Tutorial
𝑜
Q1.A specimen of intrinsic Germanium at 300 𝐾 having a
concentration of carriers of 2.5 × 1013 /𝑐𝑚3 is doped with
impurity atoms of one for every million germanium atoms.
Assuming that all the impurity atoms are ionized and that
the concentration of Ge atoms is 4.4 × 1022 /𝑐𝑚3 , find the
2
resistivity of doped material. (𝜇𝑛 for Ge= 3600 𝑐𝑚 /volt-
sec).
Q2. Determine the conductivity 𝜎 and resistivity 𝜌
𝑜
of pure silicon at 300 𝐾 assuming that the
𝑜 1010
concentration of carriers at 300 𝐾 is 1.6 ×
𝑐𝑚3
𝑐𝑚2
for Si and nobilities as 𝜇𝑛 = 1500 sec, 𝜇𝑝 =
𝑉
𝑐𝑚2
500 sec.
𝑉
Q3. Find the concentration of holes and electrons in a
𝑂
p type germanium at 300 𝐾 if the conductivity is
100 ω/𝐶𝑀. 𝜇𝑃 mobility of holes for germanium
2
=1800 𝐶𝑚 /𝑉-sec.
Q4. A sample of Ge is doped to the extend of 1014
donor atoms/𝑐𝑚3 and 7 × 1013 acceptor
atoms/𝑐𝑚3 . At room temperature, the resisitivity of
pure Ge is 60 Ω − 𝑐𝑚. If the applied electric field is 2
V/cm, find the total conduction density.
Q5. The reverse saturation current of a silicon
PN junction is 10 𝜇𝐴. Calculate the diode current
𝑜
for the forward bias voltage of 0.6 V at 25 C.
Q6. The diode current is 0.6 ma when the applied
voltage is 400 mV, and 20 mA when the applied
𝑘𝑇
voltage is 500 mV. Determine 𝜂. Asume =
𝑞
25 𝑚𝑉.
Zener diode
When the reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in normal
PN junction diode, the current through the junction and the power
dissipated at the junction will be high.
Such an operation is destructive and the diode gets damaged.
Whereas diodes can be designed with adequate power
dissipation capabilities to operate in the breakdown region.
One such diode is known as Zener diode.
Zener diode is heavily doped than the ordinary diode.
From the V–I characteristics of the Zener diode,
shown in , it is found that the operation of Zener diode is
same as that of ordinary PN diode under forward-biased
condition.
Whereas under reverse-baised condition, breakdown
of the junction occurs.
The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of
doping.
If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will
be thin and, consequently, breakdown occurs at lower
reverse voltage and further, the breakdown voltage is sharp.
Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown
voltage. Thus, breakdown voltage can be selected with the
amount of doping
Zener diode ratings
The Zener diode will perform satisfactorily only if it is operated within
certain limiting values. They are the following:
Minimum Zener current 𝐼𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 - It is the minimum reverse current where
the breakdown becomes stable. If a Zener diode has to remain in the
breakdown
region, the current through it has to be more than IZ min.
Maximum Zener current 𝐼𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 --It is related to the power rating PZ max as
where VZ is the Zener voltage. This parameter gives the maximum
current a Zener diode can handle without exceeding its power rating
Maximum power of a Zener diode Pz
The power dissipation of a Zener diode equals the product of its Zener
voltage and current, i.e.𝑃𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍 𝐼𝑍
As long as PZ is less than the maximum power rating PZ max, the Zener
diode can operate in the breakdown region without being destroyed
Zener diode applications
From the Zener characteristics, under the reverse bias condition, the
voltage across the diode remains almost constant although the current
through the diode increases as shown in region.
Thus, the voltage across the Zener diode serves as a reference voltage.
Hence, the diode can be used as a voltage regulator.
In Fig.it is required to provide constant voltage across load resistance RL,
whereas the input voltage may be varying over a range.
As shown, Zener diode is reverse biased and as long as the input voltage
does not fall below Vz (Zener breakdown voltage), the voltage across the
diode will be constant and hence the load voltage will also be constant
Voltage regulators
An ideal regulated power supply is an electronic circuit designed to
provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load
current and variations in the input voltage.
A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable d.c.
voltage independent of the load current, temperature and a.c. line voltage
variations.
A simple zener voltage regulator circuit is shown
The zener diode is selected with Vz equal to the voltage desired across the load.
The zener diode has a characteristic that under reverse bias condition, the voltage
across it practically remains constant, even if the current through it changes by a
large extent.
Under normal conditions, the input current Ii = IL + IZ flows through resistor R.
The input voltage Vi can be written as Vi = IiR + Vz = (IL + Iz) R + Vz.
When the input voltage Vi increases (say due to supply voltage
variations), as the voltage across zener diode remains constant, the drop
across resistor R will increase with a corresponding increase in IL + IZ.
As VZ is a constant, the voltage across the load will also remain constant
and hence, IL will be a constant.
Therefore, an increase in IL + IZ will result in an increase in IZ which will
not alter the voltage across the load.
Q. Design a Zener shunt voltage regulator with the following specifications:
Vo = 10 V; Vin = 20–30 V; IL = (30–50) mA; Iz = (20–40) mA
Selection of zener diode
Vz = Vo = 10 V
Iz max = 40 mA Pz = Vz × Iz max = 10 × 40 × 10 mA = 0.4 W
Hence a 0.5W 10V zener can be selected
.
Value of input resistance, R
Value of load resistance, RL
Q.In a Zener regulator, the d.c. input is 10 V ± 20%. The output
requirements are 5 V, 20 mA. Assume Iz(min) and Iz(max) as 5 mA
and 80 mA respectively. Design the Zener regulator.
Q. If dc unregulated input is 20 V, Vo=10V and load
current is 0-20 mA, design the regulator. Assume for
the Zener, Izmin=10mA and Izmax= 100mA
Q. Design a Zener voltage regulator to meet the
following specifications: output voltage = 5V,
Load current = 10mA, Zener wattage =400 mW
and input voltage =10+-2V
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
The applied load will normally have an important impact on the point
or region of operation of a device.
If the analysis is performed in a graphical manner, a line can be drawn
on the characteristics of the device that represents the applied load.
The intersection of the load line with the characteristics will determine
the point of operation of the system. Such an analysis is, for obvious
reasons, called load-line analysis
current through the series circuit is in the clockwise direction
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the series circuit
A straight line
drawn between
the two points
will define the
load line
We now have a load line defined
by the network and a characteristic
curve defined by the device.
The point of intersection between
the two is the point of operation for
this circuit
The point of operation is usually
called the quiescent point
(abbreviated “Q-pt.”) to reflect its
“still, unmoving” qualities as
defined by a dc network.
Example
The series diode configuration and the diode characteristics are given. determine
Approximate and Ideal Semiconductor Diode Models
SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS
WITH DC INPUTS
In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current
established by the applied sources is such that its direction
matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol, and VD 0.7 V
for silicon and VD 0.3 V for germanium.
Series diode configuration.
Determining the state of the diode
Substituting the equivalent model for the “on” diode
Reversing the diode
Determining the
state of the diode
Substituting the
equivalent model for the “off”
diode
1. For the series diode configuration determine VD, VR, and ID.
2. Repeat the problem with the diode reverse biased
For the series diode configuration shown, determine VD, VR, and ID.
Determine Vo and ID for the series circuit
Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo for the series dc configuration
PARALLEL AND SERIES–PARALLEL CONFIGURATIONS
Determine Vo, I1, ID1, and ID2 for the parallel diode configuration
The voltage across parallel elements is always the same and Vo 0.7 V
Determine the current I for the network
Determine the voltage Vo for the network
Determine the currents I1, I2, and ID2 for the network
