UNIT

Towards Modernity
19
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with
„„Socio-Religious reforms initiated by Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj
and Arya Samaj
„„Ramakrishna Mission and the teachings of Swami Vivekananda
„„Theosophical Society, Satya Shodhak Samaj, Sri Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam.
„„Islamic Reform Movements and Reform Movements in Tamilnadu
„„Contributions of Christian Missionaries

vicious circle of superstitions and obscurantism.

Introduction
In their view idolatry and polytheism reinforced
By the first quarter of the nineteenth orthodoxy impelling the people to follow them
century, India had produced a small English- blindly. The social conditions were equally
educated intelligentsia, closely associated with depressing. And the condition of women was
British administration or British trade. The ideas deplorable. The practice of sati came in for
and the work of the Christian missionaries had particular condemnation. The division of society
already begun to have its impact. Bengal was according to birth resulting in the caste system
the first province to be affected by the British was also criticized. Most importantly, the British
influence and so it was here that several ideas argued that without their intervention there
of reform originated. British administration, was no possibility of deliverance from these
English education, and European literature evils for Indians. Needless to say, this was a self-
brought to India a new wave of thoughts serving argument, articulated by missionaries
that challenged traditional knowledge. and Utilitarians to justify British rule.
Rationalism as the basis for ethical thinking,
the idea of human progress and evolution, the Utilitarians: believers in the doctrine of
concept of natural rights associated with the greatest happiness of the greatest number
Enlightenment, were the new ideas which led
to what has been termed as Indian Renaissance. India was a much bigger, more complex
The spread of printing technology played a and diverse country in the early nineteenth
crucial role in the diffusion of ideas. century. Conditions varied vastly across it.
The social and cultural evils had been fought
19.1 Emergence of Reform by Indian reformers through the ages. But the
advent of the British with their Enlightenment
Movements
ideas undoubtedly posed a new challenge. This
The British characterized Indian society chapter looks at how social reform movements
in the nineteenth century as being caught in a emerged in various parts of the country.
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 The development of the Western culture and religion. Initially, the social reform movement
ideology forced the traditional institutions to had a narrow social base – they were limited to
revitalize themselves. During the second half of the upper and middle strata of the society that
the nineteenth century, the expression of protest tried to adjust their modernized views to the
and desire for change were articulated through existing social reality. From then on, the social
various reform movements. These movements reform movements began to percolate to the
aimed at reforming and democratizing the lower strata of society to reconstruct the social
social institutions and religious outlook of fabric. Heated debates among the intellectuals
the Indian people. The emergence of new expressed in the form of public arguments,
economic forces, spread of education, growth tracts and journals played a big role in taking
of nationalist sentiment, influence of modern new ideas to large sections of the people, as well
Western thoughts, ideas and culture, and as to reformulate older ideas in a new form.
awareness of the changes taking place in Europe At the start, organizations such as the Social
strengthened the resolve to reform. Conference, Servants of India and the Christian
What gave these reform movements an missionaries were instrumental in giving an
ideological unity were rationalism, religious impetus to the social reform movements along
universalism and humanism. This perspective with many enlightened individuals about whom
enabled them to adopt a rational approach we dwell on in the following pages. In later
to tradition and evaluate the contemporary years, especially by the twentieth century, the
socio-religious practices from the standpoint national movement provided the leadership
of social utility. For example, Raja Rammohan and organization for social reform.
Roy repudiated the infallibility of the Vedas and Brahmo Samaj (1828)
during the Aligarh Movement, Syed Ahmed
Raja Rammohan
Khan emphasized that religious tenets were
Roy, was a man of
not immutable. As Keshab Chandra Sen said,
versatile genius.
‘Our position is not that truths are to be in all
He established the
religions, but that all established religions of the
Brahmo Samaj in
World are true.’
August, 1828. The
These movements enveloping the entire Brahmo Samaj
cultural stream of Indian society brought about was committed to
significant practices in the realms of language, “the worship and
religion, art and philosophy. These reform adoration of the Raja Rammohan Roy
movements can be broadly classified into two eternal, unsearchable,
categories: immutable Being who is the Author and
1. Reformist Movements Preserver of the Universe”. His long term
agenda was to purify Hinduism and to preach
2. Revivalist Movements monotheism for which he drew authority from
Both the movements depended in varying the Vedas. He emphasized human dignity,
degrees on an appeal to the lost purity of religion. opposed idolatry and social evils such as sati. A
The primary difference between them lay in retired servant of the East India Company, he
the degree to which they relied on tradition or was conversant in many languages including
on reason and conscience. The social reform Persian and Sanskrit. His ideas and activities
movements formed an integral part of the were aimed at the political uplift of society
religious reforms primarily because all the through social reform. He was a determined
efforts towards social ills like caste- and gender– crusader against the inhuman practice of Sati.
based inequality derived legitimacy from His tract written in 1818, A Conference Between

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 an Advocate for and an Opponent of the Practice intellectuals. In the early stages, many young
of Burning Widows, cited sacred texts to prove men seized of the radical ideas avidly propagated
that no religion sanctioned the burning alive of them. Tagore’s family was a Brahmo family and
widows. His efforts fructified and the Company its influence can be seen in his writings and ideas.
through an enactment of law (1829) declared
The Prarthana Samaj (1867)
the practice of sati a crime.
An off-shoot of the Brahmo Samaj, the
The overall contribution of Brahmo Samaj
Prarthana Samaj, was founded in 1867 in
can be summed up as follows
Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang (1823–98).
1. It denounced polytheism, idol worship, and The Prarthana Samaj as an organization never
the faith in divine avatars (incarnations) had any great influence but its members, like
2. It condemned the caste system, dogmas and M. G. Ranade (1852-1901), R. G. Bhandarkar,
superstitions. and K.T. Telang, were among the great leaders
3. It wanted the abolition of child marriage, of nineteenth-century Maharashtra and they
purdah system and the practice of sati became the founders of the social reform
4. It supported widow remarriage movement in later years.
Inspired by the ideals of the French Prarthana Samaj was similar to Brahmo
Revolution, Rammohan Roy left for Europe and Samaj, but it was consciously linked with the
died in Bristol. After his death there was a steady bhakti tradition of the Maharashtrian saints. The
decline but for the new lease life given to it by Prarathana Samaj continued its work mainly
Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath through educational work directed at women
Tagore). After him the organization was taken and workers at the lower level. It concentrated
forward by Keshab Chandra Sen from 1857. on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-
The strength of the organization is known marriage, remarriage of widows, and uplift of
from the number of branches it had in 1865, women and depressed classes.
54 Samajas (fifty in Bengal, two in North West
The National Social Conference organized
Province, one each in Punjab and Madras). In
at the initiative of M.G. Ranade met each year
course of time, the Brahmo Samaj broke into
immediately after the Indian National Congress
two namely Devendranath Tagore’s, ‘Brahmo
(1885) annual sessions. Justice Ranade was an
Samaj of India’ and Keshub Chandra Sen’s
erudite scholar with a keen intellect and under
‘Sadharan Brahmo Samaj’.
his able guidance the Prarthana Samaj became
In Tamilnadu, Kasi Viswanatha Mudaliar the active centre of a new social reformation
was an adherent of the Samaj and he wrote a in western India. He was one of the founders
play titled Brahmo Samaja Natakam to expound of the Widow Marriage Association and was
the ideas of the Samaj. He also wrote a tract in an ardent promoter of the famous Deccan
support of widow remarriage. In 1864, a Tamil Education Society. Its object was to impart such
journal titled Tathuva Bodhini was started for education to the young as would fit them for the
the cause of the Brahmo Samaja. unselfish service of the country. When Ranade
died in 1901, his leadership was taken over by
The Brahmo Samaj met with great opposition
Chandavarkar.
from orthodox elements in Bengal society such
as the Hindu Dharma Sabha. However, there Arya Samaj (1875)
were also reformers such as Ishwarchandra
The founder of the Arya Samaj was
Vidyasagar, who advocated the same ideas but
Dayananda Saraswati (1824–83). Dayananda,
drew on Hindu scriptures as authority.
a Gujarati, left home in his youth to become
Even though the Brahmo Samaj did not an ascetic. For seventeen years he wandered
win many adherents, it had a big impact on the around India. In 1863 he became a wandering
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 preacher, and five its belief by performing religious service in
years later he added accordance with the practices of different
the establishment religions. According to him ‘all the religious
of schools to his views are but different ways to lead to the
activities. In 1872 he same goal.’ In a backlash, the later generation
met the Brahmos in of Western educated intellectuals were drawn
Calcutta. In 1875 he to Ramakrishna’s broad view, mysticism and
founded the Arya spiritual fervour. He expounded his views in
Samaj and published short stories and admirable parables which
his major work the Dayananda Saraswati were compiled by an admirer as Ramakrishna
Satyarth Prakash. In his view, contemporary Kathamrita (The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna).
Hinduism had become degenerate. Therefore he
rejected puranas, polytheism, idolatry, the role
of Brahmin priests, pilgrimages, many rituals
and the prohibition on widow marriage. As a
good Sanskrit scholar, he made a call to“Back to
the Vedas”. He wanted to shape society on the
basis of the Vedas. He disregarded the puranas.
Like the other social reformers, he encouraged
female education and remarriage of widows.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Swami Vivekananda
Swami Dayananda’s sphere of influence
was largely in the Punjab region where the The most famous among his disciples was a
trading community of Khatris experienced young graduate of the Calcutta University named
great mobility in colonial times. However, in Narendranath Dutta, afterwards famously called
the Punjab region, there was much communal Swami Vivekananda(1863–1902). Emphasising
conflict among Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. practical work over philosophizing he established
Dayananda’s Shuddi (purification) movement the modern institution of the Ramakrishna
i.e., conversion of non-Hindus to Hindus was Mission. He carried Ramakrishna’s message
controversial and provoked controversies all over India and the world. His learning,
especially with the Ahmadiya movement. eloquence, spiritual fervour and personality
Arya Samaj is considered to be a revivalist gathered round him a band of followers across
movement. Dayananda’s influence continued the country, many of whom also joined the
into the twentieth century through the national movement. He attended in 1893 the
establishment of Dayananad Anglo Vedic famous, ‘Parliament of Religions’ at Chicago,
(DAV) schools and colleges. and made a deep impact on those congregated
there. The Mission opened schools, dispensaries
Ramakrishna Mission (1897) and orphanages and helped people during their
As we saw above, the early reform time of distress caused by calamities.
movements in Bengal were radical, questioning Swami Vivekananda was a personification
and criticising tradition very strongly. In of youth and boldness and referred to as the
response to this emerged the Ramakrishna Morning Star of the Modern India. In the
Mission as an important religious movement. words of Valentine Chirol, ‘the first Hindu
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886), a whose personality won demonstrative
poor priest in a temple at Dakshineswar near recognition abroad for India’s ancient
Kolkata, had no formal education but led an civilization and for her newborn claim to
intense spiritual life. He had a deep faith in nationhood.’
the inherent truth of all religions and tested
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 Theosophical Society (1875) life-long struggle against upper caste tyranny. In
Even as Indian intellectuals felt challenged his quest for the truth, Phule read the Vedas, the
by western Enlightenment and rationalistic Manu Samhita, the Puranas, and the thought
movements, there was a strain of thinking of Buddha, Mahavira and the medieval Bhakti
in the West which looked to the East for saints extensively. He also acquainted himself
spiritual salvation. From this idea emerged the with Western thought, and Christian and Islamic
Theosophical Society, founded by Madam H.P. religions. Phule judged the whole culture and
Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott in the United tradition through the spirit of rationality and
States of America in 1875. They came to India equality. While the principle of equality called
in 1879 and established their headquarters for a total rejection of caste system, authoritarian
at Adyar in 1882. Under the leadership of family structure and subordination of women,
Annie Besant, who came to India in 1893, the the principle of rationality demanded the
Theosophical Society gathered strength and removal of superstitions and ritualism.
won many adherents. The Theosophical Society Phule held radical views on social, religious,
started associations across south India. Though political and economic issues. He considered the
involved in many controversies, the Society caste system as an antithesis of the principle of
played an important role in the revival of human equality. He sought to raise the morale
Buddhism in India. Iyotheethoss Pandithar, the of the non-Brahmins and united them to revolt
radical Dalit thinker, was introduced to modern against the centuries old inequality and social
Buddhism through his interaction with Colonel degradation. Towards this end Phule founded
Olcott who took him to Sri Lanka. There he met the Satya Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking
many Buddhist monks including the renowned Truth) in 1873. His most important book is
revivalist Anagarika Dharmapala and Acharya Gulamgiri (Slavery).
Sumangala.
Phule looked upon education of the masses
19.2  Satya Shodhak Samaj as a liberating and revolutionary factor.
(1873) Since women and deprived and
downtrodden were the worst sufferers in the
society, Phule argued that women’s liberation
was linked with the liberation of other classes in
society. Equality between classes as also between
men and women was stressed by Phule. During
marriages he asked the bridegroom to promise
the right of education to his bride.
Phule also tried to translate his ideas
into actual struggles. He urged the British
Jyotiba Phule Savitri Phule Government to impart compulsory primary
education to the masses through teachers drawn
While the movements discussed above
from the cultivating classes. He started a school
were largely focussed on upper castes there were
for girls in Poona in 1851 and one for depressed
some exceptional movements which mobilized
classes with the assistance of his wife Savitri. He
lower castes and articulated their perspective.
also started schools for the "untouchables" and
The most important among them was Jyotiba
founded a home for widow’s children.
Phule, who belonged to the Mali (gardener)
community. Born in 1827, he received initial In his work we find the beginnings of
education in a mission school but had to the later day non-Brahman movement of
discontinue it in 1833. Jyotiba Phule waged a Maharashtra.
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 Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) Narayana Guru established the Sri Narayana
Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Yogam in
Pandita Ramabai
1902. The SNDP Yogam took up several issues
was foremost among
such as (i) right of admission to public schools.
the Indian leaders
(ii) recruitment to government services.
who worked for the
(iii) access to roads and entry to temples; and
emancipation of
(iv) political representation. The movement
women. She came
as a whole brought transformative structural
from a learned family
changes such as upward social mobility,
and was a great
shift in traditional distribution of power
scholar of Sanskrit
Pandita Ramabai and a federation of ‘backward classes’ into
and addressed
a large conglomeration. As a response to
many learned groups in different parts of the
the prohibition on Ezhavas into temples, Sri
country. She was given the title of “Pandita”
Narayana Guru established new temples, and
and “Saraswati” for her deep knowledge of
empowered the community to modernize itself.
Sanskrit. After the death of her parents she and
Great personalities such as the poet Kumaran
her brother travelled to different parts of the
Asan Dr. Palpu and Sahodaran Ayyappan
country. They went to Calcutta in 1878. Two
emerged from the movement, and made a
years later her brother also died. A little later
lasting impact in the democratization of Kerala
in 1880 she married a Bengali belonging to a
Society. Even though the Guru himself was not
family of lower social status. Thus, even at that
directly involved in the movement, the Vaikom
time she was bold enough to marry a man of
Satyagraha, organized to protest against the ban
a different caste and different language. After
on the entry of Ezhavas on the temple streets
the death of her husband two years later she
of Vaikom made a deep impact on subsequent
returned to Poona and started the Arya Mahila
temple entry movements.
Samaj with the help of leaders like Ranade and
Bhandarkar. 300 women were educated in the
Samaj in 1882.
19.3  Islamic Reform
Movements
Ramabai started the Sharada Sadan (shelter
for homeless) for the destitute widows with the The Revolt of 1857 and its brutal
help of Ranade and Bhandarkar. But soon she suppression by the British had an adverse
was accused of converting Hindu women to impact on the Muslims of South Asia. While
Christianity and hence had to shift her activities they were viewed with suspicion by the British
to Khedgoan near Poona. She established a Mukti for the 1857 insurgency, the Muslims themselves
Sadan (freedom house) there. Soon there were withdrew into a shell and did not use the
2000 children and women in the house. Vocational opportunities opened up by colonial modernity.
training was given make them self-reliant. Consequently, they lagged behind in education
and attendant employment opportunities. In
Sri Narayana Guru this context, a few decades later some reform
This movement emerged in Kerala and movements emerged among the Muslims.
was born out of conflict between the depressed
Aligarh Movement (1875)
classes and the upper castes. It was started by
Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928) spearheading Aligarh Movement was started by Syed
a social movement of the Ezhavas of Kerala, Ahmad Khan in 1875. He wanted to reconcile
a community of toddy tappers. The Ezhavas Western scientific education with the teachings
were the single largest group in Kerala of the Quran. The Aligarh movement aimed at
constituting 26% of population. A great spreading (i) Modern education among Indian
scholar in Malayalam, Tamil and Sanskrit, Sri Muslims without weakening their allegiance to
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 Islam, and (ii) Social reforms among Muslims established a different trend. While emphasizing
relating to purdah, polygamy, and divorce. the return to the original principles enunciated
in the Quran, Ghulam Ahmed became
Syed’s progressive
controversial when he claimed to be a Messiah,
social ideas were
which was considered heretical by mainstream
propagated through his
Islam. But he won many converts. His primary
magazine Tahdhib-ul-
work was to defend Islam against the polemics of
Akhluq (Improvement
the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
of Manners and
In social morals the Ahmadiya movement was
Morals). Syed Ahmad
conservative, adhering to polygamy, veiling of
Khan’s educational
women, and the classical rules of divorce.
p r o g r a m m e
emphasized from the Syed Ahmad Khan
The Deoband Movement (1866)
outset the advantages of the use of English as the
The Deoband movement was organised by
medium of instruction. In 1864 he founded a
the orthodox section among the Muslim ulemas
Scientific Society of Aligarh for the introduction of
as a revivalist movement with the twin objective
Western sciences through translations into Urdu
of propagating the pure teachings of the Quran
of works on physical sciences. The same year he
and Hadis among Muslims. The movement was
founded a modern school at Ghazipur. In 1868 he
established in Deoband in Saranpur district (by
promoted the formation of education committees
Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1833-1877) and
in several districts, to initiate modern education
Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828–1905) to train
among the Muslims.
religious leaders for the Muslim community.
During his visit to Europe in 1869–70 he In contrast to the Aligarh Movement, which
developed the plans of his life-work, a major aimed at the welfare of Muslims through
educational institution for Indian Muslims. In Western education and support of the
order to promote English education among British Government, the aim of the Deoband
the Muslims, he founded in 1875 a modern Movement was religious regeneration of the
school at Aligarh, which soon developed into Muslim community. The instruction imparted at
the Muhammdan Anglo–Oriental College Deoband adhered to classical Islamic tradition.
(1877). This college was to become the Muslim
The seminary at Deoband was founded
University after his death. It became the nursery
in 1867 by theologians of the School of Wali-
of Muslim political and intellectual leaders.
Allah. Muhammad Qasim Nanotavi took a
In 1886 Syed Ahmad Khan founded the prominent part in counter-polemics against the
Muhammedan Anglo Oriental Educational Christian missionaries and the Arya Samajists.
Conference as a general forum for spreading The principal objectives of the seminary at
liberal ideas among the Indian Muslims. He Deoband were to re-establish contact between
rejected blind adherence to religious law and the theologians and the educated Muslim
asked for a reinterpretation of the Quran in the middle classes, and to revive the study of Muslim
light of reason to suit the new trends of the time. religious and scholastic sciences. As a religious
He attempted to liberalize Indian Islam and made university Deoband soon became an honoured
it amenable to new ideas and new interpretations. institution, not only in Muslim India but also in
In this mission he had to face the brunt of the world of Islam at large.
vehement attacks of orthodox theologians.
Nadwat al-‘ulama
Ahmadiya Movement (1889) A school less conservative than Deoband
The Ahmadiya movement founded by and more responsive to the demands of the
Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835–1908) in 1889 modern age was the Nadwat al-‘ulama,’ founded
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 in 1894 at Lucknow by the historian Shibli progressive ideas of the nineteenth century. The
Nu‘mani and other scholars. The school aimed Singh Sabha Movement was formed in 1873,
to offer an enlightened interpretation of religion with a two-fold objective (i) to make available
in order to fight the trends of agnosticism and modern western education to the Silkhs (ii) to
atheism which had followed the advent of counter the proselytizing activities of Christian
modern Western education. missionaries as well as Hindu revivalists. A
network of Khalsa Schools was established
Farangi Mahal
throughout Punjab. The Akali movement was
The third famous traditional school is the an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement.
much older one at Farangi Mahal in Lucknow. The Akali movement aimed at liberating the
Farangi Mahal accepted Sufism as a valid Sikh Gurudwara from the corrupt control of
experience and a valid field of study. Another the Udasi Mahants (priests). The Government
traditionalist movement was the ahl-i-hadith or passed the Sikh Gurudwara Act in 1922
of the followers of the dicta of the Prophet. (amended in 1925), which gave control to
19.4  Parsi Reform Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee
(SGPC) as the main body.
Movements
Zoroastrians, persecuted in their Persian 19.6  Reform Movements in
homeland, migrated in large numbers to the Tamilnadu
west coast of India in the tenth century. As a
As we saw earlier, the reform movements
trading community they flourished over the
of the north India had its own impact on
centuries. A close-knit community it too was
Tamilnadu. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj had
not left untouched by the reform movements of
their branches. Keshab Chandra Sen visited
the nineteenth century.
Madras and lectured here. But Tamilnadu also
The Rahnumai Madayasnan Sabha saw its own reform movements.
(Religious Reform Association) was founded
in 1851 by a group of English educated Parsis Ramalinga Swamigal (Vallalar)
for the “regeneration of the social conditions of (1823–1874)
the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian Ramalinga
religion to its pristine purity”. The movement Swamigal was born in
had Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, a modest family near
K. R. Cama and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders. Chidambaram and
The message of reform was spread by the spent his early life
newspaper Rast-Goftar (Truth Teller). Parsi in Madras. He never
religious rituals and practices were reformed had formal schooling,
and the Parsi creed redefined. In the social but exhibited great
sphere, attempts were made to uplift the status scholarship. Inspired
of Parsi women through education, removal of by the Saiva Thevaram Ramalinga Adigal
the purdah, raising the age of marriage and the and Thiruvasagam
like. Gradually, the Parsis emerged as the most hymns, he began to compose moving poems
westernised section of the Indian society. They on his own. In his time, Saiva religion was in
played a key role in the nationalist movement the grip of Saiva monasteries such as those
and in the industrialization of India. at Thiruvaduthurai, Dharumapuram and
Thiruppanandal. Ramalinga Swamigal’s poems
19.5  Sikh Reform Movement
expressed radical ideas and condemned
The Sikh community could not remain bigotry and irrationality. He underwent certain
untouched by the rising tide of rationalist and mystical experiences which he expressed in
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 his poems. This was resented due to their opposition to Vedic Brahminism.
by the orthodox elements in He re-read classical Tamil and other texts
Saiva religion. He established to make his case. He also encouraged the
the Sathya Dharma Salai at conversion to Buddhism. He found the greatest
Vadalur where he began to following in north Tamilnadu and among the
feed poor people, especially in working classes of the Kolar Gold Fields. In this
the context of the 1860s famine movement, M. Singavelu and Prof P. Lakshmi
and pestilence, irrespective of caste and creed. Narasu also played an important role. Pandithar
He founded the Sathya Gnana Sabhai to organize ran a weekly journal called Oru Paisa Tamilan
his followers. This brought him into conflict (later Tamilan) from 1908 until his death.
with established Saivite orders, and matters
came to a head when his followers published his
poems under the title of Thiruvarutpa (Songs 19.7 Christian Missionaries
of Grace) in 1867. Orthodox Saivites under
the Sri Lankan reformer Arumuga Navalar The official religious policy of the East
criticized this as blasphemous and launched a India Company was one of neutrality towards
tract war. But ultimately, Ramalinga Swamigal’s the native religions. Their reason for continuing
contribution was recognized and his writings this policy was the belief that the earlier
inspired universal ideas, and undermined Portuguese rule had come to an end because
sectarianism in Saiva religion. of their attempts to forcibly convert people to
Christianity. As a result of this concern, the
Buddhist Revivalism and Company government prohibited the entry of
Iyotheethoss Pandithar missionaries into the territories under their
(1845-1914) control.
As we saw in In 1793 two English missionaries, William
an earlier lesson, Carey and John Thomas, both Baptists, set
Buddhism had been out to India with the intention of starting a
practically wiped out mission. In view of the ban on missionary
in the Tamil country activity they settled down in the Danish Colony
by the beginning of Serampore, north of Calcutta. Carey, along
of the second with two other missionaries, Joshua Marshman
millennium. Towards and William Ward established the Serampore
the end of the Mission in 1799.
nineteenth century, Iyotheethoss Pandithar The Serampore missionaries were the
there was a revival
first evangelical Baptist missionaries in India.
of Buddhism. The publication of the complete
They were followed later by other missionary
edition of Jeevaka Chintamani (1887) and
groups belonging to different Protestant
Manimekalai (1898) were landmarks in the
denominations. Before the arrival of the
recovery of heterodox traditions.
Serampore missionaries, several centuries
But the most important figure was earlier, there were Christian missions in the
Iyotheethoss Pandithar (1845–1914). A native Portuguese territory of Goa, and also on the
doctor by profession, he was an erudite scholar. Malabar Coast and the Coromandel Coast.
He also came under the influence of Colonel The work of the earlier missionaries was
Olcott of the Theosophical Society. In the 1890s limited both geographically and in terms of
he began a movement among the Adi Dravidars the number of conversions to Christianity.
arguing that they were the original Buddhists Thus major attempts at proselytization began
who had been consigned to ‘untouchability’ during the nineteenth century.
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 The missionaries organised schools for to interpret the scriptures, and simplification
the socially and economically deprived and of rituals made worship a more personal
pleaded for their economic improvement experience. The movements emphasised the
through employment in the state service. human intellect’s capacity to reason and think.
They also fought for their ‘civil rights’ By weeding out corrupt elements in religious
that included access to public roads, and practices, the reformers enabled their followers
permission for the women of these groups to counter the official taunt that their religions
to wear upper garments. and society were decadent and inferior. It gave
the rising middle classes the much needed
The missionaries gave shelter to orphaned
cultural roots to cling to.
children and other destitute widows in their
missions and provided education for them in their    SUMMARY
boarding schools. Particularly after the famines
which were quite common during the nineteenth „„ The role played by Rammohan Roy, and
century, about which we discussed in the previous Keshab Chandra Sen in Brahmo Samaj are
lesson, the missionaries organized relief. Providing discussed.
shelter and succour gave these an opportunity „„ Arya Samaj established by Dayananda
to convert people to Christianity. In Tirunelveli Saraswati, and the Ramakrishna Mission
district many villages took to Christianity during founded by Swami Vivekananda are dealt with.
famines, especially in the last quarter of nineteenth „„ Aligarh, Ahmadiya, and Deoband movements
century. The same phenomenon was witnessed for reforming Islamic community are
in Andhra where Malas and Madigas embraced explained.
Christianity in a big way. „„ Parsi, Sikh reform movements as well as the
work of Theosophical society are described.
The Company government did little to
„„ Services rendered by Christian missionaries
provide modern education for the native
are analysed.
population. For a long time, the provision
„„The social reform movements represented
of elementary school facilities to the native
by Jyotiba Phule, Pandita Ramabai
population, especially in the interiors for
and Narayana Guru and by Ramalinga
the disprivileged and the poor people, was
Adigaland Iyotheethoss Pandithar in
a responsibility willingly accepted by the
Tamilnadu are highlighted.
Christian missionaries. It must be noted that
the Christian Missionaries took the intiative of
establishing Hospitals and Dispensaries. EXERCISE

19.8 S
 ignificance of the Q.R.Code
Reform Movements I. C
 hoose the correct
The orthodox sections of the society answer
could not accept the scientific and ideological 1. ____________ was the first province, where
onslaught of the socio-religious reformers. As a several ideas of reforms originated.
result of this, the reformers were subjected to
(a) Punjab (b) Bengal (c) Bombay (d) Madras
abuse, persecution, issuing of fatwas and even
assassination attempts by the reactionaries. 2. “The Father of Indian Renaissance” was ____.
However, in spite of opposition, these (a) Swami Vivekananda
movements contributed towards liberation of the (b) Dayananda Saraswathi
individual from the conformity born out of fear.
The translation of religious texts into vernacular (c) Raja Rammohan Roy
languages, emphasis on an individual’s right (d) Atmaram Pandurang
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 3. The National Social Conference was organized 10. 
The aim of the ____________ was the
at the initiative of ____________. religious regeneration of the Muslim
(a) M. G. Ranade community.
(b) Devendranath Tagore (a) Deoband Movement
(c) Keshab Chandra Sen (b) Ahmadiya Movement
(d) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (c) Aligarh Movement
4. “Back to the Vedas” was the motto of _______. (d) Wahhabi Movement
(a) Raja Rammohan Roy 11. Find out the correct statement
(b) Dayananda Saraswathi
(a) Dr. Atmaram Pandurang founded the
(c) Vivekananda Shuddi Movement.
(d) Ramakrishina Paramahamsa (b) Sathya Dharma Salai was established by
5. ____________ expounded his views in short Ramalinga Adigal.
stories and admirable parables.
(c) The founder of Ramakrishna Mission
(a) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
(b) Devendranath Tagore
(d) The Ahmadiyas have common mosque
(c) Vivekananda for prayer.
(d) Jyotiba Phule 12. A
 ssertion (A): Syed Ahmad Khan founded a
6. The Weekly Journal "Oru Paisa" Tamilan was modern school at Aligarh, which developed
run by ____________. into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental
(a) Swami Vivekananda College.
(b) Dayananda Saraswathi   Reason (R): He wanted to promote English
(c) Ramalinga Adigal education among the Muslims.
(d) Iyotheethoss Pandithar (a) A is correct ; R is the correct explanation
7. The Theosophical Society was founded in of A
____. (b) A is wrong ; R is correct
(a) India (b) United States of America (c) Both A and R are wrong
(c) France (d) England
(d) 
A is correct; R is not the correct
8. ____________ was the adherent of Brahmo explanation of A
Samaj in Tamilnadu.
13. Match the following
(a) Ramalinga Adigal
(A) English
(b) Kasi Viswanatha Mudaliar
Missionaries - 1. Morning Star
(c) Iyotheethoss Pandithar
(B) Parsi Newspaper - 2. William Carvey
(d) Pandita Ramabai
& John Thomas
9. Syed Ahmad Khan founded a ____________
(C) Deoband movement - 3. Rast-Goftar
for the introduction of Western Sciences.
(a) Satya Shodak Samaj (D) Vivekananda - 4. Mohammad
Qasim Nanotavi
(b) Singh Sabha Movement
(c) Scientific Society (a) 3, 2, 1, 4 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4
(d) Theosophical Society (c) 2, 3, 4, 1 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3
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 II. Write brief answers 2. Prepare an account of the essence of
Swami Vivekananda’s Chicago lecture.
1. 
What are the contributions of Raja
Rammohan Roy to social reform? Assignments
2. What role did Jyotiba Phule play for social 1. Make a visit to the institutions established
justice ? by the Ramakrishna Mission and write a
3. Why was the Shuddi Movement considered report on its services
a revivalist movement ? 2. Prepare an album by collecting pictures of
4. Describe the contribution of SNDP Yogam. various social reformers and identify the
5. 
What do you know about Ramalinga institutions they founded.
Adigal?
III. Write short answers REFERENCES BOOKS
1. M.G Ranade
1. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of
2. Swami Vivekananda
Modernity, Stanford University Press, 1990
3. Ahmadiya Movement
2. D.P. Chattopadhyaya, History of Science,
4. Singh Sabha Movement Philosophy and Culture in Indian
Civilization, Vol.III, Pearson Longman,
IV. Answer the following in detail
2008.
1. 
Discuss the role played by Christian
3. A.L. Basham, A Cultural History of India,
missionaries in India.
OUP, 1975.
2. Highlight the Social Reform Movement in
4. C.B. Firth, Church History in India, 1960.
Tamilnadu.
5. Meghnad Desai, The Rediscovery of India,
Activity Allen Lane (Penguin), 2009.
1. 
Collect information on the current 6. Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar, Women
activities of the Theosophical Society at and Social Reform in Modern India: A
Adyar. Reader, Indiana University Press, 2008.

GLOSSARY

vicious circle continuing unpleasant situation த�ொடர் சிக்கல்

erudite scholarly புலமைமிக்க
decry denounce openly கண்டனக்குரல் எழுப்பு
iconoclast a critic of image worship உருவ வழிபாட்டை எதிர்ப்பவர்
skepticism disbelief ஐயம்; அவநம்பிக்கை
one who is indifferent to religion or
agnosticism existence of god கடவுள் பற்றி அக்கறையற்றவர்
a strong verbal or written attack on
polemics someone or something எதிர்வாதம்
a ruling by a recognized authority இஸ்லாமிய சட்டத்தின்
fatwa according to Islamic law அடிப்படையிலான தீர்ப்பு

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 TIME LINE 1 unit = 10 years

Important Events of Indian History (1500-1900)

1500

1505 - Foundation of Thuluva dynasty

1509 - Coronation of Krishna Devaraya

1510

1518 - Rise of Deccan Sultanates (split of Bahmani Kingdom)

1520

1526 - Battle of Panipat I

1527 - Battle of Khanwa

1528 - Battle of Chanderi

1530
1529 - Battle of Ghagra / Death of Krishna Devaraya
1530 - Death of Babur

1539 - Battle of Chausa

1540 1540 - Battle of Kanauj

1545 - Death of Sher Shah

1550

1556 - Battle of Panipat II

1560

1565 - Battle of Talikota

1570
1573 - Conquest of Gujarat by Akbar

1576 - Battle of Haldighati

1580
1582 - Din Ilahi

1590

1600
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 1600

1605 - Death of Akbar

1608 - Birth of Tukaram

1610

1616 - Danish East India Company Created

1620

1623 - Amboyna Massacre

1627 - Birth of Shivaji

1630

1640

1646 - Shivaji captured the fortress of Torna

1650

1660
1664 - Attack of Shivaji on Surat
1665 - Treaty of Purandar
1669 - Jat Rebellion

1670 1670 - Attack of Shivaji on Surat

1674 - Coronation of Shivaji

1680 1680 - Death of Shivaji

1684 - Madras became a Presidency

1686 - Bijapur annexed by Aurangzeb
1687 - Golkonda annexed by Aurangzeb
1690

1700
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 1700

1707 - Death of Aurangzeb

1710

1720

1730
1731 - Treaty of Warna

1740

1746 - First Carnatic War begins

1749 - Second Carnatic War begins / Battle of Ambur

1750

1756 - Third Carnatic War begins

1757 - Battle of Plassey
1760 - Battle of Wandiwash / Battle of Udgir
1760
1761 - Battle of Panipat III

1764 - Battle of Buxar

1769 - Treaty of Madras

1770

1773 - Regulating Act

1775 - First Anglo-Maratha War begins
1780 - Second Mysore War begins

1780 1782 - Death of Haider Ali / Treaty of Salbai

1783 - Treaty of Paris

1784 - Treaty of Mangalore / Pitt India Act

1790

1793 - Permanent Settlement

1799 - Serampore Mission

1800
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 1800
1801 - South Indian Rebellion
1803 - Second Anglo-Maratha War begins

1806 - Vellore Revolt

1810

1817 - Treaty of Poona / Third Anglo-Maratha War begins

1820 1822 - Ryotwari System

1823 - Birth of Ramalinga Swamigal

1828 - Brahmo Samaj

1829 - Sati Abolition Act
1830
1832 - Death of Serfoji II

1840

1845 - Birth of Iyotheethoss Pandithar

1850

1853 - First Railway Line (India)

1857 - Great Rebellion / University of Madras
1858 - Queen Victoria Proclamation
1860

1867 - Prarthana Samaj

1870

1873 - Satya Shodhak Samaj

1875 - Arya Samaj / Aligarh Movement / Theosophical Society
1876-78 - Madras Famine

1880

1890

1897 - Ramakrishna Mission

1900
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 embellished அழகு படுத்து
GLOSSARY empathetic மற்றவர் உணர்வினை மதித்தல்
endorsement ஒப்புதல்
accountable ப�ொறுப்புள்ள ensued பின்பு ஏற்பட்ட
acculturation பிற பண்பாடு ஏற்றல் epithet அடைம�ொழி
accumulated சேர்த்த eponymous பெயருக்குரிய
acrimonious கசப்பான esoteric மெய்யறிவு உள்ளவர்களுக்காக
adduced சான்றாகக் காண்பித்தல் espousing ஆதரித்தல்
adversary விர�ோதி evasiveness தட்டிக் கழிக்கின்ற
adzes மரக் கைப்பிடி க�ொண்ட உளி ப�ோன்ற exalted உயர்ந்த
கருவி exorbitant மிகவும் அதிகமான
agate உயர் வகை கல் extoll புகழ்கின்ற
agnosticism கடவுள் பற்றி அக்கறையற்றவர்
exuberance உயிர்ப்புமிக்க
allegiance விசுவாசம் erudite புலமைமிக்க
amalgamate இணை facade முகப்பு
anathema வெறுக்கத்தகுந்ததாக குதிரைக்கு லாடமடிப்பவர்
farrier
anointment உயர்பதவியில் அமர்த்தும் ப�ோது இஸ்லாமிய சட்டத்தின் அடிப்படையிலான
செய்யப்படும் சமயச்சடங்கு fatwa தீர்ப்பு
antithetical முரண்பட்ட நிலப்பிரபுத்துவ முறைப்படி
feudatories உருவாக்கப்பட்ட சிற்றரசர்கள்
ascribed சார்ந்தது
bard பாணர் flintlock கற்பொறி மூலம் இயங்கும் துப்பாக்கி
belittle சிறுமைப்படுத்துதல் forsaking கைவிடப்பட்டதற்காக
belligerent policy தீவிரமாகப் ப�ோரிடும் க�ொள்கை frugality சிக்கனமான
bhikshu ப�ௌத்தத் துறவி garrison க�ோட்டைக் காவற்படை
booty ப�ோரின் மூலம் gazelle ஒரு வகை அழகிய மான்
க�ொள்ளையடிக்கப்பட்டவை genealogy வம்சாவளி / குடிவழி
breach மீறு goblet க�ோப்பை
bustling பரபரப்பான திருத்தொண்டர் வாழ்க்கை பற்றிய
hagiographical புராணங்கள்
carnelian அணிகலன்களில் பதிக்கும் சிவப்பு நிறக்
கல்வகை hegemony மேலாதிக்கம்
ceded விட்டுக் க�ொடுத்தல் heretics வைதீகத்திற்கு எதிரான
chauvinism குறுகிய ந�ோக்குடைய தேசியவாதம் heterodox அவைதீக
circa ஏறத்தாழ hewn செதுக்கப்பட்ட
த�ொப்பியின் மீது பதவியைக் குறிக்கும்
cockade homogeneity ஓரினத்தன்மை
ரிப்பன் அல்லது துணிக் குஞ்சம் உருவ வழிபாட்டை எதிர்ப்பவர்
iconoclast
coercion கட்டாயப்படுத்துதல் immolate தீப் பாய்தல்
coffer கருவூலம் impregnable தகர்க்க முடியாத
collision ம�ோதல் incessant இடையறாத
commemoration க�ொண்டாட்டம் inciting தூண்டும்
conciliatory இணக்கத்தை ஏற்கும் incursion ஊடுருவல்
conglomerated கூழாங்கற்கள் மற்றும் சரளைக் ingenuity புத்திகூர்மை
கற்களாலான பாறை ingots உல�ோக வார்ப்பிரும்புக் கட்டி
connotation அர்த்தம்/ப�ொருள் inpursuance செயல்படுத்தும் விதமாக
consensus கருத்தொருமித்த
கூட்டுச் சதி insignia சிறப்புரிமைச் சின்னம்
conspiracy கிளர்ச்சி
insurrection
contemplating சிந்தனை செய்தல் interregnum இடைப்படு காலம்
contemptible வெறுக்கத்தக்க intrigue சூழ்ச்சி, சதி
contingent இராணுவப் பிரிவு
intuitive உள்ளுணர்வு
corroborate உறுதிபடுத்து
க�ோபுர வடிவக் குவிமாடம் investiture சடங்குகள் செய்து பதவியில் அமர்த்துதல்
cupolas வெல்லமுடியாத
invincibility
daunting ஊக்கம் இழக்கத்தக்க irked த�ொல்லைக்கு ஆளான
decry கண்டனக்குரல் எழுப்பு
அழிந்துேபாதல் Jasper மஞ்சள், சிவப்பு, பழுப்பு நிறம் க�ொண்ட
devastated
கல் வகை
devoured விழுங்குதல் மர ஆபரணப் ப�ொருள்
lacqueware
dissension கருத்து வேற்றுமை legume தாவர குடும்ப வகை (அவரை வகை)
doab இரு நதிகளுக்கிடையில் காணப்படும் lentil துவரை வகை
செழுமையான நிலப்பகுதி
க�ொடுமையான levant கிழக்கு மத்தியத் தரைக்கடல் பகுதி
draconian
ecclesiastical
lexicographer அகராதி தயாரிப்பவர்
திருச்சபை தலைவர்
head lineage பரம்பரை
ecstatic பேரானந்த / அநுபூதி நிலை metamorphosis உருமாற்றம்
edifice கட்டடம்/மாளிகை magnum opus தலைசிறந்த கலை படைப்பு
elude தப்பிச்செல் manoeuvring சூழ்ச்சி
emanating வெளிவருகின்ற mercantile வணிகம் சார்ந்த
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 moat அகழி ransack சூறையாடு
mundane issue அன்றாட வாழ்க்கைப் பிரச்சனை ravage சேதப்படுத்து
munificence க�ொடை; வள்ளன்மை reckon கணக்கிடு
negate செயல்படாததாக்கு refrain தவிர்
reeler சிட்டத்தில் நூல் நூற்பவர்
Nilgai சிறு க�ொம்புடைய மான் வகை
relentless விட்டுக்கொடுக்காத
nomenclature ப�ொருள்களின் பெயரிடும் முறை
revamped திருத்தியமைக்கப்பட்ட
numismatic நாணயங்கள் பற்றி படிப்பது
scalpel அறுவைக் கத்தி
oblation காணிக்கை ; ஆகுதி
obnoxious க�ோபமூட்டும் scepticism அவநம்பிக்கை
paramount ஒப்புயர்வற்ற schism பிளவு
parleys பேச்சு வார்த்தை நடத்துதல் scuffle சண்டை
patronise ஆதரி shipwright கப்பல் கட்டுபவர்
pedagogy கற்பிக்கும் கலை shun தவிர்
skepticism ஐயம்; அவநம்பிக்கை
perpetual எப்போதும் நிலைத்திருக்கும்
pervade பரவு slain க�ொல்
pervasiveness எங்கும் நிறைந்ததாக; நீக்கமற நிறைந்த smother நசுக்கு அல்லது அடக்கு
pillage சூறையாடுதல் solidarity ஒற்றுமை
polemics எதிர்வாதம் spouted vessel நீண்ட மூக்குடைய பாத்திரம்
political turmoil அரசியல் அமைதியின்ைம squabble சச்சரவு
stranded கைவிடப்பட்ட
preceptor ஆசிரியர் /ஆசான் / குரு
preeminent புகழ்வாய்ந்த stratified வர்க்க அடிப்படையில் அமைக்கப்பட்ட
pre-empt நடப்பதற்குமுன் தடுத்து நிறுத்துவது sublimate புனிதமாக்கு; விழுமியதாக்கு
syncretism கலாச்சாரப் பரிமாற்றம்
primogeniture மூத்த மகனுக்கு மட்டுமே வாரிசுரிமை
என்ற க�ோட்பாடு துர�ோகத்தனமான, நம்பிக்கை ம�ோசம்
traitorous செய்கிற
proliferated பல்கிப் பெருகி
proselytizing மதமாற்ற முயற்சி treacherous துர�ோக
truncated எண்ணிக்கை குறைந்த
protagonist முன்னெடுப்பவர்
protracted நெடிய vanquished வெல்லப்பட்ட
punitive தண்டிக்கிற venerated வணங்குதற்குரிய
vicious circle த�ொடர் சிக்கல்
quartz பல்நிறம் க�ொண்ட விலை குறைந்த
மணிக்கல் பீரங்கிகளின் ஒரே நேரத்தில் குண்டு
volley வீச்சு
quinquennial ஐந்தாண்டிற்கு ஒருமுறை நிகழும்
ravage சூறையாடு vouch உறுதிப்படுத்து

Illustration Credits
State Department of Archaeology, www.paleophilatelie.eu/description/ https://wikitech.wikimedia.org
Tamilnadu stamps/nepal_2015.html Google Art Project
Chennai Museum https://www.thehistoryhub.com/ metmuseum
Archaeology Survey of India mehrgarh-facts-pictures.htm Prince_of_Wales_museum
Tamil Virtual Academy pinterest.com www. himalayanacademy.com
Tamil University, Thanjavur www.tes.com www.historydiscussion.net
Kerala Council for Historical http: heidicon.ub.uni-heidelberg.de Rod Hudson UK
Research http://paadunar.blogspot.in Prof. y.subbarayalu
British Museum padmad.org Prof. R.G. Bednarik
British Library www.talkativeman.com V.N. Misra
Ulaga Tamil Sangam, Conference www.cngcoins.com Dorian Fuller
Magazines www.thefamouspeople.com Dr.K.Rajan, Prof & head Department
http://www.tamilnadutourism.org www.quora.com of Archaelogy, Pondichery University
en.wikipedia.org www.numisbids.com K.T.Gandhirajan
commons.wikimedia.org Coinindia.com K.Sasikala
www.wikiwand.com www.numismall.com R.K Lakshimi
harappa.com http.historicalleys.blogspot.in Dr.P.J.Cherian and Kerala
whc.unesco.org immersedimmersed.blogspot.in Council for Historical Research
www.frontline.in Department of State Archaeology, M. Kenoyer et al. (1983), ‹An
https://colnect.com/en Tamilnadu Upper Palaeolithic Shrine in India›,
breedingback.blogspot.in www.wikipedia.org Antiquity
https://www.flickr.com https://commons.wikimedia.org

Glossary 315

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 Higher Secondary – Class XI – History
List of Authors and Reviewers
Chairperson Academic & Subject Co-ordinators
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy Tmt. B. Eswari
Professor Deputy Director
Madras Institute of Development Studies SCERT, Chennai
Chennai. P. Suresh
P.G. Asst. in History
Co-chairperson GGHSS, Attur
Dr. K.A. Manikumar Salem District.
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History Dr. K. Suresh
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University B.T. Asst.,
Tirunelveli. Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS
Chennai.

Reviewers Dr. S. Ananthakrishnan Tmt. Meera M QR Code Team

Prof. Y.S. Subbarayalu Associate Professor PGT, DRBCCC Hindu HSS
Dept. of History Tiruvallur R. Jaganathan
Professor (Rtd.) S. Albert Valavan Babu
Department of Epigraphy A.M.Jain College, Chennai
Dr. K. Suresh M. Murugesan
Tamil University, Thanjavur Dr. Venkataramanujam R B.T.Asst., Kumara Rajah
Dr. Surendar Rao Associate Professor Muthiah HSS, Chennai Layout
Former Head, Dept of History Department of History
S. Rajeswari Arockiam Felix
Mangalore University Madras Christian College
B.T. Asst. (History) Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Mangala Gangothri Tambaram
GHSS, Nellikkuppam S. Ashok Kumar
Dr. K. R. Sankaran Kanchipuram Pechimuthu
Dr. Kesavan Veluthat
Associate Professor Jerald wilson
Professor (Retired) Cynthia Jude
Dept. of History, AVC College Adaikalam Stephen
Dept. of History Asst. Professor, Dept. of History
Mayiladuthurai, Nagapattinam Prasanth
University of Delhi Stella Mary’s College, Chennai
Dr. Kanakalatha Mukund Dr. D. Abul Fazal
G. Satheeshkumar
Artist
Professor (Retired) Asst. Professor, Dept. of History
P.G. Asst. (History) K.T. Gandhi Rajan
Centre for Economic and Social Islamiah College
GBHSS, Musiri, Trichy S.V.Gokula Krishnan
Studies, Hyderabad Vaniyambadi, Vellore
Deepak Raj
P. Vedapureesan
Dr. S. Ravichandran Dr. Murugan J
P.G. Asst. (History), GHSS Wrapper Design
Associate Professor of History Asst. Professor, Dept. of History
Azhiyur, Nagapattinam
(Retd.) Rajapalayam Rajus’ Arignar Anna Govt Arts College Kathir Arumugam
College. Rajapalayam Attur, Salem D. Muthu
P.G. Asst. (History), GHSS In-House QC
Prof. Y.S. Subbarayalu
Lesson Writers Professor (Rtd.)
Ladavaram, Thiruvannamalai
Rajesh Thangappan
Dr. K.A. Manikumar Department of Epigraphy A. Sahaya Sini Jerald Wilson
Professor (Retired), Tamil University Thanjavur B.T. Asst. (History) Arun Kamaraj Palanisamy
Dept. of History GHSS, Nemmeli
Dr. Bernard D Samy
Manonmaniam Sundaranar Kancheepuram Typist
Research Centre,
University, Tirunelveli D. Alphonsa Mary
Loyola College, Chennai. ICT
Dr. Kanakalatha Mukund St. Anne’s TTI, Chennai
Dr. Thangam Thiru. D. Nagaraj
Professor (Retired) Parimala
Associate Professor of History B.T.Asst., History,
Centre for Economic and Social DIET, Perundurai, Erode
STC, Palayamkottai. Govt. Hr. Sec. School
Studies, Hyderabad
Rappusal, Pudukottai
Dr. T.S. Rajeswari Content Providers / Readers Co-ordinator
Former Head, Dept. of History R.Kamesh
Thiru. M. Appannasamy Ramesh Munisamy
APC Mahalakshmi College SGT Govt.Primary School
Advisor, TNTB & ESC, Chennai
Thoothukudi Pinjanur, Cuddalore
Tmt. Geetha J
Dr. V. Selva Kumar A.Saranya
PGT, Prince Mat. HSS
Associate Professor SGT, PUP School
Madipakkam, Chennai
Dept. of Maritime History and Sellathapalayam, Erode
Marine Archaeology Tmt. Jeyasree R
Tamil University, Thanjavur PGT, Prince Mat. HSS This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Madipakkam, Chennai Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:

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