obtained with multiprogramming CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process execution consists of a cycle of CPU execution and I/O wait CPU burst followed by I/O burst CPU burst distribution is of main concern HISTOGRAM OF CPU-BURST TIMES Large number of short bursts
Small number of longer bursts
CPU SCHEDULER The CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and allocates a CPU core to one of them Queue may be ordered in various ways CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process: 1. Switches from running to waiting state 2. Switches from running to ready state 3. Switches from waiting to ready 4. Terminates For situations 1 and 4, there is no choice in terms of scheduling. A new process (if one exists in the ready queue) must be selected for execution. For situations 2 and 3, however, there is a choice. PREEMPTIVE AND NONPREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING
When scheduling takes place only under circumstances 1 and
4, the scheduling scheme is nonpreemptive. Otherwise, it is preemptive. Under Nonpreemptive scheduling, once the CPU has been allocated to a process, the process keeps the CPU until it releases it either by terminating or by switching to the waiting state. Virtually all modern operating systems including Windows, MacOS, Linux, and UNIX use preemptive scheduling algorithms. PREEMPTIVE SCHEDULING AND RACE CONDITIONS
Preemptive scheduling can result in race conditions when
data are shared among several processes. Consider the case of two processes that share data. While one process is updating the data, it is preempted so that the second process can run. The second process then tries to read the data, which are in an inconsistent state. DISPATCHER Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the CPU scheduler; this involves: Switching context Switching to user mode Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running SCHEDULING CRITERIA CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per time unit Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first response is produced. SCHEDULING ALGORITHM OPTIMIZATION CRITERIA
Max CPU utilization
Max throughput Min turnaround time Min waiting time Min response time FIRST- COME, FIRST-SERVED (FCFS) SCHEDULING
Process Burst Time
P1 24 P2 3 P3 3 Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3 The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:
P1 P2 P3 0 24 27 30
Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27
Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17 FCFS SCHEDULING (CONT.) Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P2 , P3 , P1 The Gantt chart for the schedule is:
P2 P3 P1 0 3 6 30
Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3
Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3 Much better than previous case Convoy effect - short process behind long process Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes SHORTEST-JOB-FIRST (SJF) SCHEDULING Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time
SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given
set of processes Preemptive version called shortest-remaining-time-first How do we determine the length of the next CPU burst? Could ask the user Estimate EXAMPLE OF SJF Process Burst Time P1 6 P2 8 P3 7 P4 3
SJF scheduling chart
P4 P1 P3 P2 0 3 9 16 24
Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7
SHORTEST REMAINING TIME FIRST SCHEDULING
Preemptive version of SJN
Whenever a new process arrives in the ready queue, the decision on which process to schedule next is redone using the SJN algorithm. Is SRT more “optimal” than SJN in terms of the minimum average waiting time for a given set of processes? EXAMPLE OF SHORTEST-REMAINING-TIME-FIRST
Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to the analysis Process i Arrival TimeT Burst Time P1 0 8 P2 1 4 P3 2 9 P4 3 5 Preemptive SJF Gantt Chart
P1 P2 P4 P1 P3 0 1 5 10 17 26
Average waiting time = [(10-1)+(1-1)+(17-2)+(5-3)]/4 = 26/4 = 6.5
ROUND ROBIN (RR) Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q), usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue. If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q time units. Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process Performance q large FIFO (FCFS) q small RR
Note that q must be large with respect to context switch, otherwise
overhead is too high EXAMPLE OF RR WITH TIME QUANTUM = 4 Process Burst Time P1 24 P2 3 P3 3 The Gantt chart is:
P1 P2 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 0 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30
Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better response
q should be large compared to context switch time q usually 10 milliseconds to 100 milliseconds, Context switch < 10 microseconds PRIORITY SCHEDULING A priority number (integer) is associated with each process
The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (smallest integer highest priority) Preemptive Nonpreemptive
SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next
CPU burst time
Problem Starvation – low priority processes may never execute
Solution Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the process
EXAMPLE OF PRIORITY SCHEDULING Process Burst Time Priority P1 10 3 P2 1 1 P3 2 4 P4 1 5 P5 5 2
Priority scheduling Gantt Chart
Average waiting time = 8.2
PRIORITY SCHEDULING W/ ROUND-ROBIN Run the process with the highest priority. Processes with the same priority run round-robin Example: Process a Burst Time Priority P1 4 3 P2 5 2 P3 8 2 P4 7 1 P5 3 3 Gantt Chart with time quantum = 2 MULTILEVEL QUEUE The ready queue consists of multiple queues Multilevel queue scheduler defined by the following parameters: Number of queues Scheduling algorithms for each queue Method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that process needs service Scheduling among the queues MULTILEVEL QUEUE With priority scheduling, have separate queues for each priority. Schedule the process in the highest-priority queue! MULTILEVEL QUEUE
Prioritization based upon process type
MULTILEVEL FEEDBACK QUEUE A process can move between the various queues. Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following parameters: Number of queues Scheduling algorithms for each queue Method used to determine when to upgrade a process Method used to determine when to demote a process Method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that process needs service
Aging can be implemented using multilevel feedback queue
EXAMPLE OF MULTILEVEL FEEDBACK QUEUE Three queues: Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds Q2 – FCFS
Scheduling A new process enters queue Q0 which is served in RR When it gains CPU, the process receives 8 milliseconds If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, the process is moved to queue Q1 At Q1 job is again served in RR and receives 16 additional milliseconds If it still does not complete, it is preempted and moved to queue Q2 MULTIPLE-PROCESSOR SCHEDULING CPU scheduling more complex when multiple CPUs are available Multiprocess may be any one of the following architectures: Multicore CPUs Multithreaded cores NUMA systems (Non Uniform Memory Access) Heterogeneous multiprocessing MULTIPLE-PROCESSOR SCHEDULING Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) is where each processor is self scheduling. All threads may be in a common ready queue (a) Each processor may have its own private queue of threads (b) MULTIPLE-PROCESSOR SCHEDULING – LOAD BALANCING
If SMP, need to keep all CPUs loaded for efficiency
Load balancing attempts to keep workload evenly distributed Push migration – periodic task checks load on each processor, and if found pushes task from overloaded CPU to other CPUs Pull migration – idle processors pulls waiting task from busy processor
