European School Brussels II

2022/2023
7th Year

Chemistry
Topic 2
Acids and Bases

Chapter 1: Acids and Bases, Acid/Base Pairs

Chapter 2: The pH Scale
Chapter 3: Calculating the pH of Strong and Weak Acids
Chapter 4: Calculating the pH of Strong and Weak Bases
Chapter 5: Ka and Kb, pHa and pKb, pH of Salts
Chapter 6: Indicators
Chapter 7: Titrations
Chapter 8: Buffers
 Topic 1 – Acids and Bases
Check list.
1. I can describe an acid as a proton donor, a base as a proton acceptor and acid–base equilibria as reactions
involving the transfer of protons.
2. I can recognise that acids with more than one ionisable proton are polyprotic acids.
3. I can name acid/base pairs from a reaction and give a conjugate acid from its base and a conjugate base from its
acid.
4. I can identify amphoteric species and give the corresponding equations showing their behaviour as both an acid
and a base.
5. I can appreciate that the concentration of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution covers a very wide range, and
therefore a logarithmic scale, the pH scale, is used as a measure of hydrogen ion concentration: pH = –log 10[H+]
6. I can convert concentration of hydrogen ions into pH and vice versa
7. I can calculate the pH of a solution of a strong acid from its concentration
8. I understand that water is slightly dissociated, that KW is derived from the equilibrium constant for this
dissociation (KW = [H+][OH–]) and that the value of KW varies with temperature
9. I can use Kw to calculate the pH of a strong base from its concentration
10. I can explain that weak acids and weak bases dissociate only slightly in aqueous solution, that K a is the
dissociation constant for a weak acid and that pKa = –log10Ka and that Kb is the dissociation constant for a weak
base and pKb = -log10Kb
11. I can construct an expression for Ka and perform calculations relating the pH of a weak acid to the concentration
of the acid and the dissociation constant, Ka
12. I can construct an expression for Kb and perform calculations relating the pOH of a weak base to the
concentration of the base and the dissociation constant, Kb and use Kw to find pH of the weak base
13. I can convert Kb into pKb and vice versa
14. I can convert Ka into pKa and vice versa
15. I can describe titrations of acids with bases and I can perform calculations for these titrations based on
experimental results
16. I can understand indicators and pick a suitable indicator for a titration
17. I can sketch and explain the shapes of typical pH curves in all combinations of weak and strong monoprotic acids
and use pH curves to select an appropriate indicator
18. I can use a pH graph to find the equivalence point, the half equivalence point and the pK a
19. I can carry out an experiment to investigate how pH changes when a weak acid reacts with a strong base and
when a strong acid reacts with a weak base
20. I can describe a buffer solution as maintaining an approximately constant pH, despite dilution or addition of
small amounts of acid or base, that acidic buffer solutions contain a weak acid and the salt of that weak acid and
that basic buffer solutions contain a weak base and the salt of that weak base, and I can explain qualitatively the
action of acidic and basic buffers
21. I can calculate the pH of acidic and basic buffer solutions
22. I can describe applications of buffer solutions
23. I can write equations showing how a buffer works in acidic and basic conditions.
 Introduction : Acids and Bases.

You have met acids and bases in 5th year. Here are some points you need to know and do from then.

Acids:

 Acids have a pH lower than 7.

 Acids turn blue litmus paper red while red litmus paper stays red.
 Strong acids are hydrochloric acid, HCl, sulphuric acid, H2SO4 and nitric acid, HNO3.
 Acids react with bases (oxides and hydroxides) to produce salt and water.

General equation:
Example:

 Acids react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to produce salt, carbon dioxide and water.

General equations:

Example:

 Acids react with some metals to produce salt and hydrogen.

General equation:
Example:

Dilute acids do not react with ......................................................

Bases:

 Bases react with acids to release water.

 Indicators are used to tell when an acid base reaction has reached completion or equivalence.
 Titrations are carried out to find the concentration of an acid using a base of known concentration and vice
versa.

Titrations:

You need to be able to draw and label the equipment used in a titration reaction.
 A burette is used to measure the volume of a species needed to reach equivalence.
 A volumetric pipette is used to measure specific volumes of a substance.
And not to forget titration calculations...
In a titration 13.5 cm3 of 0.500 mol/dm3 NaOH was needed to reach equivalence in a reaction with 25.0 cm3 of HCl. What
is the concentration of the HCl?
HCL + NaOH --> NaCl + H2O
V = 0.0250 dm3 V = 0.0135 dm3
C = 0.500 mol/dm3
n(NaOH) = C x V = 0.500 x 0.0135 0.00675 mol
Ratio 1:1
n(HCl) = n(NaOH) x 1 = 0.00675 mol
C = n/V = 0.00675/0.0250 = 0.270 mol/dm3
This is a common calculation that still comes up on the Bac so you need to know it.
 Chapter 1: Acids and bases and acid/base pairs.

We use the Bronsted definition for acids and bases. (Bronsted Theory, 1923)

Bronsted Acids:
A Bronsted acid is a proton donor. A proton is a hydrogen ion, H+(aq).

The general formula for a monoprotic (monobasic) acid is HA(aq).

The general equation showing the dissociation of an acid is:
HA(aq) → H+(aq) + A-(aq)
Or in solution:
HA (aq) + H2O(l) <------> H3O+(aq) + A- (aq)
Examples:
A) HCl(aq) ⇌
Or in solution:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) <--->

B) CH3COOH(aq) ⇌
Or in solution:
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) <------>

The equilibrium arrows are important. They must be used for the dissociation of weak acids. Strong acids dissociate fully so
you can use a normal arrow but when in doubt use the equilibrium one.
The ion H3O+(aq) is called the oxonium ion or a hydroxonium ion. You will see it a lot.

Polyprotic acids:
Acids that are capable of losing more than on hydrogen ion are called polyprotic acids. Protons are lost through several stages
(one at each stage), with the first proton being the fastest and most easily lost .
Common examples are:

Common Number of
Strong/Weak
Polyprotic Formula Ionizable Ka1 Ka2 Ka3
Acid
Acids Hydrogens
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Strong 2 (diprotic) Very Large 1.1x 10-2
Sulfurous acid H2SO3 Weak 2 (diprotic) 1.3x 10-2 6.2 x 10-8
Phosphoric
H3PO4 Weak 3 (triprotic) 7.1 x 10-3 6. x 10-8 4.2 x 10-13
acid
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Weak 2 (diprotic) 4.4 x 10-7 4.7 x 10-11
Hydrosulfuric
acid or
H2S Weak 2 (diprotic) 1.0 x 10-7 1 x 10-19
Hydrogen
sulfide
Oxalic acid H2C2O4 Weak 2 (diprotic) 5.4 x 10-2 5.3 x 10-5
Medium
Malonic acid H2C3H2O4 2 (diprotic) 1.5 x 10-3 2.0 x 10-6
Strong
Bronsted Bases:
A Bronsted base is ___________________________.

The general formula for a base is B(aq).

The general equation showing the reaction of a base is:
B(aq) + H+(aq) <----> BH+(aq)
Or in solution:
B(aq) + H2O(l) ----> OH-(aq) + BH+(aq)
Any species which has a lone pair of electrons can thus behave as a base:

Examples:
a) NH3(aq) + H+(aq) ⇌

Or in solution:
NH3(aq) + H2O(aq) <--> or

b) OH-(aq) + H+ (aq) ⇌
Or
c) CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) ⇌
Or in solution:

Acid/Base Pairs:
Since all the above reactions are theoretically reversible, the species formed when an acid gives up a proton can itself
accept a proton and thus behave as a base. This base is called the conjugate base of the initial acid.
The species formed when a base accepts a proton can give up a proton and behave as an acid. It is called the conjugate
acid of the initial base.
General equation:
B(aq) + HA(aq) ----> A-(aq) + BH+(aq)

So acids and bases come in pairs called acid/base pairs or conjugate acid/base pairs. They differ from each other by one
proton. The base has one less proton than the acid.
The acid is always put first when writing the pair.

Eg Cl- is the conjugate base of HCl; HCl is the conjugate acid of Cl-
The acid/base pair is HCl/Cl-
Eg NH3 is the conjugate base of NH4+; NH4+ is the conjugate acid of NH3
The acid/base pair is NH4+/ NH3

Amphoteric:
A species that can behave as both an acid and a base depending on the reaction is called amphoteric.
Many amphoteric substances are the first salt of a diprotic (dibasic) acid, an acid that can lose two hydrogen ions like
sulphuric acid, H2SO4.
Example:
HCO3-

H2O

H2PO4-

A point to remember for later is:

The strongest acids have the weakest conjugate bases.
Example:

The strongest bases have the weakest conjugate acids.

Example:

Exercise 1:
A) Complete the acid /base pairs. Give the proton half equation linking the acid and base pair.
1) HS-/ HS- ⇌ H+ + S- 2) / HS-
3) H3PO4 / 4) / HPO42-
5) HPO42- / 6) / HSO3-
7) HBr / 8) H2SO3 /
9) H2SO4 / 10) HSO4- /
11) /CN- 12) / F-
13) H2CO3 / 14) / CO32-
15) /CH3NH2 16) CH3COOH /
+
17) NH4 / 18) H2O /
19) H3O+ /

B) In question A above you could see some acids that could give up more than one proton. These are called diprotic
(dibasic)or triprotic (tribasic) acids.
Give the name and formula of the main diprotic and triprotic acids from qu A..
Diprotic:

Triprotic:

C) Identify the acid-base conjugate pairs in the following reactions and write as acid/base pairs. Show work.
a. HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) == CO32-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
b. HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq) == CO2(g) + H2O(l) + H2O(l)
c. H2SO4(aq) + HNO3(aq) == HSO4-(aq) + NO2+(aq) + H2O(l)
d. HSO4-(aq) + OH-(aq) == SO42-(aq) + H2O(l)
 Chapter 2: The pH scale.

Acids and alkalis can be described as either strong or weak.

A strong acid dissociates fully in water to produce oxonium ions. This effectively means that the concentration
of hydrogen ions is the same as the concentration of the acid.
Example:

A weak acid can only partially dissociate in water. The concentration of the acid is not the same as the
concentration of the hydrogen ions.
Example:

The pH of an acid is an indirect, logarithmic measurement of the amount of hydrogen ions in solution.
The purpose of the logarithmic scale is to represent conveniently a very large range of H 3O+ concentrations
into a simpler numerical scale.

Definition of pH:
The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to the base ten of the H3O+(aq) concentration.

pH = -log10 [H3O+(aq)]

If [H3O+] = 1.00 mol/dm3, the pH of the solution is

If [H3O+] = 0.1 mol/dm3, the pH of the solution is
If [H3O+] = 0.01 mol/dm3, the pH of the solution is

If the pH is given then we can use the inverse equation to find the concentration of the hydrogen ions.

[H3O+(aq)] = 10-pH

This calculation can be done for strong or weak acids as it gives the concentration of hydrogen ions released
and not the initial concentration of the acid. You can use it to check if an acid is strong or weak by seeing if the
hydrogen ion concentration is equal to the initial concentration of the acid.

E.g. Given two acids A and B. They both have a concentration of 0.125 mol/dm 3 . The pH of A is 0.90 and the
pH of B is 1.5. Show if they are strong or weak acids. Explain your answer.
Note that for strong acids an increase in pH of one unit is equivalent to a tenfold fall in the H 3O+
concentration, and a decrease in pH of one unit is equivalent to a tenfold increase in the H 3O+
concentration.

1 7 14
PH -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[H3O+(aq)] -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10-1 10-7 10-14

Exercise 2:
Calculate the pH of the following strong acids.
1. HNO3, concentration = 0.258 mol/dm3
2. H2SO4, concentration = 1.25 x 10-3 mol/dm3
3. HCl, concentration = 1.50 x 10-2 mol/dm3
Calculate the concentration of the hydrogen ions for the following acids.
1. pH = 2.25
2. pH = 1.75
3. pH = 0.77

ACIDS AND BASES IN WATER

Most common acid-base reactions take place in aqueous solution, and thus acids and bases are generally
defined by the way in which they react with water.
1. Auto-ionisation of water

Water can behave both as an acid and a base: in aqueous solution a small fraction of the water molecules
undergo acid-base reactions with each other to produce the equilibrium:
2H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)

This is known as the auto-ionisation of water. The equilibrium expression for this reaction can be written:
Kc = [H3O+][OH-]
[H2O]2

Ionic product of water:

The concentration of water under these conditions is not changed significantly, since the proportion of water
which dissociates into its ions is small. The water concentration can thus be assumed to be constant and it can
be incorporated into Kc:
Kw = [H3O+][OH-]

The expression [H3O+][OH-] is known as the ionic product of water and has a value of 1.0 x 10-14 mol2dm-6 at
25oC. This value is a constant at a given temperature. The ionic product of water is slightly higher at higher
temperatures, suggesting that the dissociation is endothermic.
Explain:
In pure water, the [H3O+] and [OH-] concentrations are equal.
It follows that [H3O+][OH-] = [H3O+]2 = Kw.
So [H3O+] = [OH-] = √Kw = 1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3.

Any solution in which the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are equal is said to be neutral.
The H3O+ ion is usually written in aqueous solution as H+(aq). This is an accepted shorthand. For example, the
auto-ionisation of water is frequently written:
Kw = [H+][OH-]
Another useful way of writing this is:
pKw = pH + pOH

This means we can use the Kw value to find pH when we have pOH and vice versa.
Very important in the calculation of pH of a weak base.
Calculating the pH of water:
In pure water, [H3O+] = [OH-] = 1 x 10-7 mol/dm3 and the pH = 7 at 25°C.
It follows that the pH of acidic solutions is less than 7 and the pH of alkaline solutions is greater than 7.

At higher temperatures, the ionic product of water is greater and [H 3O+] is greater than 1.00 x 10-7 mol/dm3.
The pH of pure water is thus slightly less than 7 at higher temperatures. The solution is still neutral, since the
concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are still the same. The pH of a neutral solution is just lower at higher
temperatures.

Exercise 3
1. (i) At 30°C, KW has a value of 1.471 x 10-14 (in the same units). Calculate the pH of pure water at this
temperature.
(ii) Is the water now acidic, alkaline, or still neutral? Explain your answer.
(iii) As the temperature increases, the value of KW increases. Use your knowledge of Le Chatelier's
Principle to work out whether the ionisation of water is exothermic or endothermic.
 Chapter 3: Calculating the pH of strong and weak acids.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/acid-base-solutions/latest/acid-base-solutions_en.html

pH of strong acids
As stated before in chapter 2 finding the pH of a strong acid is easy. You just use the expression:
pH = -log10 [H3O+(aq)]

You can use this as strong acids dissociate completely so it you know the concentration of the acid you
automatically know the concentration of the hydrogen ions.

The [H3O+] in a 0.100 moldm-3 solution of HCl is 0.100 moldm-3. The pH of 0.10 moldm-3 HCl is ...

The [H3O+] in a 0.0500 moldm-3 solution of HCl is 0.0500 moldm-3. The pH of 0.05 moldm-3 HCl is ...

The [H3O+] in a 2.000 moldm-3 solution of HCl is 2.00 moldm-3. The pH of 2 moldm-3 HCl is ...

In theory, there is no minimum pH as the molarity of the acid can increase indefinitely. In practice, the pH
rarely falls below -0.5 as even strong acids do not dissociate fully at very high concentrations (there is not
enough water). Strong acids can thus only be said to be fully dissociated if the solution is reasonably dilute (ie
less than 0.1 moldm-3).

pH of weak acids
Finding the pH of a weak acid is more of a problem.
This happens because weak acids do not dissociate fully in water. For ethanoic acid about 1% of the molecules
dissociate in water.

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

99% 1% 1%

This means that we cannot use the concentration of the acid to find the concentration of the hydrogen ions.
A weak acid reaches equilibrium as follows:

HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

Initial C 0 0
-x +x +x
Equilibrium C-x x x

A weak acid is one which is a worse proton donor than H3O+. Examples are CH3COOH (ethanoic acid), NaHSO4
(sodium hydrogensulphate) and CO2 (carbon dioxide).

The equilibrium expression for the dissociation of a weak acid is as follows:

The water is in large excess, so its concentration is not significantly affected by this equilibrium and so can be
assumed to remain constant. The equilibrium expression can thus be re-written:

Ka is known as the acid dissociation constant for the acid and has units of moldm-3.
Ignoring the H3O+ present due to the auto-ionisation of water, the H3O+ and A- concentrations can be
assumed to be the same. Therefore

If the degree of dissociation of HA is assumed to be small, then the molarity of the HA can be assumed to be
the same as that of the solution (assume C-x is approximately equal to C).
This gives:

So to get the pH of a weak acid from its Ka and initial concentration we use the formula:

E.g. Method 1:
Calculate the pH of 0.100 moldm-3 ethanoic acid, Ka = 1.70 x 10-5 moldm-3
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Ka = [H3O+][ CH3COO-]
[CH3COOH]
Ignoring auto-ionisation of water, [H3O+] = [CH3COO-] so
[H3O+][CH3COO-] = [H3O+]2.
Assuming degree of dissociation of CH3COOH is small, [CH3COOH] = 0.100 moldm-3.
[H3O+]2 = Ka x [CH3COOH] ,
so [H3O+] = √Ka x [CH3COOH] = 1.30 x 10-3 moldm-3
and pH = -log10 (1.30 x 10-3) = 2.89

Method 2:
Use you calculator to solve for x, the concentration of H3O+(aq).
This is more accurate as it does not presume that the initial and equilibrium concentrations of the acid are the
same.
Solve(Ka = x2/C-x , x)
You insert the Ka and C values and you fine x, the concentration of the hydrogen ions.

Note that in the bac method 1 is the accepted form and the difference in answer between the two methods is
minimal.
Summary: To find the pH of a weak acid from Ka and initial concentration:
1. Write the Ka expression.
2. Give the resulting formula.
3. Fill in the values and solve.

You can also be asked to find Ka from pH and concentration.

Example:
The pH of an acid, HA, is 2.75 when the concentration is 0.0200 mol/dm 3.
(a) Show that HA is a weak acid.
(b) Calculate the value of Ka.

Exercise 4:
1. Calculate the pH of the following solutions:
A) 0.00100 moldm-3 HCl
B) 0.100 moldm-3 C6H5COOH (Ka of benzoic acid = 6.30 x 10-5 moldm-3)
C) 2.14 x 10-3 mol/dm3 of a weak acid with Ka = 3.25 x 10-4 mol/dm3

2. Calculate the concentration of the following solutions:

A) HCl , pH = 3.00
B) HCOOH (Ka = 1.60 x 10-4 moldm-3), pH = 3.00
C) HA, pH =4.46
3. The pH of a 0.100 moldm-3 solution of a weak monoprotic acid, HA is 2.85. Determine the Ka of the acid.
4. A 500 cm3 solution containing 1.90g of a weak acid HA has a pH of 3.50. Calculate the molar mass of
the acid, given that it has a Ka of 2.0 x 10-6 moldm-3.
5. A 0.120 mol/dm3 solution of a generic weak acid (HA) has a pH of 3.26. Determine the Ka.
6. A 0.128 mol/dm3 solution of uric acid (HC5H3N4O3) has a pH of 2.39. Calculate the Ka of uric acid.
7. HC9H7O4 (Mr = 180 g/mol) is prepared by dissolving 3.60 g into a 1.00 dm 3 solution. The pH of this
solution was determined to be 2.60. What is the Ka?
 Chapter 4: Calculating the pH of strong and weak bases.

Strong bases:
A strong base is one which fully dissociates into its ions in water:
General equation:
Example:

Examples of these substances are NaOH, KOH and Ba(OH)2.

Substances which dissolve in water to produce an excess of OH- ions are said to be alkaline.

Calculating the pH of strong bases:

The pH of strong bases can be calculated if the concentration of the solution is known:
Eg 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH implies [OH-] = 0.100 moldm-3 too,
so [H3O+] = Kw/[OH-] (from the ionic product of water equation)
= Kw/0.100 = 1.00 x 10-13 mol/dm3.
pH = -log10 (1.00 x 10-13)
Thus the pH of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH is 13.0

Eg 0.100 moldm-3 Ba(OH)2 means that [OH-] = 0.200 moldm-3, (two OH in each compound)
so [H3O+] = Kw/[OH-]
= 5.00 x 10-14 moldm-3.
pH = -log10 ( 5.00 x 10-14 )
Thus the pH of 0.100 moldm-3 Ba(OH)2 = 13.3

Summary. To find the pH of a strong base.

Work out the [OH-]
Use Kw to find [H3O+]
Convert hydrogen ion concentration into pH.

Weak bases
Weak bases do not dissociate fully in water. They behave in a similar way to weak acids.
B(aq) + H2O(aq) ⇌ BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonia is a very common weak base.
In water it dissociates as follows:

Only about 1% of the ammonia actually dissociates.

We can write the equilibrium expression for the dissociation of a weak base as follows:
The water is in large excess, so its concentration is not significantly affected by this equilibrium and so can be
assumed to remain constant. The equilibrium expression can thus be re-written:

Kb is known as the base dissociation constant for the base and has units of moldm-3.
Ignoring the OH- present due to the auto-ionisation of water, the OH- and BH+ concentrations can be assumed
to be the same. Therefore

If the degree of dissociation of B is assumed to be small, then the molarity of the base, B, can be assumed to
be the same as that of the solution
This gives:

So to get the OH- concentration of a base from its Kb and initial concentration we use the formula:

To find the pOH of the base we then use the formula:

To find the pH of the base you can then use:

Summary: To find the pH of a weak base.

1. Find the OH concentration using Kb and concentration of the initial base.
2. Find the pOH
3. Use pKw to find pH.

Example:
1.What is the pH of a 0.100 mol/dm3 solution of ammonia? Kb = 1.77 x 10¯5
[OH-] = √Kb x Cb = √ (1.77 x 10-5 x 0.100)
= 1.33 x 10-3
p[OH] = -log10 [OH-] = -log10 (1.33 x 10-3 )
= 2.88
pH = pKw - pOH = 14.0 – 2.88 = 11.1

Exercise 5:
1. What is the pH of a 0.300 mol/dm3 solution of morphine? Kb = 1.62 x 10¯6
2. What is the pH of a 0.250 mol/dm3 solution of strychnine? Kb = 1.82 x 10¯6
3. What is the pH of a strong base of concentration 0.0250 mol/dm3?
 Chapter 5: Ka and Kb values and pH of salts

We have already met the terms Ka and Kb.

These can also be expressed in the form of pKa and pKb:

To convert pKa to Ka: To convert pKb to Kb:

For Acids:
The larger the Ka, the greater the degree to which the acid dissociates into its ions and the stronger the acid.
The larger the Ka, the smaller the pKa.
A smaller pKa means a stronger acid. (Just like with pH)

ACID Ka/moldm-3 pKa

HSO4- 1.00 x 10-2
CH3COOH 1.70 x 10-5
CO2 + H2O 4.50 x 10-7
NH4+ 5.80 x 10-10
HCO3- 4.80 x 10-11

For Bases:
The same logic is true with bases.
The larger the Kb, the greater the degree to which the base forms hydroxide ions, OH-, and the stronger the
base.
The larger the Ka, the smaller the pKb.
A smaller pKb means a stronger base. (Just like with pH)

Base Kb(mol/dm3) pKb

(C2H5)NH 9.55 x 10-4
C2H5NH2 5.62 x 10-4
NH3 1.77 x 10-5
C6H5NH2 3.80 x 10-10

Another useful fact:

For acid/base pairs the product of their pKa and pKb will give pKw:
pKa + pKb = pKw
Show:

This can be used in calculations.

Exercise 6:
1. Calculate the hydroxide ion concentration for 0.00100 mol/dm3 methylamine, CH3NH2, given that pKb =
3.36.
 2. Using the ionic product for water expression calculate the pH of phenylamine, C 6H5NH2, of
concentration 1.01 mol/dm3. pKb = 9.38
3. Three acids found in foods are lactic acid (in milk products), oxalic acid (in rhubarb), and malic acid (in
apples). The pKa values are LA = 3.88, OA = 1.23, and MA = 3.40.
Which list has the conjugate bases of these acids in order of decreasing strength?
a. lactate > oxalate > malate d. oxalate > lactate > malate
b. oxalate > malate > lactate e. malate > lactate > oxalate
c. lactate > malate > oxalate
4. What is the pH of a 0.100 mol/dm3 solution of trimethylamine (pKb = 4.13)?

5. How would you calculate Kb for the formate ion, given that the Ka for formic acid is 1.80 × 10 –4?
(Kw=1.00 × 10–14)
a. Kb = Ka × Kw d. Kb = Kw + Ka
b. Kb = Kw/Ka e. Kb = Kw – Ka
c. Kb = Ka/Kw
6. What is the pH of a 0.20 mol/dm3 solution of jaspersamine? The pKb value for jaspersamine 4.40.

pH and pKa
Once you have pH or pKa values, you know certain things about a solution and how it compares with other
solutions:
 The lower the pH, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+].
 The lower the pKa, the stronger the acid and the greater its ability to donate protons.
 pH depends on the concentration of the solution. This is important because it means a weak acid could
actually have a lower pH than a diluted strong acid. For example, concentrated vinegar (acetic acid,
which is a weak acid) could have a lower pH than a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (a strong acid).
 On the other hand, the pKa value is constant for each type of molecule. It is unaffected by
concentration.
 Even a chemical ordinarily considered a base can have a pKa value because the terms "acids" and
"bases" simply refer to whether a species will give up protons (acid) or remove them (base). For
example, if you have a base Y with a pKa of 13, it will accept protons and form YH, but when the pH
exceeds 13, YH will be deprotonated and become Y. Because Y removes protons at a pH greater
thanthe pH of neutral water (7), it is considered a base.

So you can find the dominant species in a solution of a certain pH if you know their pKa values.

The pH of salts.
Up till now we have stated that when acids react with bases salts are formed and we have implied that the
pH is neutral. Not True.
The pH of a salt depends on the strength of the conjugate acid or conjugate base found in the salt formed
in the reaction. If the conjugate acid or conjugate base is strong enough it will react with the water to
release either H+ or OH- ions. These ions obviously effect the pH by raising it (more OH- produced) or
lowering it (more H+ produced).
Case 1: Strong acid and a strong base.
As you should know strong acids and bases have weak conjugate bases and conjugate acids.
e.g.

As they produce salts with weak conjugate bases or conjugate acids these do not react with the water
present. Hence the pH at equivalence, when all the acid has reacted with all the base, will be neutral, 7.

Case 2: Weak acid and a strong base

Weak acids have strong conjugate bases that will react with water.
Example:
Reaction of conjugate base with water:

The release of OH- ions causes the pH to …..................

So when weak acids react with strong bases they have a pH at equivalence …................ 7.

Case 3: Weak bases and strong acids:

Weak bases have strong conjugate acids. These will react with water.
Example;
Reaction of conjugate acid with water:
 The release of H+ ions causes the pH to …....................
So when weak bases react with strong acids they have a pH at equivalence ................... 7.

Summary:
Reaction Of Example Salt With water Type of pH of salt
formed releases salt
S A and S B
W A and S B
S A and W B

Exercise 7:
1. What is the pH of a solution of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl(aq) of concentration 1.50 x 10-1 mol/dm3.
The pKa for NH4+ = 9.25.
2. Given the following three salts:
NaNO3 NH4NO3 CH3COONa
I) State whether the salts are acidic, basic or neutral.
II) Justify you answer with suitable equations.
3. NH4Cl contains the conjugate acid of ammonia, NH3.
A) If the value of Kb for ammonia is 1.80 x 10-5 mol/dm3, calculate the value of Ka for the conjugate acid.
B) Calculate the pH of a solution of 0.150 mol/dm3 NH4Cl.
 Chapter 6: Indicators

Indicators are used in acid base reaction to tell us when equivalence has been reached, ie when all the acid
has reacted with all the base.
An acid-base indicator is a weak acid which dissociates to give an anion of a different colour.
Consider a weak acid HIn:

HIn(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + In-(aq)

Colour 1 Colour 2

HIn and its conjugate base In- are different colours. The colour of the solution depends on the relative
concentrations of the two species.
If the solution is strongly acidic, the above equilibrium will be shifted to the left and HIn will dominate. Colour
1 will thus dominate.
If the solution is strongly alkaline, the above equilibrium will shift to the right and In - will dominate. Colour 2
will thus dominate.
The colour of the indicator thus depends on the pH of the solution.

The colour will not change suddenly at a certain pH, but will change gradually over a pH range. The colour of
the indicator depends on the ratio of [HIn] to [In-].
In general, if [HIn]/[In-] > 10, then colour 1 will dominate.
If [In-]/[Hin] > 10, then colour 2 will dominate.
The pH at which this transition occurs is known as the end-point of the indicator and depends on the KIn of the
indicator.

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali pKa pH range of

(end-point) colour change
Thymol blue Red Yellow 1.7 1.2 - 2.8
Methyl orange Red Yellow 3.7 3.2 - 4.4
Methyl red Red Yellow 5.1 4.2 - 6.3
Litmus Red Blue 6.3 5.0 - 8.0
Phenolphthalei Colourless Pink 9.3 8.2 - 10.0
n

Use of indicators
Indicators are used in acid - alkali titrations in order to find the equivalence point of the titration.
If they are to determine the equivalence point accurately, they must undergo a complete colour change at the
equivalence point. This means that the pH range of the colour change (ie the end-point of the indicator) must
fall completely within the pH range of the equivalence point. Not all indicators can therefore be used for all
titrations, and indicators must be chosen carefully so that the end-point of the indicator matches the pH range
at the equivalence point.
Exercise 8:
1. Methyl orange is an indicator commonly used in certain acid-base titrations. It exists in two forms, one
red and one yellow, which are in equilibrium with each other. H-Meor represents one form, and Meor-
the other.
a) Explain why methyl orange turns yellow when you add it to an alkaline solution.
b) Explain why methyl orange turns red when you add it to a sufficiently acidic solution.
c) The pKin for methyl orange is 3.7, and its pH range is 3.1 - 4.4. What does this information tell you
about the indicator?
d) What colour would methyl orange be in a solution with a pH of 7.0? Explain your answer.
e) What colour would methyl orange be in a solution with a pH of 5.0? Explain your answer.
f) What colour would methyl orange be in a solution with a pH of 3.4? Explain your answer.

2. The table shows pKin, the pH range, and the colour changes of three indicators.

Indicator pKIn PH range Colour at lower pH Colour at higher pH

bromophenol 4.0 3.0 - 4.6 Yellow Blue
blue
methyl red 5.1 4.2 - 6.3 Red Yellow
phenolphthalein 9.3 8.3 - 10.0 Colourless Red
What colours would each of these indicators be in solutions with the following pHs?
a) 2.0 b) 3.0
c) 4.0 d) 5.0
e) 6.0 f) 7.0
g) 8.0 h) 9.0

3. Methyl red is an acid-base indicator which has a pKa of 5.1. It is red in acid solutions and yellow in
alkali.
(a) Using the formula HIn to represent methyl red, write an equation for the dissociation of methyl red.
(b) State the colour of the In- ion.
© Calculate the ratio of the [HIn] : [In-] when the pH is 4.0.
 Chapter 7: Titrations

A reaction between an acid and an alkali is known as a neutralisation.

The concentration of an acid can be determined by titrating it against a standard alkali solution using a
suitable indicator, and the concentration of an alkali can be determined by titrating against a standard acid
solution.
If solution A is titrated against solution B, it means that solution A is in the conical flask and solution B is in the
burette.
The behaviour of acid-alkali mixtures during titrations depends on whether the acids and bases are strong or
weak. See the section on salts!

There are four types of titrations:

Type of acid Type of base Nature of salt
Strong Strong
Strong Weak
Weak Strong
Weak Weak

Titration calculations are an essential part of a titration reaction and there is always a titration question on the
bac. In order to understand titrations better we are going to look at the reactions in detail.

1. Strong acid and strong base pH changes.

If 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH is added dropwise to 20.0 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 HCl (2.00 x 10-3 moles), the change in
pH of the solution can be calculated by considering the reaction taking place.
Before the addition of NaOH, the pH of the solution is …......... .

After the addition of 10 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH:

n = C x V = 0.100 x 0.0100 = 1.00 x 10-3 moles
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Before(n): 1 x 10-3 2 x 10-3 -
-3
After(n): - 1 x 10 1 x 10-3 Total volume now = 30 cm3.
[H3O+] = 1 x 10-3 = 0.033 moldm-3 pH = 1.5
0.0300

After the addition of 19.95 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH:

n= C x V = 0.100 x 0.01995 = mols
(ie 1 drop before the equivalence point)
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
-3 -3
Before(n): 1.995 x 10 2 x 10 -
-6
After(n): - 5 x 10 1.995 x 10-3 Total volume = 39.95 cm3.
[H3O+] = 5 x 10-6 = 1.25 x 10-4 moldm-3 pH = 3.9
0.03995
After the addition of 20.0 cm3 of 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH (ie at the equivalence point)
[H3O+] = [OH-] = 1 x 10-7 M so pH = 7.0

After the addition of 20.05 cm3 (2.005 x 10-3 moles) of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH:
n= C x V = 0.100 x 0.02005 = 2.005 x 10-3 mols
(ie 1 drop after the end-point)
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
Before(n) 2.005 x 10-3 2 x 10-3 -
-6
After(n): 5 x 10 - 2 x 10-3 Total volume = 40.05 cm3.
[OH-] = 5 x 10-6 = 1.25 x 10-4 moldm-3, so [H3O+] = 8.0 x 10-11 moldm-3 pH = 10.1
0.04005

The pH of the solution during a strong acid - strong alkali titration therefore changes from around 4 to 10
over two drops at the equivalence point.
A titration curve for a strong acid - strong alkali titration can be sketched as follows:

2. pH changes during weak acid - strong alkali titrations

If 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH is added dropwise to 20.0 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 CH3COOH (2.00 x 10-3 moles), the
change in pH of the solution can be calculated by considering the reaction taking place
Before the addition of NaOH, the pH of the solution is 2.9.
Show:

After the addition of 10.0 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH:

n(NaOH) = c x v = 0.100 x 0.0100 = 1.00 x 10-3 moles
NaOH + CH3COOH  CH3COONa + H 2O
Before(n): 1 x 10-3 2 x 10-3 -
-3
After(n): - 1 x 10 1 x 10-3 Total volume = 30 cm3.

The solution now contains a mixture of a weak acid (CH3COOH) and its conjugate base (CH3COO-). It thus
behaves as a buffer solution. The pH of the mixture can thus be calculated by considering the relative
concentrations of the CH3COOH and CH3COO-. Ka = 1.8 x 10-5
Ka = [H3O+][CH3COO-] so [H3O+] = Ka[CH3COOH] = 1.7 x 10-5 moldm-3, pH = 4.8
-
[CH3COOH] [CH3COO ]
After the addition of 19.95 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH:
n= c x v = 0.100 x 0.01995 = 1.995 x 10-3 moles
(ie 1 drop before the equivalence point)
NaOH + CH3COOH  CH3COONa + H 2O
Before: 1.995 x 10-3 2 x 10-3 -
-6
After(n): - 5 x 10 1.995 x 10-3 Total volume = 39.95 cm3.
[H3O+] = Ka x (5 x 10-6/0.3995) = pH = 7.4
-3
(1.995 x 10 /0.03995)

After the addition of 20.05 cm3 of 0.100 moldm-3 NaOH:

n= c x v = 0.100 x 0.02005 = 2.005 x 10-3 moles
(ie 1 drop after the equivalence point)
NaOH + CH3COOH  CH3COONa + H 2O
Before(n): 2.005 x 10-3 2 x 10-3 -
-6
After: 5 x 10 - 2 x 10-3 Total volume = 40.05 cm3.

[OH-] = 5 x 10-6 = 1.25 x 10-4 moldm-3, so [H3O+] = 8.0 x 10-11 moldm-3 pH = 10.1
0.04005

The pH of the solution during a weak acid - strong alkali titration therefore changes from around 7 to 10
over two drops at the equivalence point.
A pH curve for this reaction can be sketched as follows.

3. pH change for a strong acid - weak alkali titration.

If 0.1 moldm-3 NH3 is added to 20 cm3 0.1 moldm-3 HCl, the mixture behaves in a similar way to a strong acid -
strong alkali titration until the equivalence point is reached.
After the equivalence point, the solution contains a mixture of NH4+ and NH3 and thus behaves as a buffer
solution.
The pH of the solution during a strong acid - weak alkali titration changes from around 4 to 7 at the
equivalence point.
A titration curve for a strong acid - weak alkali titration can be sketched as follows:
Understanding titration curves.
Points to remember:
You can find three main things from a titration curve.
1. Volume of acid or base added at equivalence point
2. pH at equivalence
3. pKa at half equivalence.

Exercise9:
1. 20.0 cm3 of methanoic acid (Ka = 1.80 x 10-4 moldm-3) of concentration 0.100 moldm-3 is titrated against
sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.0500 moldm-3.
(I) Calculate the pH of the solution:
i. initially
ii. after 10.0 cm3 of the alkali has been added
iii. after 20.0 cm3 of the alkali has been added
iv. after 30.0 cm3 of the alkali has been added
v. after 50.0 cm3 of the alkali has been added
(ii) Sketch a pH titration curve to show this reaction
(ii) Explain why the pH at the end-point is greater than 7.
 Chapter 8: Buffers

A buffer solution is a solution which can resist changes in pH on addition of small quantities of acid or alkali
or on dilution.

1. How buffers work

A buffer solution is a mixture of an acid and an alkali. The acid neutralises the alkali added and the alkali
neutralises the acid added.
The mixture cannot be a mixture of a strong acid and a strong alkali, or the two will react with each other (eg a
mixture of NaOH and HCl would react with each other and thus not behave as an effective buffer). If the acid
and alkali in the buffer are too weak, however, they will not react effectively with the acid or alkali that are
added.

An ideal mixture for this purpose is a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base.
For example CH3COOH and CH3COONa
The acids and bases in this mixture will react with OH- and H3O+ respectively but not with each other.
a) Resisting pH change on addition of acid and alkali
This mixture will react with acid and alkali as follows:
CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) 
CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq) 

A weak base and its conjugate acid:

NH4Cl and NH3.
NH4+(aq) + 
NH3(aq) + 

One important example is sodium hydrogencarbonate; the HCO3- ion can behave as either an acid or a base:
HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)  CO32-(aq) + H2O(l)

Calculating the pH of buffer solutions

If a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base is used as a buffer, the pH of the buffer can be calculated by
the following method:

Consider the mixture CH3COOH/CH3COONa:

The Ka of the acid can be written: Ka = [CH3COO-][H3O+]

[CH3COOH]
+
so [H3O ] = Ka[CH3COOH]
[CH3COO-]

In general, [H3O+] can be calculated from the formula:

 [H3O+] = Ka[acid]
[base]
Taking the log of this we get:

This equation is known as the Henderson-Hesselbalch equation. It Is based on two approximations:

 All the A- ions come from the salt.
 All the HA molecules in the buffer solution are undissociated.

e.g. A mixture containing 0.2 moldm-3 CH3COOH (Ka = 1.7 x 10-5 moldm-3) and 0.1 moldm-3 CH3COONa. What is
its pH?

To prepare a buffer solution of a given pH, it is necessary to have the acid and base concentrations in a
suitable ratio.
Eg What ratio of salt and acid do you need to prepare an NH3/NH4Cl buffer of pH = 10?

Buffer solutions are most efficient at resisting changes in pH when the concentrations of acid and alkali are
the same.
If there is much more acid than base in a buffer solution, then it is not very able to resist changes in pH on
adding acid. Similarly if there is much more base than acid in a buffer solution it is not very able to resist
changes in pH on adding alkali.

Exercise 10:
1. a) What is meant by the term "buffer solution"?
b) Calculate the pH of a buffer solution which contains the weak monoprotic acid, propanoic acid
(CH3CH2COOH), in concentration 0.100 moldm-3 and sodium propanoate in concentration 0.0500 moldm-3.
Ka of propanoic acid is 1.26 x 10-5 moldm-3.
c) Give equations to show how the above solution fulfils its buffer function.

2. a) Calculate the pH of 0.120 moldm-3 ethanoic acid (Ka = 1.7 x 10-5 moldm-3).
b) Calculate the mass of sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa) which must be added to 500 cm3 of this solution
to give a buffer solution of pH = 4.60.
3. Calculate the pH of a buffer which is 0.200 moldm-3 with respect to ammonium sulphate and 0.100
moldm-3 with respect to ammonia. (Ka of NH4+ = 5.6 x 10-10
moldm-3)
4. Methanoic acid, HCOOH, has a Ka value of 1.58 x 10-4 moldm-3. What ratio of methanoic acid and
sodium methanoate would give a buffer of pH = 4?

5. a) Calculate the pH of a buffer solution which is 0.100 moldm-3 with respect to HCN (Ka = 4.9 x 10-10
moldm-3) and 0.800 moldm-3 with respect to sodium cyanide.
 EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1: ‘Neutralisation circles’

Description
Drops of dilute acid and alkali are placed a few centimetres apart on a sheet of filter paper and allowed to spread out
until they meet. A few drops of Universal indicator are then placed over the moist area of the filter paper and a band of
colours showing the range of colours of the Universal indicator is seen on the paper.
Procedure
Take a piece of filter paper and draw on it in pencil two circles about 1 cm in diameter and about 2 – 3 cm apart and
label them ‘acid’ and ‘alkali’ respectively. Place the filter paper on a while tile and using dropping pipettes place a few
drops of the appropriate solution in each circle. The solution will begin to spread out on the filter paper. Wait for a few
minutes until the solutions have soaked through the filter paper towards each other and have met. Place drops of
Universal Indicator solution on the area of the filter paper where the acid and alkali have met and reacted. A ‘rainbow’ is
produced showing the range of colours produced by the Universal indicator.
You can dry the filter papers and stick them into your notebooks.
The reaction is:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Experiment 2: Investigation of indicators.

INDICATORS are substances that, when added to solutions of different pH, change colour.
You are provided with three: bromothymol blue, methyl orange and phenolphthalein
1. Begin your investigation by finding what colour each of these indicators turns when added to an acid or an alkali. To
do this pour about 2 cm. depth of dilute hydrochloric acid into a test tube and add two drops of one of the indicators to
find out what colour it turns with acids. Then pour about 2 cm depth of sodium hydroxide solution into another test
tube and add two drops of the indicator to find out what colour it turns in alkalis. Repeat this using clean test tubes for
the other two indicators. Write the colours you observe in the spaces below:
Indicator Colour in acids Colour in alkalis
Bromothymol blue
Methyl orange
Phenolphthalein
2. You are now going to test two solutions with the three indicators and try to draw conclusions about them from the
colours shown by the indicators. The solutions with which you are provided are boric acid solution and sodium
bicarbonate solution. To investigate these, pour about 2 cm. depth of one of the solutions into each of three clean test
tubes and add two drops of an indicator to one test tube. Add two drops of another indicator to the second tube and
two drops of the third indicator to the third tube. From the colours shown by the indicator in each case decide whether
it is indicating ACID or ALKALI. Repeat this part of the investigation for the other solution. Now record your observations
and conclusions in the following table:
Results with Boric acid Results with Sodium
solution bicarbonate solution
Colour with Bromothymol Blue
Acid or alkali shown by Bromothymol Blue?
Colour with Methyl Orange
Acid or alkali shown by Methyl Orange?
Colour with Phenolphthaleibn
Acid or alkali shown by Phenolphthalein?

Is there anything odd you notice in your results in the above table? YES/NO (Delete the answer which does not apply)
Explain your answer:
3. To demonstrate the action of these indicators further, you are going to test some solutions with a mixture of the
indicators. First prepare this mixture by mixing in a test tube:
 10 drops of Bromothymol blue,
 5 drops of methyl orange and
 5 drops of phenolphthalein.
Mix them well and, using a teat dropper, add two drops of this mixed indicators solution to test tubes containing 2 cm.
depth of each of the following substances:
 Dilute hydrochoric acid,
 Boric acid solution,
 tap water,
 sodium bicarbonate solution and
 sodium hydroxide solution.
Record your observations in the table below:
SUBSTANCE COLOUR SHOWN BY MIXED INDICATORS
SOLUTION
Dilute hydrochloric acid
Boric acid solution
Tap water
Sodium bicarbonate solution
Sodium hydroxide solution

Have you ever seen a series of colours similar to this shown by an indicator solution? YES/NO (Delete the
answer which does not apply)
Comment on the colours you see in this part of the investigation and try to explain your results.

Experiment 3: Determining the Acetic Acid in Vinegar by Titration

For this experiment it is best to choose a "white vinegar" (that is, a colourless vinegar) rather than a "brown vinegar".
The colour of a "brown vinegar" can mask the colour change at the end point of the titration.
When a weak acid such as acetic acid is titrated with a strong base such as aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, the pH at
the equivalence point will be greater than 7.
Suitable indicators for this experiment are phenolphthalein or thymol blue.
Procedure to titrate the acetic acid in vinegar:
1. Rinse a clean 250 mL conical (erlenmeyer) flask with water.
2. Rinse a clean 25.0 mL pipette (pipet) with vinegar.
Pipette 25.0 mL of vinegar into the 250 mL conical (erlenmeyer)
flask.
3. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the vinegar.
(The solution will remain colourless)
4. Rinse a clean 50.0 mL burette (buret) with standardised 1.00
mol L-1 aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
Fill the burette (buret) with this standardised 1.00 mol L-1
NaOH(aq).
5. Set up the equipment as in the diagram on the right.
6. Run NaOH(aq) from the burette (buret) into the conical
(erlenmeyer) flask until the solution changes colour from
colourless to pink.
7. Repeat the titration carefully several times until concordant
titres are achieved.
Results:

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Final volume of
NaOH(cm")
Initial vomume of
NaOH (cm3)
Titre

Calculations:
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction and put in all information provided.

2. Calculate the amount in moles or NaOH.

3. Deduce the amount in moles of ethanoic acid.

4. Calculate the concentration of the acid.

Calculating the Concentration of Acetic Acid as a Percentage By Volume (v/v %)

v/v % = volume of solute ÷ volume of solution × 100
acetic acid in vinegar v/v % = volume of acetic acid ÷ volume of vinegar × 100
5. Calculate mass of acetic acid
mass = moles × molar mass
moles acetic acid = n(CH3COOH) =
molar mass acetic acid =
mass acetic acid = moles acetic acid x molar mass acetic acid =
8. Calculate volume of acetic acid using its mass and known density
density (g/mL) = mass (g) ÷ volume (mL)
volume (mL) = mass (g) ÷ density (g/mL)
density of acetic acid = 1.049 g mL-1 (at 25°C)
mass acetic acid in vinegar =
volume of acetic acid = mass acetic acid ÷ density acetic acid
volume acetic acid =
9. Calculate concentration of acetic acid in vinegar as v/v %
acetic acid in vinegar v/v % = volume of acetic acid ÷ volume of vinegar × 100
volume of acetic acid =
volume of vinegar =
acetic acid in vinegar v/v % = _____ ÷ 25.00 × 100 =
v/v % acetic acid in vinegar is ...........%

Experiment 4: Drawing a pH graph and determining pH at equivalence and pK a values.

You will be provided with a solution of a weak acid of concentration 0.1 mol/dm3. You will titrate this with sodium
hydroxide of concentration 0.10 mol/dm3 and use the results to draw a pH curve.
Method.
1. Measure our 25.0 cm3 of the acid into a beaker.
2. Prepare a burette with the NaOH solution.
3. Set up your pH probe and labquest, rinse and test.
4. Add 1 cm3 NaOH from the burette, mix and record pH.
5. Repeat till 30.0 cm3 of NaOH has been added.
Results:
Name of acid used ...............................
Volume(cm3 pH Volume(cm3 pH Volume(cm3) pH Volume(cm3 pH
) ) )

Data processing:
1. Plot a graph of pH versus volume of NaOH added.
2. Use the graph to calculate pH at equivalence and pKa.