[Ne]3S 3P1, As=[Ar]3d104s24p3 In=[Kr]4d105s25p1 , Ga=[Ar]3d104s24p1 only As is pentavalent.
2

3. A p-n photodiode is made of a material with a band gap of 2.0 eV. Calculate the minimum
frequency of the radiation that can be absorbed by the material.
5x1014 Hz
4. An LED is constructed from a p-n junction diode using GaAsP. The energy gap is 1.9 eV.
Calculate the wavelength of the light emitted by the LED.
654 nm
5. Carbon, silicon and germanium atoms have four valence electrons each. Their valence and
conduction bands are separated by energy band gaps represented by (Eg)C, (Eg)Si and (Eg)Ge
respectively. Arrange their band gap energy according to ascending order.
(Eg)C > (Eg)Si > (Eg) Ge
6. List out the crystal structure of: (a) an intrinsic and (b) an extrinsic semiconductor.
Intrinsic semiconductor: - in case of intrinsic semiconductor the four electrons of the outermost orbit
are shared with neighbor electrons covalently. At a temperature close to absolute zero all the electrons
in the crystal are tied up strongly by these bonds.
Extrinsic semiconductor:- as this form of semiconductor is the impure form hence due to addition of
some impurity there will be some excess of holes and electrons in the crystal.
7. On the basis of energy band diagrams, distinguish between (i) metals (ii) an insulator and (iii) a
Semiconductor
Conductor: - there is no gap between conduction band and valance band
Semiconductor: - the gap between conduction band and valance band is less than 3 eV
Insulator: - the gap between conduction band and valence band is greater than 3 eV

SECTION III
1. (i)How does an emf is generated in a solar cell, when light falls on it.
(ii)Why are Si(Eg =1.1eV) and GaAs(Eg=1.53eV) are preferred materials rather than the
material like CdS or CdSe(Eg=2.4eV) for solar cells?
(i)i)generation of e-h pair when light having energy larger than band gap energy fall on the junction,
ii)separation of electron and hole due to electric field of depletion region,
iii) electrons and holes are collected at front and back contact of n- and p-side respectively.
(ii)Energy of maximum solar irradiance is near about 1.5eV. Si and GaAs have Eg= 1.1eV and 2.4eV
respectively, but CdS has band gap 2.4eV greater than incident photon energy.
2. On what factors on which the barrier potential of a p-n junction depends?
(1) type of semiconductor material
(2) amount of doping
(3) temperature
5. C and Si both have same lattice structure; having 4 bonding electrons in each. However, C is
insulator whereas Si is intrinsic semiconductor. Give reasons to support your answer.
The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in the second orbit, whereas in the case of Si they lie in
the third.
6. Explain light emitting diode’s two advantages over conventional incandescent lamps.
Advantage of LED over incandescent lamp:-
(i) Long life
(ii) Less power consumption
8. Explain its working of a full-wave rectifier using p-n junction diodes
Working of full wave rectifier: - a full wave rectifier contains two diode with a centre tapped
transformer.For one of the half cycle first diode will be in forward bias and for second half cycle
second diode will be in forward bias hence at the output segment both cycle will be available, hence
we get a complete rectified full wave.
10. A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration, of 6 x 108 m-3. On dopingwith
certain impurity, electron concentration increases to 8 x 1012 m-3.
(i) Identify the new semiconductor obtained after doping.
(ii) Calculate the new hole concentration, and
(iii) How does energy gap vary with doping?
Given ni = 6 x 108 m-3, ne = 8 x 1012 m-3
(i) The new semiconductor is n-type, because ne > ni.
(ii) From formula, ne nh = ni2 we get,
nh = (6 x 108)2/8 x 1012 = 4.5 x 104 m-3
(iii) Since conductivity is increased due to donor electrons, so, energy gap decreases.
11. Define the terms potential barrier and depletion region for a p – n junction diode. State how
the thickness of depletion region will change when the p – n junction diode is
( i )forward biased ( ii ) reverse biased.
Definition of potential barrier
(I )decreases (ii )increases
SECTION IV
1. (a) State briefly the processes involved in the formation of p-n junction explaining clearly
how the depletion region is formed.
(b) Using the necessary circuit diagrams, show how the V–I characteristics of a p-n junction
are obtained in (i) Forward biasing (ii) Reverse biasing
How are these characteristics made use of in rectification?
A:

(a) Two processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction are diffusion and drift.
Due to the concentration gradient across p and n-sides of the junction, holes diffuse from p-side to n-
side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This movement of charge carriers
leaves behind ionised acceptors (negative charge immobile) on the p-side and donors (positive charge
immobile) on the n-side of the junction. This space charge region on either side of the junction together
is known as depletion region.

(b) The circuit arrangement for studying the V–I characteristics of a diode are shown in Fig.(a) and
(b). For different values of voltages the value of current is noted. A graph between V and I is obtained
as in Figure (c).

From the V–I characteristic of a junction diode it is clear that it allows current to pass only when it is
forward biased. So if an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part
of the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property is used to rectify alternating voltages.

2. Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the V–I characteristics of a p-n junction diode (i) in
forward bias and (ii) in reverse bias. Draw the typical V–I characteristics of a silicon
diode.Describe briefly the following terms:
(i) “minority carrier injection” in forward bias
(ii) “breakdown voltage” in reverse bias.
(i) Minority Carrier Injection: Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the
depletion region and reach p-side (where they are minority carriers). Similarly, holes
from p-side cross this junction and reach the n-side (where they are minority carriers).
This process under forward bias is known as minority carrier injection.
(ii) Breakdown Voltage: It is a critical reverse bias voltage at which current is independent of applied
voltage.
3. Explain, with the help of a circuit diagram, the working of a p-n junction diode as a half-wave
rectifier.
Working
(i) During positive half cycle of input alternating voltage, the diode is forward biased and a
current flows through the load resistor RL and we get an output voltage.
(ii) During other negative half cycle of the input alternating voltage, the diode is reverse biased
and it does not conduct (under break down region).
Hence, ac voltage can be rectified in the pulsating and unidirectional voltage.
4. State the principle of working of p-n diode as a rectifier. Explain with the help of a circuit
diagram, the use of p-n diode as a full wave rectifier. Draw a sketch of the input and output
waveforms.
OR
Draw a circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier. Explain the working principle. Draw the
input/output waveforms indicating clearly the functions of the two diodes used
OR
With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the working of a junction diode as a full wave
rectifier. Draw its input and output waveforms. Which characteristic property makes the
junction diode suitable for rectification?
OR

Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier and explain its working. Also, give the input and
output waveforms.
A: Rectification: Rectification means conversion of ac into dc. A p-n diode acts as a rectifier because
an ac changes polarity periodically and a p-n diode allows the current to pass only when it is forward
biased. This makes the diode suitable for rectification.

Working: The ac input voltage across secondary S1 and S2 changes polarity after each half cycle.
 Suppose during the first half cycle of input ac signal, the terminal S1 is positive relative to centre
tap O and S2 is negative relative to O.
 Then diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased.
 Therefore, diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not.
 The direction of current (i1) due to diode D1 in load resistance RL is directed from A to B In
next half cycle, the terminal S1 is negative and S2 is positive relative to centre tap O.
 The diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is forward biased.
 Therefore, diode D2 conducts while D1 does not.
 The direction of current (i2) due to diode D2 in load resistance RL is still from A to B.
 Thus, the current in load resistance RL is in the same direction for both half cycles of input ac
voltage. Thus for input ac signal the output current is a continuous series of unidirectional pulses.

 In a full wave rectifier, if input frequency is f hertz, then output frequency will be 2f hertz
because for each cycle of input, two positive half cycles of output are obtained.