CELL Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It is the smallest unit that can carry out all activities of life. Cells vary from single cell organisms (bacteria) to multi cellular structures (tissues, organs) and organisms (plants and animals). Building blocks of complex multicellular organisms. EMERGENCE AND IMPLICATIONS OF CELL THEORY Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. Hooke first observed cell in thin slices of bottle cork. Book Micrographia. He gave 60 'observations' in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. Discovered many tiny pores that he named cells. He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb. He thought that cells only existed in plants and fungi. Cell is an empty space bounded by thick walls. Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1673) used a handmade microscope to observe pond scum and discovered single-celled organisms. He called them animalcules. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses - magnify objects 270-fold. Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he stated that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Lorenz Oken (1805) a German scientist – “all living beings originate from or consist of vesicles or cells”. Jean Baptist de-Lamarck (1809) – “no body can have life if its constituent parts are not cellular tissue or are not formed by cellular tissue”. In 1831, Robert Brown reported the presence of nucleus. 1838 – German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden, concluded that all plants parts are made of cells. 1839 – German Zoologist, Theodor Schwann, who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells. Both working independently, came out with a theory called the Cell Theory. Found that the cell consisted of 3 basic parts – nucleus, the fluid (cytoplasm), outer membrane (plasma membrane). Cell wall, was an additional structure, present only in plant cell. DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cell is the basic structural as well as functional unit for all organisms. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
1855 – Rudolf Virchow, German physician – new cells were formed
only by the division of previously existing living cells. Contrary to the idea of “abiogenesis” (living things arise spontaneously from non-living things). Louis Pasteur (1862), supplied experimental proof for Virchow’s hypothesis. August Weismann (1880) – all presently living cells have a common origin because they have basic similarities in structure and molecules etc. Fundamental similarities in the chemical composition, metabolic activities and structure of the cells. Cells are basically similar but extraordinarily versatile. MODERN CELL THEORY All known living things are made up of one or more cells. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell to cell during cell division. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities in organisms of similar species. All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside the cells (e.g., digestion). Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the cell (organelles; e.g., nucleus). USES OF CELL THEORY Cell theory is one of the fundamental principles of biology, and it’s so important. Knowing that all living things are made up of cells allows us to understand how organisms are created, grow, and die. That information helps us understand how new life is created, why organisms take the form they do, how cancer spreads, how diseases can be managed, and more. Cells even help us understand fundamental issues such as life and death. CELL AS A UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Unit of structure and function. Division of labour among cells in multicellular organisms. The function of the organism as a whole is the result of the sum of activities and interactions of different cells, and of different components of the cell. Examples: Muscle cells, Nerve cells, Red Blood cells. Great variation in shape and size. TYPES OF CELLS There are over 200 different cell types in the human body.
Each type of cells is specialized to carry out a particular function,
either solely, but usually by forming a particular tissue. STEMS CELLS: Before a cell becomes specialised, it first starts out as a stem cell. Pluripotent - they have the potential to become any type of cell in the body. The ancestors of all cells in the body. Have the power to replicate into healthy cells in order to speed up regeneration after certain pathological conditions. Cell differentiation: The process that allows stem cells to transform into any kind of cell. RED BLOOD CELLS: Red blood cells are known as erythrocytes, and are the most common type of blood cell. They are shaped like a biconcave disc. The main role of red blood cells is to transport oxygen around the body using haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a molecule in red blood cells that binds to oxygen, allowing it to be transported through the blood. WHITE BLOOD CELLS: White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are a vital component of the immune system. Granulocytes contain granules in the cytoplasm as agranulocytes do not. Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Agranulocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes.
PLATELETS An important component of the blood. Are vital in the control of bleeding. They are fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes which are produced in the bone marrow. They have surface proteins which allow them to bind to one another, and to bind to damaged blood vessel walls. Platelets are recruited when bleeding occurs. They plug the source of the bleeding, coagulating and sticking together to form a blood clot, together with a fibrous protein known as fibrin. NERVE CELLS Commonly known as neurons, transmit information throughout the body in the form of electrical signals or nerve impulses. The cell body contains a nucleus. The axon is long and thin, and protrudes from the cell body and can be myelinated or unmyelinated. Axons are responsible for conducting electrical impulses in the form of action potentials. Action potentials cause a change in voltage across the plasma membrane. Axons connect to other neurons via synapses, which are formed by small branches at the end of the axon called axon terminals. Impulses are received from other cells by dendrites, which are multiple branching structures protruding from the cell body. They convert chemical signals from the synapse into small electrical impulses, and transmit them towards the cell body. NEUROGLIAL CELLS Neuroglial cells, more commonly known as glial cells or glia. Are not involved in the conduction of nerve impulses. Glia are very common in the brain. Are smaller than neurons, and do not have axons or dendrites. MUSCLE CELLS There are 3 types of muscle cells, known as myocytes. 1. Skeletal muscle cells: are attached to bones and tendons. Responsible for voluntary movements. 2.Cardiac muscle cells: are also called cardiomyocytes which together make up the most important muscular tissue in the entire body, the tissue of the heart. The cells contract in unison creating the contractions of the heart. 3.Smooth muscle cells: are responsible for involuntary contractions in hollow and visceral organs like the bladder and lungs, and the walls of blood vessels. Responsible for peristalsis, whereby food is propelled through the digestive system via wavelike contractions. CARTILAGE CELLS Cartillage cells, also known as chondrocytes, make up cartilage, a firm connective tissue that is vital to the body’s structure. Cartilage is found in joints between bones, in the ears and nose, in the airways as well as other locations. It acts as a shock absorber throughout your body. Cartilage at the end of your bones reduces friction and prevents them from rubbing together when you use your joints. BONE CELLS Osteoclasts: Osteoclasts are large multinucleated cells that are involved in bone resorption. This is where the bone is broken down during the process of renewal. Osteoblasts: Osteoblasts have the opposite function, they are involved in the generation of new bone. They are triggered to create new bone by hormones such as vitamin D and estrogen. Osteocytes: are found inside the bone. Osteocytes can sense mechanical strain being placed on the bone, and secrete growth factors which activate bone growth in response. Lining cells: They line the surface of the bone and are responsible for the release of calcium from the bone into the bloodstream when it falls too low. They also work to protect the bone. SKIN CELLS Keratinocytes: make up 95% of the epidermis. Keratinocytes generate the protein keratin, but are also important in protecting the body by blocking toxins and pathogens, and preventing loss of heat and moisture. Hair and nails are examples of fully keratinized epithelial cells.
Melanocytes: The role of melanocytes in the skin is to produce the
pigment melanin, which determines skin coloration.
Langerhans cells: These are dendritic cells involved in antigen
processing when the skin becomes infected, they act as antigen- processing cells.
Merkel cells: These act as mechanosensory cells and are involved in
touch reception (the ability to feel).
Other types of sensory cells are present within the skin, however are found in the deeper layers and known as cutaneous receptors. ENDOTHELIAL CELLS: Are the cells that form the lining of blood vessels. They regulate exchanges between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues. Signals from endothelial cells organize the growth and development of connective tissue cells that form the surrounding layers of the blood-vessel wall.
EPITHELIAL CELLS: Epithelial cells make up the linings of cavities in the body such as the lungs, small intestine and stomach. Epithelial cells are innervated with nerve endings, and can become sensory cells. Epithelial cells can also specialise to become secretory cells, that release mucous, hormones and enzymes into the body. FAT CELLS: Fat cells, also referred to as adipocytes and lipocytes are the cells of the body that are specialised to store energy in the form of adipose tissue, or fat. It provides energy, absorbs certain nutrients and maintains your core body temperature.
SEX CELLS: Sex cells called gametes. Male sex cells are commonly known as sperm cells, or spermatozoa, and female gametes are known as eggs or ova. When they fuse together, fertilization occurs and a zygote is formed. Spermatozoa: Spermatozoa are smaller, and have a head, a midpiece region and a long tail (flagellum) for propulsion and motility. Ova: Ova are very large compared to other cell bodies. They are round in shape and are produced in the ovaries during embryological development.
