The Route

to Measurement Transducers
A Guide to the Use of the HBM K Series
Foil Strain Gages and Accessories

F
 The Route
to Measurement Transducers

A Guide to the Use of the HBM K Se-

ries Foil Strain Gages and Accessories

Published by:
Hottinger Brüel & Kjaer GmbH, Darmstadt, Germany
All rights reserved.

© Hottinger Brüel & Kjaer GmbH, 2023

Copying and transmission of whole or part of the text,

drawings or illustrations as well as all forms of storage
are prohibited, except with prior permission in writing
by the publisher.

Printed in Germany
Contents

1 Introduction 7

2 Measurement transducers and SG—two inseparable terms 8

3 The Route to the Measurement Transducer 10

3.1 The design concept of the elastic element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.1.1 Force transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1.2 Torque transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.1.1.3 Pressure transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1.1.4 Practical considerations concerning elastic element geometry . . . . . 23
3.1.2 Choice of material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.3 Determination of the SG installation position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.3.1 Strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.3.2 Balancing and compensation elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.3.3 Practical considerations concerning determination of the installation
position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 The choice of strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.2 Connection configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.3 Measuring grid length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.4 SG resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.5 Temperature compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.6 Creep compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.6.1 The creep effect in loaded spring materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.6.2 Creep in strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.6.3 The compensation effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.6.4 The choice of creep compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.7 Carrier dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.8 Practical considerations concerning the choice of SG . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 The SG installation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.1 SG installation of the strain gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.2 SG installation of the balancing and compensation elements . . . . . . 39
3.3.3 SG installation of the soldering points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.4 Practical considerations concerning installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6 Contents

3.4 The circuit arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.4.1 Wiring materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.1.1 Soldering points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4.1.2 Cables and lead wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.2 Practical considerations concerning wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.2.1 Notes on soldering the connections to open faced SG’s with integral
solder pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Balancing and compensation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.1 The balancing and compensation elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5.2 Setting the resistance values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5.3 Compensation of a temperature error in the Wheatstone bridge circuit
(temperature compensation of the zero point) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5.3.1 Practical considerations concerning temperature compensation of zero
point in the Wheatstone bridge circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5.4 Correcting an unbalance in the Wheatstone bridge (bridge or zero
balance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.4.1 Practical considerations concerning correction of an unbalance in the
Wheatstone bridge circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.5.5 Compensation of the temperature dependence of the sensitivity of
the transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.5.5.1 Practical considerations concerning compensation of the temperature
dependence of sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.5.6 Balancing the sensitivity of the transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.6 Measures to protect the SG installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4 Bibliography 77
1 Introduction

With their K series of foil strain gages and accessories, HBM offers vital components to
enable experienced users of strain gages to design and construct quality transducers,
in-house, for electrical measurement of mechanical quantities. In doing so the user
will benefit from HBM’s many years of experience as manufacturers of not only high-
precision transducers but also high quality strain gages.
In addition to the hardware mentioned above, this booklet is intended to provide the
necessary theoretical and practical information needed to most effectively use these
elements in manufacture of transducers. It is not, however, intended to replace the
recognized technical literature dealing with strength of materials and SG technology,
nor to replace the instructions for the use of individual components.
The requirement for force, torque and pressure transducers to be made in-house
is usually the result of very special measurement problems or installation circum-
stances which make it appear to be difficult or maybe impossible to utilize standard
commercially available transducers: In many cases certain specific requirements
take precedence over accuracy. Moreover, the supposed deadline frequently leaves
insufficient time in which to obtain special designs from established transducer sup-
pliers.
However, in spite of all these arguments, it should still be appreciated that transducer
design and construction often calls for more know-how, development work and, not
least, production and testing capacity than is often assumed. This applies particularly
where the aim is to produce transducers with errors of less than 1 %, or where relevant
regulations necessitate very accurate and highly reproducible measurements.
Any decision to be made between using a bought-out unit or one made in-house
must, therefore, always be based upon a realistic estimate of one’s own capabilities
in relation to the requirements and expected results.
6
2 Measurement transducers and SG—two
2 Measurement transducers and SG −
inseparable terms
two inseparable terms

The transducers dealt with here consists of two primary elements, namely, the
The transducers dealt with here consists of two primary elements, namely, the elastic
elastic element and the strain gage. The elastic elements will deform in re
element and the strain gage. The elastic elements will deform in response to changes
sponse to changes in the measured variable. This deformation will be con
in the measured variable. This deformation will be converted into an electrical signal
verted into an electrical signal proportional to the value of the measured vari
proportional to the value of the measured variable by the strain gages (SG) installed
able bysurface
to the the strain gages
of the (SG)
elastic installed
element, to the
usually surfaceinofthe
connected the elastic
form element,
of a Wheatstone
usually
bridge connected infurther
(Fig. 2.1). For the form of a Wheatstone
information on the SGbridge (Fig.2.1).
principle For further
refer to items [1] to [4]
information on the SG principle refer to items [1] to [4] in the Bibliography.
in the Bibliography.

å1 (+) (−) å4
å3
å 1(longitudinal, positive)

UO
UB
90°

å4 å 2(transverse, negative)
å2 (−) (+) å3

UB = Bridge excitation voltage

UO = Bridge output voltage

UO k
+ @ (å 1 * å 2 ) å 3 * å 4) (1)
UB 4

Fig.2.1: Schematic diagram and basic circuit of a device for measuring force
Fig. 2.1: Schematic diagram and basic circuit of a device for measuring force
Transducers employing this principle are used in large numbers in all
branches of industry and in research, where they cover a wide range of in
Transducers
stallations employingmeasurement
in electrical this principle are used in largequantities.
of mechanical numbers inThisall branches
dominant of
industry and in research, where they cover a wide range of installations in
position could be achieved because the strain gage principle (metallic resist electrical
ance SG) combines a number of advantages that virtually predestine its incor
poration in measurement transducers. The most important of these advan
tages are listed below:

HBM
 Measurement transducers and SG—two inseparable terms 9

measurement of mechanical quantities. This dominant position could be achieved

because the strain gage principle (metallic resistance SG) combines a number of
advantages that virtually predestine its incorporation in measurement transducers.
The most important of these advantages are listed below:
– The excellent linearity, hysteresis and reproducibility of the SG in conjunction
with the Wheatstone bridge circuit and its compensation capability allows high
measurement accuracies to be achieved.
– Forces and variables which can result in changes in force can be measured in both
positive and negative directions (determination of positive and negative strain).
– Static and dynamic processes can be monitored.
– The negligible mass of the SG permits very high limit frequencies of the measured
quantity.
– The good fatigue characteristics of the SG ensure a long life under alternating loads.
– Despite the comparatively simple design concept, the limits of its installation and
the load capacity range are very wide. There is no theoretical upper limit for large
rated loads. The lower limit is defined by the mechanics of the system, and lies
around 0.1 kg. The strain gage itself has no response threshold.
– SG transducers, properly designed to meet the intended installation, are notable
for their high long-term stability.
– Strain gages and thus transducers operating on this principle can be used over a
wide temperature range.
– The photochemical processes employed to manufacture modern foil SG’s allow
individual tailoring to the needs of the specific measurement problem, and the
related measuring element.
– The small dimensions of the SG assist in the current search for constantly smaller
size.
– The wide freedom of choice in relation to associated amplifiers allows considerable
flexibility.
The following information is intended to ensure that these advantages can also benefit
the design of custom-made transducers.
3 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

Should you decide to build your own transducers, we recommend that you proceed in
the following sequence. In addition to the necessary theoretical aspects, this booklet
explains the individual steps on the basis of a simple but clearly illustrative example.
The practical considerations relate to an “example transducer” incorporating the
knowledge derived from each preceding chapter.

3.1 The design concept of the elastic element

The term “elastic element” for the stressed part already indicates an important
property. The deformation must be purely elastic, i.e., it must remain within the range
of Hooke’s Law. Any permanent set in the elastic element will render it unsuitable
for the intended installation. This aspect must govern the geometry, dimensioning
and the choice of materials.

3.1.1 Geometry

The prime factor governing the geometry of the elastic element is the nature of
the variable to be measured, as well as its magnitude and direction. Important
properties of the transducer, such as good linearity, low hysteresis and low creep are
also significantly affected by the geometry of the elastic element. SG transducers
are suitable not only for measuring forces, although attention is primarily given
to variables which can be related to force, e.g., mass, bending moment, torque,
pressure, vibration and acceleration. The basic forms of elastic elements suitable for
measurement of such variables are shown in Fig. 3.1.
 The design concept of the elastic element 11
9

F F
a) Tension rod
a) b)
b) Compression strut

F
c) Bending beam

F
d) Shear beam

MD

e) Torsion shaft

p
f) Hollow shaft

g) Diaphragm
p

Fig.3.1: Schematic arrangement of the most important basic forms of elastic

element for SG transducers
Fig. 3.1: Schematic arrangement of the most important basic forms of elastic element for SG
transducers
To achieve the greatest possible sensitivity relative to the measured variable,
a full bridge with four active SG arms should be built up wherever possible
To achieve
(see the.greatest
Fig.2.1) possiblethe
Consequently sensitivity
geometry relative
of thetoelastic
the measured
elementvariable,
must bea full
bridgethat
such with four active
zones SG arms
subjected shouldand
to tensile be built up wherever
compressive possible
stresses to (see Fig.the
which 2.1) .
Consequently
strain gages arethe installed
geometrymust
of thereact
elasticsimultaneously
element must be in such that zones
response to ansubjected
in
to tensile and compressive stresses to which the strain gages are installed
stalled load. The stress distribution in these zones must, as far as possible, must react
be
simultaneously in response to an installed load. The stress distribution in these zones
uniform.
must, as far as possible, be uniform.
A series of transducer designs can be derived from the basic forms of the
A serieselement,
elastic of transducer designs
depending canthe
upon be derived from the basicAforms
actual requirements. numberof the elastic
of exam
element,
ples dependinginupon
are discussed the actual
the following requirements. A number of examples are
sections.
discussed in the following sections.

3.1.1.1 Force transducers

3.1.1.1 Force transducers
Fig.3.2 already clearly shows that practical transducers are usually much
more complex
Fig. 3.2 already than
clearlythe basicthat
shows forms first illustrated.
practical transducersThe elastic much
are usually member in com-
more
these variants
plex than consists
the basic formsof first
a thick circular rod
illustrated. Thewith a reduced
elastic membercrosssection in
in these variants
the middle.
consists of aThis
thickcrosssection
circular rod withmust be selected
a reduced in relation
cross-section to middle.
in the the nominal load
This cross-
section must be selected in relation to the nominal load and the desired sensitivity.
Its length and radiused transition to the larger cross-section ensure uniform stress
HBM
10
12 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
and the desired sensitivity. Its length and radiused transition to the larger
crosssection ensure uniform stress distribution in the region of the SG. The
crosssection
distribution inof the
the endsofisthe
region dimensioned significantly
SG. The cross-section oflarger so that
the ends they de
is dimensioned
form as littlelarger
significantly as possible, and deform
so that they so do not noticeably
as little contribute
as possible, and soto
dothe
notdisplace
noticeably
ment under load.
contribute to the displacement under load.

a) b)

Fig.3.2: Example of the mechanical design of a transducer

a) for compression loads
Fig. 3.2: Example of the mechanical design of a transducer. a) for compression loads, b) for
b) for tensile loads (also usable for compression loads)
tensile loads (also usable for compression loads)

They must also be of adequate dimensions to accommodate the thread by

which the tensile
They must also be loads are introduced
of adequate dimensions(Fig.3.2b).
to accommodate A strong the housing
thread bysupports
which the
the elastic
tensile loadselement against(Fig.
are introduced lateral forces
3.2 b). andhousing
A strong hermetically
supports seals it against
the elastic the
element
external environment.
against lateral forces and Protection against
hermetically sealslateral forces
it against theis external
necessary to prevent
environment.
Protection against
overloading of the lateral forces iselement,
measuring necessaryand to prevent over-loading
to maintain of the measuring
the accuracy of mea
element, and
surement. Toto maintain
prevent thethe accuracy
housing of measurement.
from To prevent thebyhousing
affecting measurements froma
providing
affecting
force measurements
bypass, by providing
it is terminated at onea end
forcewith
bypass,
twoitseriesconnected
is terminated at one end with
dia
two series-connected
phragms which are "soft" diaphragms whichmeasuring
in the force are “soft” in the forcebut
direction measuring direction
transversely are
but transversely are stiff. The column-form of elastic element
stiff. The columnform of elastic element for force transducers as shown in for force transducers
as shown
Fig.3.2 in Fig.
can 3.2 can
be used forbe used for measurements
measurements in the range
in the nominal nominal kN/1t10
10range tokN/1 t
to 10 MN/1000
1MN/1000 t. Fig. 3.3
t. Fig.3.3 showsaamodified
shows modified column
column form.form.TheTheH-shaped
Hshaped cross-section
cross
provides the element with a considerably greater bending
section provides the element with a considerably greater bending section section modulus, and mo
thus
better and
dulus, resistance to lateral
thus better forces than
resistance a uniform
to lateral cylinder.
forces than a It uniform
is therefore possible
cylinder. to
It is
dispense with the supporting function of the housing and
therefore possible to dispense with the supporting function of the housing and is sufficient to design it as
isa protective
sufficient to casing.
design The SG’s
it as a are mounted
protective on theThe
casing. horizontal
SG’s are web of the H-section,
mounted on the
horizontal web of the Hsection, since at that point − near the bending minimal
since at that point—near the bending neutral axis—they are exposed to neutral
stressing
axis − theybyare
transverse
exposed forces.
to minimal stressing by transverse forces.

HBM
 The design concept of the elastic element 13 11
11

Abb.3.3: Force
Fig.3.3: Kraftaufnehmer
transducersmit with Abb.3.4
Fig.3.4 Kraftaufnehmer
Force transducers mit with
Hförmigem
Fig. 3.3: Force Hshaped
transducers Querschnitt
cross section
with hohlzylindrischem
hollowwith
Fig. 3.4: Force transducers cylindrical
hollow
H-shaped crossfordestheFederkörpers
section for the elastic
elastic element Federkörper
cylindrical elastic element
elastic element
element
Eine andere Konstruktion zeigt die Abb.3.4. Der Hohlzylinder besitzt ähnlich
Another form of construction is shown in Fig.3.4. Similarly to the Hshaped
dem Hförmigen
Another form Querschnitt
of construction einingroßes BiegeWiderstandsmoment, cross-so dass
crosssection, the hollow iscylinder
shown Fig. 3.4.
has Similarly
a large to the section
bending H-shapedmodulus, so
ihn Seitenkräfte
section, nur wenig
the hollow cylinder has abeanspruchen.
large bending sectionDie DMSInstallation
modulus, so that it isistonly
im Innern
that it isaffected
slightly
only slightly affectedThe
by lateral
by lateral forces. Theprotected
SG installation is well pro
des Hohlzylinders gutforces.
geschützt,SGein installation
besonderes is wellSchutzgehäusewithin erübrigt
the
tected
hollow within the hollow cylinder, socasing
that is
a unnecessary.
special protective
This type casing is unnec
sich.cylinder,
Diese Art so that
vona special protective
Federkörper bietet sich für Nennmessbereiche of elastic
in der
essary.
element isThis
Größenordnung type
suitable forof elastic
nominal
von etwa element
measuring is tsuitable
ranges
100 KN/10 in the
bis forofnominal
order
1 MN/100 100 kN/10
t an. measuring
t to 1 MN/ ranges
100
in t. order of 100 kN/10 t to 1 MN/100 t.
the
In In vielen
many casesFällen treten
problems ariseProbleme auf,is weil
because there der verfügbare
insufficient Einbauraum
headroom available in the in der
In Höhe
manybegrenzt
cases problems
ist.compels
Man ist arise because
deshalb there is insufficient
gezwungen, Federkörperformen headroom avail
installation space. This the designer to select low-profile elastic elements.zu wäh
ablelen,indie
However, the installation
eine
simple niedrigere
flat space.
discs are Bauweise
not This because
suitable compels
ermöglichen. the Einfache
a uniformdesigner to select
flache
stress condition lowprofile
Scheiben
cannot sind
elastic
bejedoch elements.
ungeeignet,
achieved—even onHowever,
theweil
most simplebei
− precisely
selbst flatpräzisester
discsforce
machined are installation
not suitable
Bearbeitung because
der
surfaces. Yet a uni
Krafteinlei
form
this stress
state condition
is a pre-requisite
tungsflächen cannot
for bemeasurements,
accurate
− ein homogener achieved − even
Spannungszustand since allon the
that
nichtcanmost precisely
be measured
erreicht ma
werden kann.
is the
chined strain on the surface
forceistinstallation
Das aber of the elastic
surfaces. für
eine Voraussetzung element, whereas
Yetausreichend the
this state isgenaue effective
a prerequisite strain
Messungen, is
for accurate
denn
irregularly distributed
es kann nur diesince
measurements, through-out
Dehnung the
an can
all that entire
den be volume.
MantelflächenNow,
measured is if the
des strain on
theZylinders the surface
strain onerfasst werden,
the surface of
is proportional to the mean value, the measurement will be correct. The tubular
the während sich die wirksame
elastic element, whereasDehnungthe effectiveungleichmäßig über das distributed
strain is irregularly gesamte
elastic element in Fig. 3.5 satisfies these requirements more closely than a disc.
Volumen verteilt.
throughout the entireNur volume.
wenn dieNow, Dehnungif theder Mantelfläche
strain on the surface dem Durchschnitts
is proportional
to the mean value, the measurement will be correct. The tubularDer
wert proportional ist, liefert die Messung ein korrektes Ergebnis. rohrför
elastic ele
ment in Fig.3.5 satisfies these requirements more closely than a disc.

HBM

HBM
12
12
mige Federkörper in Abb.3.5 erfüllt diese Bedingungen wesentlich besser als
14 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
eine
migeScheibe.
Federkörper in Abb.3.5 erfüllt diese Bedingungen wesentlich besser als
eine Scheibe.

Abb.3.5: Rohrförmiger Federkörper

Abb.3.5: Rohrförmiger Federkörper
Fig. 3.5: Tubular elastic element
Will man kleine und kleinste Kraftbereiche messen, dann scheidet die direkte
Werkstoffbelastung
Will man kleine und durch Normalkräfte
kleinste Kraftbereichemeistens
messen, aus. Manscheidet
dann braucht,dieumdirekte
einen
vorgegebenen
WerkstoffbelastungNennkennwert
durch
If one wishes to measure der
in small Empfindlichkeit
Normalkräfte meistens
to micro force zu
aus.
ranges, erreichen,
Man
then eine
thebraucht,
method umbe einen
of directly
stimmte Oberflächendehnung
vorgegebenen Nennkennwert des
der Federkörpers.
Empfindlichkeit Dazu bei der Verringerung
erreichen, eine be
stressing the material by normal forces is generally not suitable. To obtain a specifieddes
Querschnitts
stimmte und der
sensitivity weAuswahl
nominal Oberflächendehnung von Federkörpers.
des
need a certain Werkstoffen
surface strainmitDa
kleinerem
on bei
the der EModul
Verringerung
elastic element.Gren
des
Since
zen gesetzt
Querschnitts sind,
there are limitsund muss nach
dersmall
with Auswahl Alternativen gesucht
von Werkstoffen
cross-sections and themit werden.
kleinerem
choice Hier bietet
EModul
of materials sich
a die
withGrenlow
Kraftübersetzung
zen gesetzt sind, mittels
muss Hebelarm,
nach also
Alternativen das Biegemoment,
gesucht werden. an.
Hier Einen
bietet
Young’s modulus, alternatives must be found. One method is to make use of a lever Biege
sich die
balken
arm and einfachster
Kraftübersetzung Art bending
measure mittels
the zeigt diemoment.
Abb.3.6.
Hebelarm, alsoAdas
veryBiegemoment,
simple form ofan. Einen beam
bending Biegeis
balken
shown ineinfachster
Fig. 3.6. Art zeigt die Abb.3.6.

Abb.3.6: Einfacher Biegebalken

Abb.3.6: Einfacher Biegebalken
Sein Messsignal ist freilich dem Biegemoment proportional. Will man Biege
Fig. 3.6:zur
stäbe Simple bending beam
Kraftmessung verwenden, dann mussproportional.
für einen definierten
Sein Messsignal ist freilich dem Biegemoment Will man und
Biege
unveränderlichen Krafteinleitungspunkt gesorgt werden, damit
stäbe zur Kraftmessung verwenden, dann muss für einen definierten und die Hebellänge
konstant bleibt. Hinzu
unveränderlichen
In this arrangement thekommt der Winkelversatz
Krafteinleitungspunkt
measurement gesorgt
signal durch
werden,
is clearly diedamit
nichtdie
proportional parallele
to Hebellänge
the bending
konstant bleibt. Hinzu kommt der Winkelversatz durch die nicht
moment. If we wish to use bending beams to measure forces we must provide parallele
a defined and unalterable point at which to introduce the force; in this way the
HBM
effective length of the lever remains constant. Another factor is the angular offset
HBM
due to the non-parallel lowering of the force installation point. This phenomenon
can only be countered through an additional force feedback system. Because of
 13

Absenkung der Lasteinleitung. Dieser The design concept of

Erscheinung the nur
kann elastic element
durch eine 15
zusätzliche Kraftrückführung begegnet werden. Dieser Umstände wegen sind
die einfachen
these Biegebalken
circumstances relativ selten
simple bending beamszuarefinden. Um dennoch
encountered only ondie Vorteile
relatively rare
des Biegebalkenprinzips, wie z.B. sehr gute Linearität zu nutzen, kann man
occasions. To nevertheless exploit the advantages of the bending beam principle, e.g.,
auf
theireine
veryder zahlreichen
good Modifikationen
linearity, we zurückgreifen.
can consider various Die Abb.3.7
arrangements. Fig. 3.7zeigt drei
illustrates
gebräuchliche Formen.
three common forms.

Abb.3.7: Vom Biegebalken abgeleitete FederkörperModifikationen

Fig. 3.7: Elastic elements arranged to form bending beams
Die linke Version zeigt am deutlichsten die Verwandtschaft mit dem Biegebal
ken. Würde man aus den drei verschiedenen FederkörperFormen Aufnehmer
mit
Thejeweils
left-handgleichem MessbereichsNennwert
version shows und gleichem
most clearly the relationship NennKennwert
with the bending beam. If
der Empfindlichkeit
we were to constructherstellen,
from the threeso hätte der linke
different formsden größten
of elastic Federweg
element und
transducers
der
withrechte dennominal
the same kleinsten. Dieand
value beithe
dersame
rechten Ausführung
nominal stehen
sensitivity, thengelassenen
the left-hand
Ecken
one woulddienen weniger
have der durchaus
the greatest gegebenen
displacement and theeinfacheren
right-hand one Herstellung,
the least. sie
The
versteifen vor allem
square corners showndie onzur
theDehnungsmessung
right-hand model will nicht benutzten
obviously Partien
simplify des
production,
Rings,
but willwodurch sich der
serve primarily Federweg
to stiffen those vermindert und
sections of the dienot
ring Eigenfrequenz
used to measure des
strain,
Aufnehmers erhöht.
so that the displacement is reduced and the natural frequency of the transducer is
raised.
Messkörperformen dieser und ähnlicher Bauart können für NennMessberei
Elastic
che vonelements
ca. 500ofkN/50
this and similar
t bis construction
herunter zu 5000can be used
N/500 for nominalwerden.
kg eingesetzt ratings from
500 kN / 50 t down to 5000 N / 500 kg
Die in der Abb.3.7 gezeichneten Zapfen an den Krafteinleitungsstellen3.7 must
approx. . The end sections shown in Fig.
be designed
müssen demtovorgegebenen
suit the specified purpose (tensile or compressive
Verwendungszweck gemäß gestaltetload).sein (Zug
oder Druckkraft).
For still smaller measuring ranges of down to less than 100 N/10 kg elastic elements
have developed, which use the double bending beam principle. Fig. 3.8 shows a
Für noch kleinere Messbereiche bis unter 100 N/10 kg haben sich Federkör
number of typical designs.
performen herausgebildet, die nach dem Prinzip des DoppelBiegebalkens
arbeiten.
Due to its Die
highAbb.3.8
resistancezeigt einigemoments
to bending charakteristische Ausführungen.
and torsion, the double bending beam
is less sensitive to disturbance resulting, e.g., from incorrect installation of loads. In
addition, it exhibits significantly better guidance properties than the simple bending
beam. This design achieves virtually parallel lowering of the load installation point,
with almost no angular offset, without resorting to force feedback.
HBM
14
16 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

Abb.3.8: Verschiedene Formen des DoppelBiegebalkens

Fig. 3.8: Different forms of the double bending beam

Der DoppelBiegebalken reagiert aufgrund seines hohen Widerstands
moments gegen Biegung und Torsion weniger empfindlich auf Störgrößen, die
z.B. durchdesign
A further Fehlbelastungen
possibility forhervorgerufen
force measurementwerden.
is toDarüber
make usehinaus zeigt
of shear er
stresses.
gegenüber
Shear stresses dem EinfachBiegebalken
occur in pure form, e.g., wesentlich
in a torsion,bessere Führungseigen
shaft. The resultant principal
schaften. Zur Realisierung einer weitgehend parallelen Absenkung
stresses and principal strains occur at ±45° to the shear load plane with deropposite
Last
einleitung,
signs. Variousnahezu
versionsohne Winkelversatz,
of shear beams arebedarf
used toes hier keiner
measure zusätzlichen
forces. The principle is
Kraftrückführung.
explained in Fig. 3.9. As a result of the mutually superimposed shear and bending
stresses, the resultant direction of the principal stress/principal strain alters according
Eine
to theweitere
ratio ofMöglichkeit der Federkörpergestaltung
shear to bending stress, and thus also withzur
theKraftmessung
distance to theeröffnet
neutral
die Nutzung der Scherspannungen. Scherspannungen treten in reiner
axis. The principal strains are consequently only properly measured when the SG’s, Form
z.B. bei einer
installed tordierten
at ±45° Welle
, lie directly auf.
on the Die davon
neutral abhängigen
axis. Because of theHauptnormalspan
change in area of the
nungen und Hauptnormaldehnungen
SG, this is only achieved approximately. treten unter "45° zur Scherungsebene
mit entgegengesetzten Vorzeichen auf. Zur Kraftmessung verwendet man den
auf Scherung beanspruchten Balken in verschiedenen Versionen. Das Prinzip

HBM
 15

stress, and thus also with the distance to the neutral axis. The principal strains
are consequently only properly measured when the SG’s, installed at "45°,
lie directly on the neutral axis. Because of the change in area of the SG, this
The design concept of the elastic element 17
is only achieved approximately.

Stress profile on jib beam:

Bending sB
sB max

Shear t
tmax
a) over the length b) over the
å2 = 0 crosssection
sB = pos. max å1 = max
t=0

MB F F MB
å2
sB = 0
| å 1| = | å 2|
neutral
t = max 45° axis

sB = neg. max å2 = max

t=0
å1 = 0

Fig.3.9: The directions of the principal strains å1 and å2 along a crosssection

Fig. 3.9: The line with superimposed
directions of the principal bending
strains 𝜖 and
and 𝜖shear
1 alongstresses
a cross-section line with super-
2
imposed bending and shear stresses
An improvement can be achieved when, at the specified shear stress, we
keep the bending stress as small as possible. That is to say, we must distrib
An improvement
ute can be
the crosssection achieved
defined for when,
a given atshear
the specified shear
stress so thatstress, we keep
the beam the
is pro
bending
vided stress
with as small possible
the greatest as possible. That is to
resistance to say, we must
bending, e.g.,distribute the cross-
the Isection as
section defined for a given shear stress so that the beam is provided
shown in Fig.3.10. In this way the bending stresses will be so small in relationwith the greatest
possible
to resistance
the shear stressesto bending,
that, theire.g., theon
effect I-section
overallasstrain
shown in Fig. 3.10.
(principal In this
strains) inway
the
the bending stresses will be so
region of the SG becomes negligible.small in relation to the shear stresses that, their effect
on overall strain (principal strains) in the region of the SG becomes negligible.
The particular advantage of such an elastic element is that the force installation point
HBM
can wander anywhere along the along the beam’s longitudinal axis without adversely
affecting the measurement result. This contrasts with the simple bending beam
shown in Fig. 3.6.
dass der Balken ein möglichst großes BiegeWiderstandsmoment bekommt,
beispielsweise den IQuerschnitt, wie in Abb.3.10 dargestellt. Dadurch
werden die Biegespannungen im Verhältnis zu den Scherspannungen so
klein, dass ihr Einfluss auf die Gesamtdehnung (Hauptdehnungen) im Bereich
18 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
der DMS vernachlässigbar wird.

1 2
2 1
sB

2 1
1 2

sB

Abb.3.10: Beispiel für einen Scherstab mit IProfil im Messquerschnitt

Fig. 3.10: Example of a shear beam with I-profile in the measuring section
Der besondere Vorteil solcher Federkörper liegt darin, dass der Kraftangriffs
punkt beliebig an der Längsachse des Balkens entlang wandern kann, ohne
nachteiligen Einfluss auf das Messergebnis. Dies im Gegensatz zum einfa
3.1.1.2 Torque transducer
chen Biegebalken nach Abb.3.6.
As in force transducers, torque transducers need suitable elastic elements to convert
the torque into a surface strain which can be detected with SG’s. The simplest form
of elastic element is a cylindrical shaft, as shown in Fig. 3.11. In this case the strain
gages are mounted in the directions of the principal strains 𝜖1 , 𝜖2 acting at ±45° to
the shear plane and to the axis respectively. As already shown in Fig. 2.1 and taking a
HBM
force transducer as an example, a complete Wheatstone bridge consisting of 4 active
SG’s on the elastic element provides, on the one hand a larger measurement signal
and on the other compensation capabilities. If we mount the SG’s in pairs on opposite
sides of the shaft, the superimposed bending stresses will compensate each other
both in the X-Y plane and in the X-Z plane. In the same way normal stresses along
the X-axis are also compensated.
einerseits zu einem vergrößerten Messsignal und andererseits zur Kompen
sation von Störgrößen. Bringt man die DMS paarweise auf gegenüberliegen
den Seiten der Welle an, dann kompensieren sich überlagerte Biegebean
spruchungen, und zwar sowohl in der XYEbene als auch in der XZEbene.
Desgleichen werden Normalbeanspruchungen in Richtung der XAchse
The design concept of the elastic element 19
kompensiert.

å1 Y
Md Md

45°
X Z
45°

å2

Abb.3.11: Federkörper des Wellentyps als voller Kreiszylinder

Fig. 3.11: Elastic element in the form of a cylindrical shaft

Bei kleinen Drehmomenten wird die volle Welle entweder zu starr und damit
der Aufnehmer zu unempfindlich, oder sie wird unzulässig nachgiebig gegen
über Biegebeanspruchungen.
For small torques the solid shaft isEine Grenze
either lässt
too rigid andsich kaum
so not festlegen,
sufficiently weil for
sensitive
mehrere Parameter in Betracht zu ziehen sind, wie z.B. die Länge der
the transducer, or is unacceptably sensitive to bending loads. It is hardly possible Welle,to
die
set angekoppelten Massen,
a limit because several Erschütterungen
parameters während des
must be considered, suchBetriebs und of the
as the length
dergleichen. Hier masses,
shaft, the coupled bietet sich als during
shocks Ausweg zunächst
running, die Hohlwelle
and similar nachsolution is
factors. One
Abb.3.12 an, beishaft
to use the hollow der das Verhältnis
illustrated in Fig.Biegewiderstandsmoment zu polarem
3.12 in which the ratio of bending moment
Widerstandsmoment günstiger
resistance to polar section ist als
modulus bei der
is more vollen Welle.
favorable than inDie
the Anordnung der
solid shaft. The
18
DMS erfolgt in
arrangement ofder
the gleichen
SG’s is theWeise wieforbei
same as theder vollen
solid shaft.Welle.

HBM

Abb.3.12: Federkörper des WellenTyps als Hohlzylinder

Fig. 3.12: Elastic element in the form of a hollow cylinder

Ähnlich wie bei den Kraftaufnehmern muss man bei den Drehmomentaufneh
mern durch geeignete Federkörperformen dafür sorgen, dass auch kleine
Drehmomente ein nochcare
As in force transducers, ausreichend
must be takengroßes Messsignal
through suitable erzeugen. Dieser
elastic element shapes
Forderung müssen
to ensure that torquevor allem Aufnehmer
transducers für denaindustriellen
can still generate Einsatz
sufficiently large genü
measurement
gen,
signalweil
for dort
smallmit starken
torque Störeinflüssen
values. aus dem
This requirement mustNetz
beoder auf den
satisfied Signal in
particularly
übertragungswegen
transducers intendedzu forrechnen
industrialist, diesince
use, das Messsignal
here one must überdecken
expect high oder
levels of
stören können.
interference fromImtheLaborbetrieb
mains poweroder unter
supply anderen
or on günstigen
the signal Bedingungen
transmission paths, which
kann man auch ein kleines Messsignal mit ausreichender Genauigkeit
could swamp or distort the measurement signal. Under laboratory conditions erfasor
sen,
otherdenn Drehmomentaufnehmer
favorable haben,possible
circumstances it is however ebensotowie andere
obtain DMSAufneh
a small measurement
mer, keine Ansprechschwelle.

Die Abb.3.13 zeigt einen käfigähnlichen Federkörper, dessen Messbereich

durch Veränderung der Zahl der Käfigstäbe, der Stababmessungen und des
Werkstoffs variiert werden kann. Hier wird zur Messung des Drehmoments
nicht die Schubbeanspruchung einer Welle ausgenutzt, sondern die Biege
beanspruchung der Käfigstäbe.
Drehmomente ein noch ausreichend großes Messsignal erzeugen. Dieser
Forderung müssen vor allem Aufnehmer für den industriellen Einsatz genü
gen, weil dort mit starken Störeinflüssen aus dem Netz oder auf den Signal
übertragungswegen zu rechnen ist, die das Messsignal überdecken oder
stören können. Im Laborbetrieb oder unter anderen günstigen Bedingungen
20 man
kann The Route
auch einto the Measurement
kleines Messsignal Transducer
mit ausreichender Genauigkeit erfas
sen, denn Drehmomentaufnehmer haben, ebenso wie andere DMSAufneh
mer, keine Ansprechschwelle.
signal with sufficient accuracy because, in common with other SG transducers, torque
transducers
Die Abb.3.13 have no einen
zeigt response threshold. Federkörper, dessen Messbereich
käfigähnlichen
durch Veränderung
Fig. 3.13 der Zahl
shows a cage-like der Käfigstäbe,
elastic element; itsder Stababmessungen
measuring range can beund desby
varied
Werkstoffs
altering the variiert
number werden kann.the
of cage struts, Hier wird
strut zur Messung
dimensions desmaterial.
and the Drehmoments
To measure
nicht die Schubbeanspruchung einer Welle ausgenutzt, sondern die
the torque in this case use is made of the bending stress in the cage struts Biege
and not
beanspruchung der Käfigstäbe.
the shear stress on the shaft.

Abb.3.13: Federkörper des KäfigTyps

Fig. 3.13: Cage-type elastic element

HBM
3.1.1.3 Pressure transducers

Designs of elastic elements in pressure transducers include tubular bodies with

different cross-sections, a choice of which is shown in Fig. 3.14. From the point of
view of SG technology, the flat tube a) is perfect. With positive gage pressure inside
the tube the SG’s on the flat sides are subjected to positive strain, whereas those on
the curvatures are negative. It is therefore possible to add the strain values of all SG’s
in the Wheatstone bridge, thus contributing to higher sensitivity and rendering the
transducer ideal for measuring low pressures.
In contrast, the hollow cylinder form b) is easier to manufacture; in particular, the
interference zones towards the ends of the tube are smaller. Strain distribution
is less favorable. In internally pressurized thin-walled tubular bodies (boilers) the
tangential stress is double that of the axial stress, both being positive. As a result of
this the values of axial and tangential strain subtract, leading to a low sensitivity of
the transducer. Help is obtained by leaving an extension (it can be hollow or solid)
on the closed end of the tube, and using this to mount the two compensation SG’s,
i.e., form b’). In this way losses in sensitivity are avoided. A disadvantage is the
distance between active and compensation SG’s, which can result in temperature
errors caused by compensation delays due to considerable differences in temperature
(e.g., inflow of the medium).
 The design concept of the elastic element 21
19

Compensation SG
b’
Active SG

a b c d

Fig.3.14: Pressure transducers with tubularform elastic elements

a) Flat tube
Fig. 3.14: Pressure transducers with tubular-form elastic elements. a) Flat tube, b) Cylindrical
b) Cylindrical tube
tube, b’) Cylindrical tube with extended end, c) und d) modified tubular forms.
b’) Cylindrical tube with extended end
c) and d) modified tubular forms
Form c) reduces the disadvantages of form b) because its cross-section in the axial
In contrast,
direction the hollow
is greater thancylinder
that of aform b) is
simple easierbody.
tubular to manufacture; in particular,
As a result, the subtracting
the interference zones towards the ends of the tube are smaller.
strain of the axial SG becomes smaller and the resultant measurement effect greater. Strain dis
tribution
The stressispeak
less (stress
favorable. In internally
concentration pressurized
or notch thinwalled
factor) provides tubular
a further bodiesin
increase
(boilers) the tangential stress is double that of the axial stress,
the measurement effect. As all SG’s lie in the same plane, even thermal shocks have both being pos
itive. As a result
no adverse effect.ofThethissame
the values of axial
arguments and
as for tangential
model strain
c) apply subtract,
to model lead
d), except
ing
thattoinathis
lowcase
sensitivity
the axialofcross-section
the transducer. Help
is even is obtained by leaving an exten
larger.
sion (it can be hollow or solid) on the closed end of the tube, and using this to
Transducers
mount the two of the tubular typeSG’s,
compensation are suitable
i.e., formboth
b’)for. Instatic and dynamic
this way losses inpressure
sensi
measurements, so far as the pressure medium cannot
tivity are avoided. A disadvantage is the distance between active and com be compressed and fully
occupies the interior of the transducer. Gaseous media or entrained air bubbles
pensation SG’s, which can result in temperature errors caused by compensa
tend to mask pressure peaks and so restrict the transducer’s suitability for dynamic
tion delays due to considerable differences in temperature (e.g., inflow of the
measurements. In such cases the flush diaphragm transducers without a cavity are
medium).
better suited, if the design of their elastic elements is sufficiently stiff. Fig. 3.15 shows
a schematic
Form diagram
c) reduces theof a transducer ofofthis
disadvantages type
form b) complete
because with diaphragm rosette
its crosssection in the
SG.
axial direction is greater than that of a simple tubular body. As a result, the
subtracting strain of the axial SG becomes smaller and the resultant measure
ment effect greater. The stress peak (stress concentration or notch factor)
provides a further increase in the measurement effect. As all SG’s lie in the
same plane, even thermal shocks have no adverse effect. The same argu

HBM
and fully occupies the interior of the transducer. Gaseous media or entrained
air bubbles tend to mask pressure peaks and so restrict the transducer’s suit
ability for dynamic measurements. In such cases the flush diaphragm trans
ducers without a cavity are better suited, if the design of their elastic elements
is sufficiently stiff. Fig.3.15 shows a schematic diagram of a transducer of this
22 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
type complete with diaphragm rosette SG.

SG

a b c

Fig.3.15: Pressure transducer with flush diaphragm elastic element

a) Sectional
Fig. 3.15: Pressure drawing,
transducer schematic
with flush diaphragm elastic element. a) Sectional drawing,
b) Clamped circular diaphragm
schematic, b) Clamped circular diaphragm, c) Diaphragm rosette SG.
c) Diaphragm rosette SG

The straindistribution
The strain distributionover
overthe
thesurface
surface
of aofclamped
a clamped circular
circular diaphragm
diaphragm is il
is illustrated
lustrated in Fig.3.16.
in Fig. 3.16. 21
The Erörterung
The
Die works
workslisted ininthe
listedaller theBibliography
Bibliography
denkbaren as items [1] and
as items
Aufnehmerformen [1] [2]
and deal
[2] with
würde denthe
deal withdifferent forms
the different
Rahmen dieser
of loading
forms and
Schriftofsprengen, practical
loading and mounting
practical
deshalb of SG’s
mounting
können in
hier nur greater
of einige theoretical
SG’s inwichtige detail.
greater Beispiele
theoreticalgegeben
detail.
werden. So sind z.B.
Since itit would auch andere Messgrößen, die mit der Kraft nicht in
Since would go gowell
wellbeyond
beyondthe thescope
scopeof of
this booklet
this bookletto deal with
to deal all
with imaginable
all imagin
direkter ofBeziehung
formsforms transducer, stehen,
we must messbar,
confine wie z.B. Wege
ourselves (Verlagerungen,
to a few Ab
able of transducer, we must confine ourselves to aoffew
theofmore important
the more im
standsänderungen)
examples. It is possible, undforDehnungen. Man braucht
example, to measure otheraber auchnot
variables dazu geeignete
directly related
portant examples. It is possible, for example, to measure other variables not
Federkörper,
to the force; thesemit denen
include diedisplacements
Messgröße erfasst wird. Auch
(movements, diese
changes Federkörper
in clearance) and
directly related to the force; these include displacements (movements,
benötigen
strains. Butwiederum eine gewisse
this also requires suitableKraft zu elements
elastic ihrer Verformung,
with which dietodem Mesthe
measure
changes in clearance) and strains. But this also requires suitable elastic ele
sobjekt
variables. zu These
entnehmenelastic ist. Ist diese
elements Kraftrequire
in turn nicht verfügbar, dann
a finite force to ist dieses
deform and this
ments with which to measure the variables. These elastic elements in turn re
Verfahren
must be drawn nichtfrom
anwendbar.
the objectEs sindmeasured.
being zwar Aufnehmer möglich,
This technique die mitcannot
therefore sehr be
quire a finite force to deform and this must be drawn from the object being
geringen
used if thisKräften
force isauskommen,
not available.jedoch
Althoughkeine
it iswirklich
possible"kraftlos" messenden
to have transducers which
measured. This technique therefore cannot be used if this force is not avail
operate with very little force, truly “forceless” measuring systems do not exist.
Systeme.
able. Although it is possible to have transducers which operate with very little
force, truly "forceless" measuring systems do not exist.
Z
1 åt/åZ
år/åZ åt/åZ
år/åZ åt
0 år
HBM −1 R
Z

−2
1 0,5 0 0,5 1 r/R
0,577 0,577

Abb.3.16: a) Dehnungsverteilung an einer eingespannten Kreismembran in

radialer (år) und tangentialer (åt) Richtung, Z = Zentrum
Fig. 3.16: Left: Strain distribution on a clamped circular diaphragm in radial (𝜖𝑟 ) and tangential
b) Erläuterung der Symbole des Diagramms a)
(𝜖𝑡 ) direction, Z = center. Right: Explanation of symbols in diagram a).

Die Frage der Dimensionierung stellt sich für alle denkbaren Federkörperfor
men. In Abhängigkeit
The question von dem
of dimensioning verwendeten
arises Werkstoff
for all imaginable sollte
elastic der Federkörper
element forms. The
so dimensioniert
elastic werden,
element should dass sich bei
be dimensioned Nennlasttoeine
according mechanische
the material Dehnung
used, such that a
von ca. 1.000
mechanical mm/m,
strain bzw. 1
of approx. 1000einstellt.
mm/m or Diese Werte haben
1 ‰ respectively sich under
occurs in dernominal
Praxis
bewährt. Sie bieten einen guten Kompromiss zwischen mechanischer Werk
stoffauslastung und optimalem Linearitäts und Hystereseverhalten. Der
Abstand zur Proportionalitätsgrenze der für Federkörper verwendeten Werk
stoffe (auch abhängig vom Härtezustand), diese liegt bei ca. 4...6
Dehnung, bietet ausreichende Sicherheit gegen Überlastung.

Wenn möglich sollen die Federkörper einschließlich der Einspannbereiche

 The design concept of the elastic element 23

load. These values have proven viable in actual practice. They offer a good compro-
mise between material utilization, and optimum linearity and hysteresis performance.
Adequate protection against overloading is offered by the margin from the propor-
tionality limit of the material used in the elastic element (also dependent upon the
material hardness) which lies at approx. 4 ‰ … 6 ‰ strain.
Wherever possible, the elastic element including the clamping areas should be made
from a single piece of material because mechanical joints, such as screws or rivets,
can lead to friction on the contact surfaces and thus to undesirable hysteresis effects.
Even welded joints lead to lower quality results due to their residual stress.
The form and external dimensions of the elastic element are determined to a large
extent by the requirements of the actual installation (circumstances, force introduc-
tion). The final decision in favor of one form or another can thus only be made by
the user.

3.1.1.4 Practical considerations concerning elastic element geometry

As mentioned in the introduction to this section, the use of the “K” series strain gages
with their balancing and compensation elements and other accessories are described
on the basis of a general, practical example. The aim is to use the simplest possible
elastic element, but one which is at the same time most suitable for discussing the
individual areas of interest. The bending beam can best be used to demonstrate the
important steps in transducer manufacture.
Another factor in favor of this elastic element is that it is a familiar element of me-
22
chanics involving simple calculations.

10
Load introduction point
2

approx. 240
Installation position
20

"0.5 "0.5
Clamping area 25 150
Center of strain gage grid
Material: Spring steel strip

Fig.3.17: Sketch for practical consideration of the bending beam principle

Fig. 3.17: Sketch for practical consideration of the bending beam principle
Another factor in favor of this elastic element is that it is a familiar element of
mechanics involving simple calculations.

As is evident from the Section 3.1.1, where a simple bending beam is used as
a transducer, it is particularly important to provide a defined and unalterable
point at which the load is introduced, and thereby to provide a constant lever
length. The elastic element is therefore provided with a center hole at the
point at which the load is to be introduced, e.g., via a pointed plunger.
24 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

As is evident from the Section 3.1.1, where a simple bending beam is used as a
transducer, it is particularly important to provide a defined and unalterable point at
which the load is introduced, and thereby to provide a constant lever length. The
elastic element is therefore provided with a center hole at the point at which the
load is to be introduced, e.g., via a pointed plunger.
The SG’s are later installed 150 mm from the point of installation of the load (relative
to the center of the strain gage grid). This distance corresponds to the effective
length of the lever arm. In order to achieve a defined point of attachment, the
elastic element is clamped in a fixed support with which it effectively forms a solid
unit. This unit, which should be regarded as the actual transducer, also ensures
that the intrinsic load signals of the freely suspended cantilever bending beam itself
are always effectively installed in the same way. In view of these points, problems
specially applicable to this form of elastic element, e.g., changes in the lever arm due
to angular offset will not be handled in greater detail.

3.1.2 Choice of material

The properties of the elastic element and thus of the complete measurement trans-
ducer are very much dependent not only on the type of material used but also on its
geometry.
The following basic requirements apply to the material used for the elastic element.
It must have:
– A fine-grained, homogeneous texture
– High elastic deformability typified by high strength and a high yield point
– Good creep behavior
– Low hysteresis
– Lowest possible temperature coefficient of Young’s modulus
– Good thermal conductivity
By selecting materials with a low Young’s modulus (compared with steel), it is possible,
for a given load and dimensions to achieve a higher level of strain.
The metal alloys listed in Tab. 3.1 have made their mark in transducer construction
and since they fully satisfy the stated requirements, they can be regarded as standard
materials for transducer manufacture.
 The design concept of the elastic element 25

Tab. 3.1: Summary of commonly used elastic element materials and their characteristic values.
Non-metallic materials at present play only a minor role, and are therefore not mentioned
here.
Designa- Material- Young’s Approx. values Thermal Misc.
tion No. modulus temperature expansion
(N/mm2 ) coeff. of coefficient
Young’s 𝛼 (10−6 /K)
modulus
Δ𝐸/Δ𝜗 (10−5 /K)
Spring steel 51CrV4 1.2241 210000 −26 11 rusting
Spring steel X5CrNi 1.4548 207000 −19 11 stainless
CuNb1744
Copper- CuBe2 2.1247 130000 −35 17 —
beryllium
Aluminium AlCuMg2 3.1355 73000 −58 23 —-

3.1.3 Determination of the SG installation position

This aspect is closely related to the geometry of the elastic element as discussed in
the preceding section, and with the choice of SG dealt with later. Inter-relationships
necessitate taking both of these points into consideration at a very early stage.

3.1.3.1 Strain gages

To achieve the maximum possible sensitivity, the SG’s should be installed at the
position where the maximum strain occurs. To fully utilize the advantages of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit, such as signal gain and compensation capability there
should be four active strain gages, two being in tension and two in compression.
[2]
The installation positions most suitable for the commonly used elastic elements in
the previous examples (see Fig. 3.1) are marked in the illustrations and mentioned in
the text.

3.1.3.2 Balancing and compensation elements

As will be mentioned later, balancing and compensation elements can be installed to

the measuring body in the same way as SG’s.
26 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

The choice of position for these elements generally depends upon resolving two
conflicting requirements: On the one hand, the elements should be installed in zones
where strain is at a minimum, so that their electrical resistance does not change in
response to load. This means that they must be installed at great distance from the
area of maximum strain and consequently also from the SG’s. On the other hand, the
elements, whose resistance changes in accordance with temperature, should be close
to the SG or be directly on the elastic element in order to “experience” temperatures
which are as fast as possible the same as those of the SG. In case of doubt, priority
must be given to the temperature requirements, since these elements have only a
very low strain sensitivity.
In addition to the above-mentioned points, care should be taken in respect of the
strain gages and these elements to ensure that the selected installation points result
in a symmetrical circuit with wiring links which are as short as possible and of equal
length. The actual installation surfaces must comply with the general requirements
for installing foil-type SG’s (see Bibliography item [4]). These call for the surfaces to
be smooth and to take into account the minimum permitted radius of curvature of
the strain gages.

3.1.3.3 Practical considerations concerning determination of the installation

position

The diagram in Fig. 3.18 shows the strain distribution over the length of the example
elastic element, with indication of magnitude and sense of strain. From this it can be
seen that two SG’s must be installed to the top and bottom of the elastic element
each as close as possible to the clamping point.
In view of the very simple geometry of the elastic element, there are naturally hardly
any alternative positions for the SG’s. The theoretical requirement to place the SG
as close as possible to the clamping point is hindered by the fact that interference
effects can be induced from the clamp, so that immediately adjacent to the clamping
point, there will be a non-uniform strain field.
3.1.3.3 Practical considerations concerning determination of the
installation position
The diagram in Fig.3.18 shows the strain distribution over the length of the
example elastic element, with indication of magnitude and sense of strain.
From this it can be seen that twoThe
SG’s mustconcept
design be installed
of thetoelastic
the top and bottom
element 27
of the elastic element each as close as possible to the clamping point.

SG F

2
25 150
å

+å

L
−å

Fig.3.18: Strain distribution and SG installation position − a practical example

Fig. 3.18: Strain distribution and SG installation position—a practical example

In view of the very simple geometry of the elastic element, there are naturally
26 any alternative positions for the SG’s. The theoretical requirement to
hardly
place the SG
In addition, aselement
the close asforpossible to thecompensation
temperature clamping point of is
thehindered bymust
zero point the fact
be
that
these interference
problems
close to effects
the SG foryet
thestill can be induced
permitalready
reasons a simple from the
circuit and
discussed. clamp, so
practical
To take that immediately
accountrouting of problems
of these the
adjacent
measurement to thealeads,
yet still permit clamping
simplethe point,
SG
circuit there willposition
installation
and practicalbe a nonuniform
routing is
ofmoved strainfrom
away
the measurementfield.leads,
the the
clamping point.position
SG installation This necessitates
is moved away positioning
from thethe remaining
clamping elements
point. as
This necessitates
In addition,
shown the element
in Fig.3.19. for temperature compensation of the zero point must
positioning the remaining elements as shown in Fig. 3.19.
be close to the SG for the reasons already discussed. To take account of

HBM
150
Zero balance Soldering points Load introduction point

NA1 TN1 SG TC1

Top surface

TK0 compensation TKS compensation

Clamping area Soldering points

SG TC1
Bottom surface

Fig.3.19: Determination of the installation positions

Fig. 3.19: Determination of the installation positions
The resulting effective lever arm of 150mm and consequent mechanical
strain level of approx. 600 mm/m at a nominal load of 1 kg are adequate for
demonstration purposes. The recommended strain of 1000 mm/m occurs with
this elastic element at a nominal load of approx. 2kg, and is not achieved
here because the effective shortening of the lever arm due to flexing would be
relatively large.
28 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

The resulting effective lever arm of 150 mm and consequent mechanical strain level
of approx. 600 µm/m at a nominal load of 1 kg are adequate for demonstration
purposes. The recommended strain of 1000 µm/m occurs with this elastic element
at a nominal load of approx. 2 kg, and is not achieved here because the effective
shortening of the lever arm due to flexing would be relatively large.
q

3.2 The choice of strain gages

The “K” series forms a good basis for the choice of strain gage. These strain gages are
tailored to the specific requirements of transducer construction.

3.2.1 Geometry

The choice of SG geometry must take into account the measurement task and the
form of the elastic element. In this case the term “geometry” is intended to apply
to the actual geometry of the measuring grids, and to their number and relative
positions.
The “K” series SG’s offer a suitable solution for present-day transducer designs.
Tab. 3.2 summarizes the available basic types. The type most suitable for each
measurement task can be selected, dependent upon the particular details of the
installation.

Tab. 3.2: Basic “K” series SG’s and their suitability for different forms of transducer. Informa-
tion and technical data is provided in HBM brochure “strain Gages and Accessories”.
Basic form/Type Designation Application
Linear-SG To detect strains in one direction.
When single SG individually aligned in
direction of principal strain basically
usable for all transducer designs.
Preferably where use of single SG’s is
unavoidable, e.g., on narrow webs.

Linear-SG as above
In special cases, different connection
geometry to the basic form facilitates
the shortest possible and symmetrical
wiring within the bridge.
 The choice of strain gages 29

Basic form/Type Designation Application

Double-SG Specially suitable for simple bending
with parallel mea- beams to measure strains on the top
suring grids and bottom surfaces with positive and
negative strains respectively.
Less expensive, since the half-bridge
can be installed in a single working
step.
SG-rosette Specially suitable for tensile and coin
T-form pression rods. The mutually perpen-
measuring grids at dicular grids measure longitudinal
90° to each other strain(positive signal) and transverse
strain (negative signal).
Less expensive, since the half-bridge
can be installed in a single working
step.
SG-rosette Special for torsion shafts and shear
V-form “Firtree”, beams. The measuring grids are
measuring grids aligned with the direction for prin-
are each at 45° to cipal strain.
axis of symmetry Less expensive, since the half-bridge
can be installed in a single working
step.
Diaphragm rosette Specially designed for diaphragm-type
pressure transducers.
Less expensive, since the full bridge
can be installed in a single working
step.

3.2.2 Connection configuration

All basic types are available with two different connection configurations, namely.

1. Integral ribbon connections with covered measuring grid

2. Integral solder pads with open faced measuring grid

In general, the preferred type is the SG with integral ribbon connections. This version
eliminates soldering on the SG itself, which in spite of the solder flow-stop “islands” is
not without its risks (see Section 3.4.2.1). The cover makes the SG mechanically more
stable and thus less sensitive to handling; moreover, the grid is protected against con-
tamination and damage. Less extensive additional protection measures are required
30 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

depending upon the operating circumstances. A further argument for the covered
SG is its more reproducible creep behavior. This property, described in Section 3.2.6,
is also influenced by the SG covering. Important here is the perfect “bedding” of
the measuring grid. The glass-fiber reinforced cover applied at the factory naturally
offers a more integral and consistent bond than any layer subsequently applied to an
open faced measuring grid.
However, the versions with integral solder pads find their application where space
limitations prohibit the use of separate soldering points. In this case the wiring can
be connected directly onto the integrated solder pads.

3.2.3 Measuring grid length

All SG’s, with the exception of the diaphragm rosettes, are available with measur-
ing grid lengths of 3 and 6 mm. These grid lengths have established themselves in
transducer engineering.
The decision in favor of one or other of the two lengths depends upon the size of
the elastic element and the strain path. When the installation surface permits and
a sufficiently large uniform strain field is available, preference must be given to the
6 mm version. In such a case the strain is integrated over a large area and the effects
of small, localized variations, e.g., inclusion of dirt particles during installation are
reduced. If the transducer is to be operated with input voltages greater than >10 V,
preference should again be given to the larger grid, since the heat generated can be
dissipated over a larger surface area. The 3 mm version should be used where strictly
limited strain fields and small installation surfaces occur. The basic rule is to have the
grid as long as possible, but only as small as necessary.
Diaphragm-type rosettes are available in three different diameters. In this case
the numerical data (in the type designation) refers to the outside diameter of the
full bridge measuring grid. The choice depends upon the diameter of the pressure
transducer diaphragm.

3.2.4 SG resistance

The strain gages in the “K” series have a nominal resistance of 350 Ω. This value has
proven to be a good compromise when constructing transducers. On the one hand
random effects of electrical interference signals should be kept as small as possible,
a fact which calls for a low grid resistance. On the other hand is the need to aim
at a higher resistance to minimize the energy absorbed in the SG, and thus to also
minimize the self heating. In addition, the effects of contact and cable resistances
are reduced.
 The choice of strain gages 31

To cope with circumstances in which the need for minimal energy consumption is the
first priority, e.g., in battery-powered measuring chains, one can obtain special SG’s
with a higher nominal resistance. Alternatively, several SG’s can be wired in series in
one arm of the bridge.

3.2.5 Temperature compensation

Special measures taken during the production of the SG provide for subsequent
automatic compensation of unrestricted thermal expansion in the elastic element
material (“apparent strain”) within a specified temperature range. Strain gages
with this property are called self-temperature compensating SG’s. The K series SG’s
are available with compensation to suit the most frequently used elastic element
materials, these being steel with a thermal expansion coefficient 𝛼 = 10.8 ⋅ 10−6 /K
and aluminium with 𝛼 = 23 ⋅ 10−6 /K.
For other elastic element materials one would select a SG with the temperature
compensation closest to the thermal expansion coefficient of the material concerned.
Special SG’s with other levels of temperature compensation can be produced for such
cases.
Since aluminum is not generally used in diaphragm-type pressure transducers, tem-
perature compensation of the diaphragm rosette is normally confined to steel.

3.2.6 Creep compensation

All spring materials exhibit the phenomena of creep to a greater or lesser extent.
Following a sudden change in load the material will slowly continue to exhibit strain
(positive or negative) for a period of time.
As the choice of material is strictly limited, other measures must be taken to com-
pensate for this effect, or to minimize the error which it generates. Manipulation of
the geometry of the SG grid is one method. Modern foil SG’s provide the possibility
to set the creep behavior of the SG such that it can be used to compensate for the
creep effect in loaded elastic elements, and so to obtain greater accuracy. The view
long expressed in many publications that creep in the SG is a significant disadvantage
is thus not true!
Consequently K series SG’s have an additional special feature over the normal SG:
All types, with the exception of the diaphragm rosette, are available on request with
different creep compensation. Since knowledge of the creep effect in the elastic
elements forms the basis for the choice of creep compensation, we must examine
this subject in more depth.
32 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

3.2.6.1 The creep effect in loaded spring materials

As a basic rule, the elastic elements of transducers must only be stressed in the area
of high elastic deformation. Returning to the example in Fig. 2.1, if a rod is subjected
to a tensile load in its elastic deformation area, it will exhibit spontaneous strain by
an amount defined by Hooke’s Law. When the material relaxes, this spontaneous
strain will be followed by an additional strain which is time-related and asymptotic.
When the load is removed from the rod it will spring back by the amount of the
spontaneous strain under load. What remains is a small residual strain equal to the
time related additional strain, which itself gradually reduces until the rod reverts
to the original state. This is known as the “elastic creep” as opposed to irreversible
32
material creep. Fig. 3.20 illustrates this elastic creep effect.

b
Då

b
Då a = Load curve
0
b = Strain curve
a
Då = Elastic creep effect
0

Fig.3.20: Curve of strain of a component under constant load and after being
completely unloaded
Fig. 3.20: Curve of strain of a component under constant load and after being completely
unloaded
The spontaneous strain of a material is a measure of load both in the case of
stress analysis and when measuring other physical variables involving force
The spontaneous
effects strainbending
(force, weight, of a material
moment,is a measure
torque, of load both
pressure in the case
and like).ofThe
stress
analysiscreep
elastic and when measuring
generates other
a time physical
related variables
positive errorinvolving force effects
(in the direction of de(force,
weight, bending moment, torque,
formation by the measured variable). pressure and the like). The elastic creep gener-
ates a time related positive error (in the direction of deformation by the measured
variable).
3.2.6.2 Creep in strain gages
If3.2.6.2
a SG isCreep
subjected to gages
in strain static strain then, in spite of the constant strain on the
component, it will exhibit a time related change in its resistance. This change
in
If the
a SGmeasurement
is subjected tosignal in a SG
static strain under
then, tension
in spite (orconstant
of the compression) happens
strain on the com-
very slowly ("creeping") and in the direction of "relief". The cause can
ponent, it will exhibit a time related change in its resistance. This change in be found
the
in the purely rheological behavior of the strain transmitting layers of
measurement signal in a SG under tension (or compression) happens very slowly the ad
hesive and the carrier material. The elongated measuring grid acts in a man
ner which is similar to a tensioned spring. The spring tension generates shear
stresses on the contact surfaces between the grid and the carrier, primarily
around the grid end loops. These shear stresses are in addition to the direct
stresses resulting from the strain. Under the influence of these stresses, the
plastics in the SG and adhesive both relax, i.e., the counterforce weakens and
 The choice of strain gages 33

(“creeping”) and in the direction of “relief”. The cause can be found in the purely
rheological behavior of the strain transmitting layers of the adhesive and the carrier
material. The elongated measuring grid acts in a manner which is similar to a ten-
sioned spring. The spring tension generates shear stresses on the contact surfaces
between the grid and the carrier, primarily around the grid end loops. These shear
stresses are in addition to the direct stresses resulting from the strain. Under the
influence of these stresses, the plastics in the SG and adhesive both relax, i.e., the
counterforce weakens and the grid pulls itself back. A negative error occurs. This
33
process is illustrated in Fig. 3.21. 33

a
a
Då
Då
b
b
åå

a
a
0 Då
0 Då a = Component strain
b a = Component strain
b b = SG measured value
0 b = SG measured value
0
t
t

Fig. 3.21: Measured

Fig.3.21: Measured value of a SG
value of aafter
SGspontaneous loading of
after spontaneous a component
loading and after spon-
of a component and
Fig.3.21: Measured
taneous removal loadvalue of a SG after spontaneous loading of a component and
after of (schematic)
spontaneous removal of load (schematic)
after spontaneous removal of load (schematic)

As this process also occurs in the region of the grid ends, its effect is greater
As this process
As this processalso
also occurs
occurs in the
in the region
region of grid
of the the ends,
grid ends, its effect
its effect is greater
is greater on short
on short measuring grids than on long ones.
on short measuring grids than
measuring grids than on long ones.on long ones.

0
0
Grid length 10mm
creep

Grid length 10mm

relativecreep

−0.5
−0.5
å/åå/åinin%%
relative

−1.0
−1.0 Grid length 1.5mm
Grid length 1.5mm
DD

−1.5
−1.5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time in hours
Time in hours

Fig.3.22:
Fig.3.22: Example
Example of
of creep
creep curves
curves for two different length
fordifferent
two different length foil SG’s
Fig. 3.22: Example of creep curves for two length foil SG’sfoil SG’s

In
In comparison
comparison with
with the
the previously
previously used types, foil
used types, foil strain
strain gages
gages have
have the
the ad
ad
vantage that the extended end loops are distributed over a larger area,
vantage that the extended end loops are distributed over a larger area,
thereby
thereby minimizing
minimizing the
the shear
shear stresses.
stresses.
34 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

In comparison with the previously used types, foil strain gages have the advantage
34the extended end loops are distributed over a larger area, thereby minimizing
that
the shear stresses.
34

u
u

Umkehrstelle End loop

s s

Abb.3.23: Messgitterform
Fig.3.23: einesof a foil SG,Abb.3.24
Grid pattern Definition derDefinition
Fig.3.24 Umkehr of end loops of
FolienDMS, Einzelheit stellenlänge (Einzelheit
Fig. 3.23: Grid see Fig.3.24
pattern for detail
of a foil SG, see Fig. a foil strain
of endgage
loops(detail
siehe Abb.3.24 aus3.24: Definition
Abb.3.23 of a
Fig. 3.24 for detail from Fig.3.23)
foil strain gage (detail from Fig. 3.23)
Durch gezielte Modifikation dieser Umkehrstellen besteht die Möglichkeit, das
By appropriately
Kriechen modifying
zu beeinflussen. these
Dabei führt manend loops it is possible
die Umkehrstellen to influence the
in verschie
By appropriately
denen Längen
creep. Thisaus.modifying these
Zur Beschreibung
is achieved end loops
gibt man
by making it is
the die possible
endLänge
loops to
u in influence
ofVielfachen the creep.They
der
different lengths. This are
Stegbreite
defineds by
is achieved an.making
by quotingthe end loops
length ofadifferent
"u" as multiplelengths.
of trackThey are"s".
width defined by quoting
length “u” as a multiple of track width “s”.
Wenn vom Kriechen des DMS die Rede ist, darf aber nicht außer Acht ge
When speaking
lassen
of creep in the SG itDMSEigenschaften
must not be forgotten that, in addition to
When werden,
speakingdass nebenin
of creep den
theeigentlichen
SG it must not be forgotten that, nochin addition to the
the actual
andere Faktoren SG properties, there
ausschlaggebend sind.are
Hierother
sind inimportant
erster Liniefactors.
KriterienThe
wie principal ones
actual SG properties, there are other important factors. The principal ones are criteria
are criteria such as the nature and layer thickness of the
die Art und die Schichtdicke des Klebstoffs, die Zeit oder Temperatureinflüsse adhesive, and the
such
zu time
as the
nennen.
nature and layer thickness
Alle Effekte zusammengenommen
of the adhesive, and the time or temperature
or temperature effects. All effectsverursachen
taken togetherdas Kriechen,
cause the creep, which
effects.
immer All−effects taken together cause themehr creep, which is always −a i.e.,
time-related
is always a timerelated reduction in the measurement große
eine je nach Länge der Umkehrstellen oder weniger signal, a timere
reduction in the measurement signal, i.e., a time-related
zeitabhängige Verminderung des Messsignals, d.h. einen zeitabhängigen negative error, the greater
lated negative error, the greater or lesser magnitude of which depends upon
or lesser magnitude
negativen Fehler. of which depends upon the length of the end loops.
the length of the end loops.

3.2.6.3
3.2.6.3 Die
TheKompensationswirkung
compensation effect
Es 3.2.6.3 The dass
wurde gezeigt, compensation
das Kriechen dereffect
DMS einen negativen Fehler
erzeugt, während
It isIt shown
is shownhowhowdie
creepelastische
in theinSG
creep Nachwirkung
thegenerates ades
SG generates Federkörperwerkstoffs
negative error, whereas
a negative zu
error,the creep inthe
whereas the
einem
elastic positiven
element Fehler führt.
material Im
leads Idealfall
to a werden
positive sich
error. das
In DMSKriechen
the ideal case, und
the SG creep and
die
creep in the elastic element materialdargestellt,
leads to a positive error. In the ideal
theelastische Nachwirkung,
element creep compensatewie in each
Abb.3.25
other, as shownkompensieren.
in Fig. 3.25.
case, the SG creep and the element creep compensate each other, as shown
DaindieFig.3.25.
Since itEigenschaften des Federkörperwerkstoffs nicht beeinflussbar sind,
is not possible to influence the properties of the elastic element material, it
muss man sich, um dem Idealfall möglichst nahe zu kommen, den best
is necessary
passenden
to select the most suitable SG to approximate as closely as possible to
Since it DMS aussuchen.
is not possible to influence the properties of the elastic element mater
the ideal case.
ial, it is necessary to select the most suitable SG to approximate as closely as
Aspossible
a fundamental
to the rule,
idealshorter
case. end loops cause negative creep in the transducer,
whereas longer end loops cause positive creep.
HBM

HBM
 The choice of strain gages 35
35

Creep of the elastic

element material
Measurement signal
Measuremtn

Creep in the SG
signal

t0
t

Fig.3.25: Idealized diagram of creep compensation

Fig. 3.25: Idealized diagram of creep compensation

As a fundamental rule, shorter end loops cause negative creep in the trans
ducer,
3.2.6.4whereas longer
The choice end compensation
of creep loops cause positive creep.

All K series SG’s, with the exception of the diaphragm rosettes, are offered with
3.2.6.4 The choice of creep compensation
three different levels of creep compensation or end loop ratios. The end loop ratio
All K series(definition,
concerned SG’s, with seethe exception
Fig. 3.24) can of
be the diaphragm
recognized fromrosettes, are offered
an identification letter on
with three different levels of creep compensation or end loop ratios.
each SG. The series of end loop ratios commences with the letter A. This corresponds The end
loop
to anratio concerned
end loop length u(definition, see Fig.3.24)
= 1 s. Theoretically cancontinues
the series be recognized from anorder
in alphabetical
identification
in increments of letter
0.5 son
. Ineach
actualSG. The series
practice of end
it has made looptoratios
sense limit itcommences with
to round number
the letter
ratios. A. This
Shown corresponds
below is the legend to to
anall
end loop length
standard u =ratios:
end loop 1 s. Theoretically the
series continues in alphabetical order in increments of 0.5 s. In actual practice
it has made sense A: to limituit=to1 sround number u = 7Shown
M: ratios. s below is the le
gend to all standardC:end loop u = 2 ratios:
s O: u = 8s
E: u = 3s Q: u = 9s
A: u = 1 sG: = 4 s u = 7 s S:
uM: u = 10 s
C: u = 2 s I: = 5 s u = 8 s U:
uO: u = 11 s
K: u = 6s W: u = 12 s
E: u=3s Q: u=9s
G: u=4s S: u = 10 s
The strain
I: gage
u = brochure
5s provides
U: uinformation
= 11 s on the allocation of the individual
typesK:
of SG. u = 6 s W: u = 12 s
In addition to a mean, quasi neutral version, it is possible to choose between two
The
otherstrain gage
versions brochure
such provides
as Example information on the allocation of the indi
1 shows.
vidual types of SG.

In addition
Example 1 toIfathere
mean, quasi
is no neutral
prior version,
knowledge it isexpected
of the possible creep
to choose between
behavior of the
two other versions such as Example 1 shows.
transducer, it is recommended to first try the mid-range creep version. The magni-
tude and direction of the creep found during the subsequent measurement have an
important bearing on the choice of another creep version, or in deciding to retain
the originally tried type of SG. As already mentioned, the choice of a SG with shorter
end loops influences the creep behavior of the transducer in the negative direction,
and vice versa. After deciding upon another SG a new set of measurements must be
made to check the effectiveness of the choice. This makes it clear that optimum creep
HBM
36 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

Available versions End loop ratio Transducer creep SG creep

E u = 3s more negative more strongly
negative
G u = 4s smallest creep∗ negative (quasi
neutral)∗
I u = 5s more positive less negative
∗
The data relates to the least creep (creep error measured in accordance with specification
VDI/VDE 2637, 30 min) on a standardized transducer with uniform, constant strain field.
Deviations in the creep behavior are possible with other forms of transducer. The difference
in creep behavior between two adjacent creep versions (identification letters) is about
0.03 … 0.04 % of the measured sensitivity.

compensation can only be determined by empirical, experimental means. Because

of the large number of sometimes imponderable influencing variables it is simply not
possible to provide an all-embracing “recipe”.
With reference to the creep error it should be noted that, in many cases the creep
behavior of the elastic element material varies from batch to batch. Thus, in extreme
cases, new creep compensation may be necessary for each new material batch.
Each measurement of the creep error should be preceded by checking the zero signal
stability in the unloaded state. Not until the zero signal is sufficiently stable is it
possible to carry out the measurement under constant load conditions. It must also
be ensured that the SG’s are installed under conditions identical to those which
will later apply in the final version of the transducer. That is to say, the installation
conditions (curing time, installation pressure, etc.), and the adhesive used must be
the same as those for the production version.
The creep versions available as standard are designed such that the creep errors
generally encountered in actual practice are largely compensated. Over and above
this, for special measuring tasks or to meet particular accuracy requirements, special
SG’s with individually designed end loops can be obtained subject to a minimum
order quantity.

3.2.7 Carrier dimensions

The dimensions of the grid carrier are generally not a primary selection criterion,
since they are in directly dependent on the previously specified grid length and grid
configuration (see Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.3). The only time that priority in SG selection
is likely to be given to carrier dimensions over grid length is where the available space
is very limited. If necessary, the carrier can be cut to match the actual requirements
(subject to the observation of certain rules).
 The choice of strain gages 37

Parallel to the longitudinal axis of the grid the carrier can be cut to within a minimum
distance 0.5 mm from the grid itself. A considerably greater carrier overhang is
required on the ends, which are of more significance in introducing the strain. Here a
minimum dimension of 1 mm at each end has proven practicable. No adverse effects
on the SG properties need be feared if these dimensions are observed. Beyond this
however, possible effects should be determined by conducting comparative tests
with an untrimmed SG. Within the given limits special SG’s with non standard carrier
dimensions could also be considered.

3.2.8 Practical considerations concerning the choice of SG

The previously mentioned example transducer is a simple bending beam. To measure

the strain levels occurring on the top and bottom faces with opposite signs using a
full bridge, it is necessary to install two SG’s to each of these faces. In principle, all
linear SG’s are suitable. In this particular case it is possible to use double SG’s. With
these strain gages it is possible to apply a half-bridge in a single installation step. This
considerably reduces the amount of work involved.
For the reasons given in Section 3.2.2, use should be made of covered SG’s with
integral ribbon connections. The dimensions of the elastic element as well as the
strain curve shown in Fig. 3.18 permit the use of a SG with a grid length of 6 mm.
The elastic element material is a spring steel strip with a thermal expansion coefficient
of 𝛼 = 10.8 ⋅ 10−6 /K. In order to utilize the self-temperature compensation effect of
the foil strain gage, one with a suitable temperature compensation is chosen.
The transducer under discussion does not demand any special consideration of creep
behavior. For this reason an average creep version of the appropriate strain gage
type is chosen.
Since our example offers a sufficiently large installation surface, there is no need to
trim the SG carrier. Taking into account all selection criteria finally leads to the choice
of the type DK 11G 6/350, as shown in Fig. 3.26.
of creep behavior. For this reason an average creep version of the appropriate
strain gage type is chosen.

Since our example offers a sufficiently large installation surface, there is no

need to trim the SG carrier. Taking into account all selection criteria finally
38 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
leads to the choice of the type DK 11G 6/350, as shown in Fig.3.26.

8.5

3
− Double SG with covered grid and
integral ribbon connections
− Temperature compensated for steel
(a = 10,8 ⋅ 10−6 / K)

12.5
− Mid range creep compensation
G: u = 4s
− Grid length: 6mm
− Grid resistance: 350W

Fig.3.26: The type DK11G 6/350 SG used for the practical example
(enlarged drawing)
Fig. 3.26: The type DK11G 6/350 SG used for the practical example (enlarged drawing)

3.3 The SG installation process

In3.3
order to detect
The the mechanicalprocess
SG installation strain and at the same time to "experience"
the temperatures, the strain gages and the balancing and compensation ele
ments must be bonded to the elastic element. Detailed information on this
In order to detect the mechanical strain and at the same time to “experience” the tem-
process of cementing − called installation − as well as the necessary prepara
peratures, the strain gages and the balancing and compensation elements must be
tions are contained in the instructions for use of the adhesive concerned, and
bonded to the elastic element. Detailed information on this process of cementing—
in item [4] of the Bibliography. Nevertheless, at this stage it is worth mention
called installation—as well as the necessary preparations are contained in the instruc-
ing a number of points to be observed.
tions for use of the adhesive concerned, and in item [4] of the Bibliography. Never-
Atheless, at this stage itfor
basic prerequisite is installation
worth mentioning
of the aSG
number ofother
and all pointselements
to be observed.
is op
timum
A basicpreparation
prerequisiteoffortheinstallation
installationofsurfaces.
the SG andVital
all steps
other in this preparation
elements is optimum
are
preparation of the installation surfaces. Vital steps in this preparation areinstalled
cleaning and roughening of the surface. To ensure that the SG is cleaning
accurately, the elastic
and roughening of theelement
surface. must be provided
To ensure that thewith
SG isalignment marks. It isthe
installed accurately,
elastic element must be provided with alignment marks. It is recommended to
prepare a detailed installation plan before starting the work. This plan must show the
HBM
positions of all elements and the corresponding alignment marks. The choice and
determination of the installation points was already discussed in Section 3.1.3.
In the case of hot curing cements, the requirement for a clamping device with the
same curvature as the elastic element must not be overlooked.

3.3.1 SG installation of the strain gages

K series SG’s can be installed with any adhesives which are suitable for use with foil
strain gages. In transducer engineering special hot-curing adhesives are generally
used, since they have been well proven particularly for the longterm use which is
made of transducers.
 The SG installation process 39

The exposed grid in open faced SG’s should be covered by a thin layer of the same
adhesive which is used to install them. Depending on the instructions for use of the
adhesive concerned, this can be done together with the installation or else afterwards
in an additional working and curing step. This “adhesive cover”, and thus the close
bond, improves repeatability of the creep behavior (see Section 3.2.2), while at the
same time the delicate measuring grid gets a first protective coat. Naturally, the
integral solder pads must be excluded from this protection by covering them with
adhesive tape. The covering layers additionally needed to protect the installation can
be applied later to the layer of adhesive (see Section 3.6).
For SG’s with integral ribbon connections it is recommended to use separate solder-
ing points. Where possible, these should be installed together with the SG. When
mounted together (see Bibliography item [4]) the soldering points should be slid
between the carrier foil and the connection ribbons. This can be assisted by lightly
lifting the connection ribbons, which is best done by individually and carefully pulling
the ribbons upwards (without kinking them) . At the same time the carrier must be
pushed down onto a flat surface with a pair of blunt-nosed tweezers placed either
side (to the left and right) of each connection ribbon.
To minimize the additional work resulting form faulty installation it is best to check
the quality of the installation at the earliest possible stage. Simple but effective visual
examinations, such as described in detail in item [4] of the Bibliography, the “eraser
test”, as well as measurement of continuity and insulation resistance avoid the risk of
delaying recognition of a faulty installation until after the transducer is “complete”.

3.3.2 SG installation of the balancing and compensation elements

Here it is intended to consider only those points which are important to the installa-
tion operation. A detailed description of the elements is given in Section 3.5. The
installation operation is no different to that of the SG. Here too it is fundamentally
possible to use all adhesives which are suitable for foil SG’s, including hot curing ones.
However, the same extremely high requirements made on the quality of the bond of
the SG are not necessary, since in this case the mechanical strain should, if possible,
not be transmitted to the resistor network. For the same reason no great demands
are made in respect of the positioning accuracy.
When making the installation care should be taken to avoid allowing adhesive to
contaminate the connection surfaces or the exposed resistor networks. Particularly
with adhesives containing a filler a covering layer can result, which makes it difficult
to recognize the markings and printed circuit paths. This will adversely affect the
subsequent balancing and compensation work.
40 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
41
3.3.3 SG installation of the soldering points
Gründen der Lötbarkeit alle noch zu verarbeitenden Lötflächen frei von
Klebstoff zu halten.
The soldering points are similarly installed using the same method as for the strain
gages; for practical reasons it is also done at the same time, as already described
above. All adhesives offered for installing foil SG’s can be used. In order to avoid
3.3.4 Praktische Betrachtungen zur DMSInstallation
overstressing the relatively small adhesion surfaces, the soldering terminals should
Zur Installation
be installed der
in low Beispielfeder
strain wird der
areas if possible; Schnellklebstoff
strain relief measuresauf CyanacrylatBa
should also be taken
sis
for the incoming leads. Here too no adhesive should be allowed on any surfacesund
Z70 verwendet. Damit werden sowohl die DMS als auch die Abgleich still
Kompensationselemente sowiedetract
to be soldered, since this would die Lötstützpunkte
from the ease installiert. Da in diesem
of soldering.
Fall keine besonderen Anforderungen hinsichtlich Langzeitstabilität oder
Beständigkeit gegenüber höheren Temperaturen gestellt werden, ist eine
3.3.4 Practicalnicht
Heißinstallation considerations
notwendig. concerning installation

Die Vorbereitung der Installationsstellen erfolgt in der für das Installieren von
Z70 cyano-acrylate based rapid adhesive is used on the example elastic element. The
FolienDMS üblichen Weise. Zum Aufrauen der Installationsflächen bietet sich
SG as well as the balancing and compensation-elements and soldering points are also
das Sandstrahlverfahren an. Hierbei ist jedoch zu beachten, dass das Strahl
installed with this adhesive. In this case there is no need for hot curing, as there are
medium nicht bereits durch andere Arbeiten verunreinigt worden ist. Es
no special requirements concerning long-term stability or durability when exposed
besteht sonst die Gefahr, dass Verunreinigungen in die Oberfläche des
to high temperatures.
Federkörpers eingetragen werden, die kaum wieder entfernt werden können.
The installation areas are prepared in the same way as for installing foil SG’s. Sand-
Beim Anbringen
blasting can be useddertoinroughen
Abb.3.27thesichtbaren
installation Ausrichtmarkierungen
surfaces, although one mustist darauf
ensure
zu achten, dass die Oberfläche des Werkstoffs durch das Anreißen
that the blasting medium does not contain impurities from previous tasks. There nicht inis a
stärkerem Masse
risk that such verletzt
impurities wird.
could beAndernfalls
transferred kann
to thees, besonders
surface bei dyna
of the elastic element,
mischer Belastung des Messgrößenaufnehmers,
from which there is little chance of removing them. zur Schädigung oder gar
zum Bruch des Federkörpers infolge Kerbwirkung kommen.
When applying the markings for visual alignment as shown in Fig. 3.37, take care not
Beim Hantieren
to cause mit den
any damage Dehnungsmessstreifen
to the surface of the materialist
by besonders bei happens,
scribing. If this den Ausfüh
the
rungen
resultingohne
notchAbdeckung,
effect could also
lead mit freiliegendem
to damage, or evenMessgitter, darauf
fracture of the zu element,
elastic achten,
especially
dass if the transducer
der empfindliche is subjected to dynamic
Messgitterbereich nicht mitloading.
der Pinzette berührt wird.

Abb.3.27: Der für die Installation vorbereitete Federkörper. Die aufgeraute

Installationsfläche und die Ausrichtmarkierungen sind deutlich zu
Fig. 3.27: The elastic element prepared for installation. The roughened installation surface
erkennen.
and the alignment markings can be clearly recognized.

HBM
 The SG installation process 41

42
When handling open faced versions of the strain gage (i.e., with exposed measuring
42 Abb.3.28
grids)
Die take careundnotAbb.3.29
to touch the region
zeigen die of the delicate
Ober measuring
und Unterseite desgrid with the
Federkör
tweezers.
pers mit den bereits installierten Dehnungsmessstreifen und den übrigen
Die
Fig. Abb.3.28
Elementen.
3.28 andBei und
Fig.der Abb.3.29
3.29 show thezeigen
eigentlichen anddie Ober
topInstallation
bottom undof
sollte
face Unterseite
mit den
the des Federkör
Dehnungsmess
elastic element with the
pers mit
streifen den
und bereits
den installierten
zugehörigen Dehnungsmessstreifen
Lötstützpunkten begonnen und den
werden, übrigen
weil
already installed strain gages and other elements. The actual installation operation die
Elementen.
geforderte Bei
hohe der eigentlichen
Qualität der Installation
Klebeverbindung sollte
einemit den
absolut Dehnungsmess
saubere
should commence with the strain gages and the associated soldering points, since
streifen unddemanded
the quality den zugehörigen
Installationsfläche erfordert. Lötstützpunkten
Diese
for the adhesive Forderung
bond calls istbegonnen
forzu
an Beginnwerden, weil
derclean
absolutely Arbeitendieam
installation
geforderte
frisch
surface. hohe
vorbereitetenQualität der
Federkörper
This requirement Klebeverbindung
is easiestam ehesten
to fulfill eine absolut
zubeginning
at the saubere
erfüllen. Unabhängig
of work on thevomfreshly
Installationsfläche
prepared elastic element. Regardless of the adhesive used, before making the am
verwendeten erfordert.
Klebstoff sollen Diese
vor Forderung
dem ist
Installieren zu
um Beginn
die DMSder Arbeiten
und die einzel
instal-
frisch
nen vorbereiteten
Elemente herum Federkörper
Masken am
geklebt ehesten
werden, zu erfüllen.
um zu Unabhängig
verhindern, dass
lation, one should fix masks around the SG’s and the individual elements. This is to vom
die
verwendeten
Flächen Klebstoff
surplus sollen
der nachfolgend
prevent exuding vorfrom
demcontaminating
Installieren
zu installierenden
adhesive um
Elemente die DMS
durch
surfaces und
aredie einzel
unkontrolliert
which to be used
nen Elemente
austretenden herum Masken
überschüssigen
later for installing other elements. geklebt
Klebstoff werden, um
verunreinigt zu verhindern,
werden. dass die
Flächen der nachfolgend zu installierenden Elemente durch unkontrolliert
austretenden überschüssigen Klebstoff verunreinigt werden.

Abb.3.28: Die Oberseite des fertig installierten Federkörpers (Bezeichnungen der

Fig. 3.28: TheAbgleich und
top face of Kompensationselemente,
the completed elastic elementsiehe Kapitel
(for details of3.5.1)
the balancing and
Abb.3.28: Die Oberseite des fertig installierten
compensation elements see Section 3.5.1). Federkörpers (Bezeichnungen der
Abgleich und Kompensationselemente, siehe Kapitel 3.5.1)

Abb.3.29: Die Unterseite des fertig installierten Federkörpers

Abb.3.29: Die Unterseite des fertig installierten Federkörpers

Fig. 3.29: The bottom face of the completed elastic element

HBM

HBM
 43

3.4 Die Verschaltung

42
Werden TheanRoute
einentoMessgrößenaufnehmer
the Measurement Transducer höhere Genauigkeitsansprüche als
1 bis 2 % Messunsicherheit (bei Raumtemperatur) gestellt, so ist die Ver
schaltung
3.4 Thedercircuit Dehnungsmessstreifen
arrangementzu einer Wheatstoneschen Brücke
unumgänglich. Mittels dieser Schaltung wird nicht nur eine höhere Empfind
lichkeit erzielt; zusammen mit dem Einsatz von selbsttemperaturgang
If higher accuracy than
kompensierenden DMS 1 to 2 %u.measurement
wird uncertaintydes
a. die Wärmedehnung (at room temperature) is
Federkörpers
demanded of
besonders a transducer,kompensiert.
wirkungsvoll it will be absolutely necessary
Detaillierte to connect über
Informationen the strain
die gages
in the form of a Wheatstone bridge. This circuit arrangement
Wirkung und die Verschaltungsmöglichkeiten der Wheatstoneschen Brücke not only achieves a high
degree
gibt [2]. of
Diesensitivity;
Schaltung in conjunction
ist allerdings with theinuse
nicht derofLage,
self temperature compensating
Widerstandsunsymme
SG’s, it very effectively compensates (amongst other things) thermal expansion of
trien, wie sie durch die Kabelwiderstände der Verschaltung der einzelnen
the elastic element. Detailed information concerning the effect and possible arrange-
Brückenzweige entstehen können, auszugleichen. Deshalb sollte trotz der
ments of the Wheatstone bridge is given in Bibliography item [2]. Note, however, that
später noch vorzunehmenden Abgleich und Kompensationsmaßnahmen
the circuit is not able to compensate for asymmetry of resistance such as can occur
(siehe Kapitel 3.5) für eine symmetrische Verlegung und somit gleiche Länge
through resistance of wiring in the individual arms of the bridge. Consequently, in
der brückeninternen Verbindungsleitungen gesorgt werden. Hier hat sich das
spite of the balancing and compensation measures to be taken later (see Section 3.5),
Erstellen eines detaillierten Verschaltungsplans bewährt. Diese Betrach
attention should be paid to achieving a symmetrical layout and thus equal length for
tungen sollten zu einem frühen Zeitpunkt angestellt werden, da die notwen
the connection leads within the bridge. Preparing a detailed wiring plan will prove
digen Verschaltungsmaßnahmen oft schon bei der Gestaltung des Federkör
to be helpful in this respect. These aspects should be considered at an early stage,
pers berücksichtigt werden müssen.
since the necessary circuit arrangements often have to be taken into account at the
design
Bei stageder
Einsatz of the elastic element. stellt sich das Problem der internen
Membranrosetten
Brückenverschaltung
When diaphragm rosettesin dieser
are used Form nicht, dawith
this problem hierthe
bereits
internaleine fastofkomplett
wiring the bridge
verschaltete
does not ariseVollbrücke vorliegt.
because there Diean
is already Abb.3.30 zeigt die
almost complete fullBelegung der An
bridge circuit. Fig. 3.30
schlüsse.
shows how the connections are allocated.

R2
R1 R4
å 3 1
R3 R1
2 4 2’
1 4
UA
å 2’’
3 UE
å R4
R2 R3
UA

Abb.3.30: Anschlussschaltung der Membranrosetten. Die Anschlüsse 2’ und 2’’

werden
Fig. 3.30: Circuit normalerweise
arrangement miteinander
of a diaphragm verbunden.
rosette. Für2die
Connections ′ Kompensation
and 2″ are normally
eines Temperaturgangfehlers kann hier, wie später beschrieben, einpoint
interlinked. As described later, a temperature-sensitive resistor can be connected at this
temperaturabhängiger Widerstand eingeschaltet werden.
to compensate for a temperature coefficient of zero point.

The choice of the appropriate wiring materials depends in the first instance on the
HBM
design of the transducer and the conditions of use. When applying the wiring and
soldering points care must be taken to prevent the input leads from applying a stress
to the soldered connections. For the same reason strain relief measures must be
taken at appropriate points. The individual connections or lead wires should be
 The circuit arrangement 43

secured to prevent any relative motion with the transducer body or any oscillations.
Stranded lead wires should be employed in certain cases where the use of unsup-
ported connections is unavoidable. This applies particularly where the transducer is
exposed to severe dynamic stresses.

3.4.1 Wiring materials

The wiring materials listed here are included in the range of SG accessories in view
of their particular suitability for the requirements of transducer engineering. Fur-
ther tried and tested soldering points, cables and lead wires are listed in the HBM
publication “Strain Gages and Accessories”.

3.4.1.1 Soldering points

Soldering points are important items for connecting the SG and the balancing and
compensating elements to the Wheatstone bridge. This applies in particular to the
use of SG’s with integral ribbon connections. In such cases soldering points should be
installed together with the SG, so as to prevent short-circuits through possible contact
between the connection ribbons and the electrically conductive elastic element. A
further purpose of the soldering points is to act as the transition between the internal
wiring of the transducer and the transducer connection leads. Depending upon the
design of the transducer body and the positions of the individual elements, it may be
advisable to apply additional soldering points. Tab. 3.3 shows the range of soldering
points specially designed for transducers.

45
Tab. 3.3: Transducer-specific solder terminals; specifications see HBM brochure “Strain Gages
and Accessories”
LS212 LS224

Packaged form

Pair

Individual soldering
points

Tab.3.3: Transducerspecific solder terminals; specifications see HBM brochure

The spacingStrain
of the Gages andpoints
soldering Accessories"
is matched to the connection spacing pattern of
the SG. An advantageous feature here is that all connection surfaces branch out from
 Verkaufsform

Paar
44 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

one into two connection points. This special arrangement allows several connections
Einzellötstützpunkt
(e.g., in a six-lead circuit) to be made without individual wires becoming loose when
their neighboring wires are soldered. The decision in favor of one of the two types
Tab.3.3: Aufnehmerspezifische Lötstützpunkte; technische Daten enthält der
depends upon the prevailing circumstances. Fig. 3.31 shows examples of possible
HBMProspekt Dehnungsmessstreifen und Zubehör"
combinations.

Abb.3.31: Beispiele für die Kombination der Lötstützpunkte LS 212 und LS 224 mit
DMS der Serie K
Fig. 3.31: Examples of combinations of soldering points LS 212 and LS 224 with K series SG’s

HBM
 The circuit arrangement 45

3.4.1.2 Cables and lead wires

The HBM Program incorporates a series of cables and lead (i.e., stranded hook-up)
wires suitable for SG’s. Those described in Tab. 3.4 are particularly suitable for wiring
of transducers.

Tab. 3.4: Material for internal wiring of transducers; additional cables, lead wires and connec-
tion cables for associated electronics equipment are contained in HBM publication “Strain
Gages with Accessories”.
Enameled copper wire Stranded leads
Type Enamel insulated copper wire PVC-insulated stranded copper
wire
Conductor cross 0.03 mm2 /0.2 mm2 0.04 mm2 /0.6 mm2
section/overall 20 strands
diameter
Matched to maximum permissible cross-section of
0.1 mm2 when using SG with integrated connection surfaces
Conductor resis- 0.549 Ω/m 0.417 Ω/m
tance
Maximum 130 °C 70 °C
permissible
temperature
(continuous)
Other features 2-layer insulation can be burnt off Very high flexibility
by the soldering iron at 350 °C.
Eliminates time-consuming wire
stripping; coloured insulation for
better damage detection; clean
and easy installation due to high
ductility
Application Internal wiring of transducers for Internal wiring of transducers
static and dynamic use, when con- when constructional considera-
ductor can be bonded onto the tions necessitate exposed (unsup-
elastic element ported) connections
See also Sections 3.4 and 3.4.2
46 The Route to the Measurement Transducer 47

3.4.2 Practical considerations concerning wiring

3.4.2 Practical considerations concerning wiring
As already noted in Section 3.4, it is wise to make up a wiring diagram.
Fig.3.32
As alreadyshows
notedthe wiring diagram
in Section for our
3.4, it is wise to example
make up atransducer. In addition
wiring diagram. to
Fig. 3.32
the position
shows and diagram
the wiring numberforof our
elements,
exampleit transducer.
should show the routing
In addition of position
to the the indiand
vidual connection leads.
number of elements, it should show the routing of the individual connection leads.

1 2 3 4

TN1
SG

Top face

TC1
NA1

Clamping area

(3) bl
Input SG
(1) wh
Output (4) rd Bottom face

(2) bk
Input TC1

1 2 3 4

Fig.3.32: Wiring diagram for the example transducer

Fig. 3.32: Wiring diagram for the example transducer
Soldering points LS 212 and LS 224 are used. Type LS 224 is matched to the
spacing pattern of the double SG and, together with its integral ribbon connec
Soldering
tions, points the
simplifies LS 212 and LS 224
soldering are used.
procedure byType LS 224 isdirect
eliminating matched to the spacing
soldering on the
pattern
SG. Typeof the double
LS 212 SG and,
is used to together with its integral
link the transducer ribbon connections,
connection cable to the simplifies
in
the soldering procedure by eliminating direct soldering on the
ternal wiring. The geometry of this soldering terminal allows fixed resistors SG. Type LS 212tois
used
be to link the transducer
incorporated connection
into the feed cable tothe
line to adjust thesensitivity,
internal wiring. The geometry
or parallel connecof
this of
tion soldering
a fixedterminal
resistor allows
to the fixed resistors
transducer to betoincorporated
input set a specificinto the feed
input impedline to
adjust
ance. the sensitivity, or parallel connection of a fixed resistor to the transducer input
to set a specific input impedance.
The enameled copper wire described in Section 3.4.1.2 is used for the internal
The enameled copper wire described in Section 3.4.1.2 is used for the internal wiring
wiring of the transducer. The small conductor crosssection and the low stiff
of the transducer. The small conductor cross-section and the low stiffness of the
ness of the copper reduce the inherent risk of influencing the transducer char
copper reduce the inherent risk of influencing the transducer characteristics (force
acteristics (force shunt).
shunt).
This applies in particular to elastic elements designed for small measuring ranges. Due
HBM
to its high malleability, this material can be adapted even to complicated contours.
 The circuit arrangement 47

The use of stranded lead wires is not necessary in our example transducer, since
all connection leads can be fixed to the elastic element. In each case however,
consideration must be given to the possible needs for using such lead wires.
The most suitable transducer connection cable is selected from the comprehensive
range of HBM special cables which are available according to the particular require-
ments. The colors of the individual cores in these cables are matched to the widely
used HBM color code for connections between transducers and associated electronic
units.
The individual connections are made according to the wiring diagram. The connec-
tion wires in each arm of a bridge half (R1 and R2; R3 and R4) should be of equal
length. In the case of the enameled copper wires the time-consuming job of stripping
the insulation from the ends is not necessary as the insulation is “burned off” by
the soldering iron when tinning, assuming a soldering temperature of 350 °C. The
insulation on the stranded lead wires can be stripped by the usual mechanical means.
When doing so take care not to produce any potential failure points by damaging the
fine individual strands.
The enameled copper wire should not be routed over any sharp edges without
additional protection, since otherwise in spite of the double layer of insulation there
is a risk of damage and subsequent short circuiting. If this is not possible, one can
use a steel wire with robust Teflon insulation (see HBM publication “Strain Gages and
Accessories”).
The working steps described here are followed by soldering work on the SG’s and/or
the soldering points. Information on this aspect is provided in Bibliography item [4].
Direct soldering onto the strain gages with integral solder pads calls for maximum
care; also applicable are the general rules for soldering on electronic components.
The next Section will deal again with this subject in greater detail.
The final wiring work generally concerns fixing the individual leads on the elastic
element or on the housing (see Section 3.4). In addition to the possibility of fixing at
intervals, the leads with small sheath cross-sections can also be fixed along their full
length. Tab. 3.5 tabulates the different materials suitable for securing the wiring.
48 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

Tab. 3.5: Suitability of different materials for securing of cables and lead wires on elastic
element; ( = well suited; #= limited suited; — = not suitable)
APPLICATION
Small sheath cross-section Large sheath cross-section
Sheath -∅ <0.6 mm Sheath-∅ ≥0.6 mm
e.g., enameled copper wire e.g., Teflon wire
Securing means at intervals full length at intervals full length
Textile-reinforced adhesive # #
tape
Cold curing rapid adhesive — —
X60
Cold curing rapid adhesive — — #∗)
Z70
Transparent silicone rubber # —
SG250
Polyurethan varnish PU120 — — —
∗
) not with Teflon insulation

The Z70 cold curing rapid adhesive is suitable for the enameled copper wires used in
our example. The adhesive must be applied as thinly as possible along the route of
the wire. Having done this, take the Teflon protective foil (included with the adhesive)
and install it together with the wire under pressure from the thumb so that it cures
in a thin layer. It should be noted again here that this adhesive only cures rapidly and
reliably in very thin layers. For further information refer to the instructions for use.
This work must be completed before carrying out the following balancing and com-
pensation
50 measures. Fig. 3.33 and Fig. 3.34 show the wired top and bottom face of
the elastic element of the transducer in their finished state.

Abb.3.33: Die komplett verschaltete Oberseite des Federkörpers

Fig. 3.33: The completely wired top face of the elastic element
 The circuit arrangement
Abb.3.33: Die komplett verschaltete Oberseite des Federkörpers 49

Abb.3.34: Die komplett verschaltete Unterseite. Der verwendete Kupferlackdraht

Fig. 3.34: Theistcompletely
auf seinerwired
ganzen Länge
bottom mitThe
face. demenameled
Schnellklebstoff Z70used
copper wire festgelegt.
is secured
along its full length with Z70 quick-acting adhesive.

3.4.2.1 Hinweise zum Anlöten der Anschlüsse an nichtabgedeckte DMS

3.4.2.1 Notes on soldering Anschlussflächen
mit integrierten the connections to open faced SG’s with integral solder
pads
Um eine sorgfältige Ausführung der diffizilen Lötverbindungen zu gewährleis
ten, empfiehlt sich das Arbeiten unter einer beleuchteten Lupe. Der
To ensure that the difficult soldered connections are properly made it is recommended
verwendete Lötkolben muss eine feine Spitze haben und sollte temperaturge
to do the job under an illuminated magnifying glass. The soldering iron must have
regelt sein (siehe HBMZubehörprogramm). Die Löttemperatur ist auf max.
a fine tip, and must be temperature regulated (see HBM accessory range). The
350 °C einzustellen.
soldering temperature must be set to max. 350 °C. For soldering work on SG’s it
is recommended
Für die Lötungentoanuse dena DIN 1707 standard
genannten solder which
DMS empfiehlt sich isder
non-corrosive
Einsatz eines as per
DIN 8511. HBM offers an appropriate type of solder (Elsold resin-cored
Normallots nach DIN 1707, korrosionsfrei nach DIN 8511. Einen entspre soldering
wire). AlsoLotTyp
chenden listed is(ElsoldLötdraht
a soft solder 50 Pb-50 In, but thisenthält
mit Harzkern) shoulddas
not be used here, since
HBMDMSZu
the additional flux required
behörprogramm. Das dortcan damageaufgeführte
ebenfalls the open-faced measuring
Weichlot grid. This
50 Pb50 In naturally
sollte
also applies to every other corrosive flux. Careful work in the manner described here
eliminates the need for any additional flux.
HBM
On leaving the factory, the integral solder pads shown in Fig. 3.35 are clean and can
take solder. To further simplify soldering work and to assist the operation of the solder
islands, it is recommended to locally roughen the solder pads. This can be done with
a glass-fiber brush or the corner of a small abrasive cleaning stick (grain ≥320). Do
this very carefully! The solder pad should be cleaned afterwards. For this we would
recommend using a cotton bud soaked in SG cleaning agent (see HBM accessory
range). The solvent saturated tip must be moved in one direction over the solder
pad while simultaneously twisting the tip several times. The solder pad should be
tinned immediately afterwards by applying a small quantity of solder without putting
pressure on the connection surfaces. Fig. 3.36 shows the tinned solder pad. Special
care must be taken to ensure that only a small amount of solder is applied, since
otherwise the solder islands will be unable to perform their task (see Fig. 3.35).
 51

für diese Anwendung nicht verwendet werden, da das zusätzlich notwendige

Flussmittel eine schädliche Wirkung auf die freiliegenden Messgitter haben
kann. Dies gilt natürlich auch für jedes andere korrosiv wirkende Flussmittel.
50 The
Bei Route to the
sorgfältigem Measurement
Vorgehen in der hierTransducer
dargestellten Weise sind keine zusätzli
chen Löthilfen erforderlich.

Abb.3.35: Die integrierten Anschlussflächen sind für einen max. Leiterquerschnitt

Fig. 3.35: The integral
von solder
0,1 mm2parts are designed
ausgelegt for a maximum
(bei Membranrosetten conductor
bis 0,17 mm2). Diecross-section
in der of
0.1 mm (on diaphragm rosettes
vergrößerten up to 0.17
Darstellung mm).erkennbaren
deutlich As can be Lötstopppinseln
seen in the enlarged
begren diagram,
zen den
the solder islands limit theLötpunkt und
soldering somitand
point die so
durch Verzinnung
also avoid anyauftretende
unwantedunstiffening due to
erwünschte Versteifung des Gebildes. Lot kann nicht in Richtung
tinning. Solder cannot flow towards the measuring grid.
Messgitter abfließen.

Die in Abb.3.35 dargestellten integrierten Anschlussflächen sind im Ausliefe

The max. soldering temperature
rungszustand of 350
sauber und lötbar. Um°C must
aber den not be applied
Lötvorgang tozu
weiter the soldering point
erleich
for longer
ternthan
und one second.derContact
die Wirkung held for zu
Lötstopppinseln longer than this
unterstützen, will adversely
empfiehlt sich dasaffect the
punktuelle Aufrauen der Lötflächen. Dazu
adhesion between the solder pads and the carrier. kann ein Glaspinsel oder die Ecke
eines Schmirgel bzw. Reinigungsstäbchens (Körnung w320) verwendet
werden. Hierbei
Before soldering on theist cables
besonders vorsichtig
or lead wiresvorzugehen.
their endsAnschließend sollte and tinned
must be stripped
(except when using the enameled copper wire mentioned in Section empfiehlt
eine Reinigung der Anschlussflächen vorgenommen werden. Hierzu 3.4.2). Soldering
sich die Verwendung eines mit DMSReinigungsmittel (siehe HBMZubehör
52lead
stranded wires must be done very quickly to prevent the
programm) getränkten Wattestäbchens. Die mit Lösungsmittel getränkte
PVC insulation from
being “chased
kleine
away”
Spitze Menge
wird byaufgebracht
unter the soldering
Lot gleichzeitigem
heat.mehrmals
Drehen
wird,
It die
da sonst
is important not to
in einer Richtung
Lötstopppinseln
tin
ihreüber
thediefull length
Aufgabe
of the stripped section nicht
Anschlussflächen
(siehe Abb.3.35) (see erfüllen
Fig. 3.38).
geführt. Unmittelbar
können. nach der Reinigung sollten die Lötflä
chen verzinnt werden. Dabei ist eine kleine Menge Lot ohne Ausübung von
Druck auf die Anschlussflächen zu übertragen. Die Abb.3.36 zeigt die ver
zinnten Anschlussflächen. Es ist besonders darauf zu achten, dass nur eine

HBM

Abb.3.36: Die vorverzinnten Anschlussflächen der DMS. Deutlich ist die Be
Fig. 3.36: The pre-tinned
grenzungsolder pads ofdurch
der Lötpunkte the SG. Limitation of zu
die Lötstopppinseln theerkennen.
soldering points by the
solder islands can be clearly recognized.
Die Löttemperatur von max. 350 °C darf nicht länger als eine Sekunde auf die
Lötstelle einwirken. Andernfalls besteht die Gefahr, dass die Haftung zwi
schen Anschlussflächen und Trägerfolie beeinträchtigt wird.

Vor dem Anlöten der Drähte bzw. Litzen sind deren Enden abzuisolieren und
zu verzinnen (außer bei Verwendung des in Kapitel 3.4.2 genannten
Kupferlackdrahts). Beim Verzinnen der Schwinglitze muss sehr schnell ge
arbeitet werden, um ein "Weglaufen" der PVCIsolation durch die einwirkende
Löttemperatur zu verhindern. Die abisolierte Länge darf nicht vollständig
verzinnt werden (siehe Abb.3.38).
 The circuit arrangement 51

The pre-tinned end of the conductor is now positioned over the soldering surface.
Temporary fixing, e.g., with adhesive tape, simplifies the soldering operation and
ensures that the solder pads will not be mechanically strained when aligning the
connecting wires. After fixing, the wires are soldered on without adding more sol-
der. The one second maximum limit on the soldering temperature naturally applies
here too. Fig. 3.37 shows the finished soldering operation. The generally desired
recognizable joint contour—that is, the formation of a concave curvature parallel to
the conductor—cannot be achieved due to the very small soldering surface. 53 But this
does not mean that any concessions can be made in respect of the quality of the
realisierbar. Abstriche an der Qualität der Lötungen müssen deshalb nicht
solderedgemacht
joints. werden.

Abb.3.37: Fertiggestellte Lötverbindungen zwischen den Zuleitungen (Kupferlack

Fig. 3.37: Finished soldered
draht) undjoints between the
den integrierten connecting wires
Anschlussflächen (enameled copper wire) and
der DMS
the integral solder pads of the SG
Bei Verwendung von Schwinglitze ist beim Abisolieren, Verzinnen und nach
folgenden Anlöten auf die Vermeidung einer möglichen Sollbruchstelle zu
achten.
When using Diese kann
stranded leadam Auslauf
wires paydes an der Litze
attention entlangfließenden
to avoiding Lots of potential
the formation
entstehen. Aus diesem Grund ist eine Ausführung, wie in Abb.3.38 darge
fracture points when stripping the insulation, tinning and subsequently soldering.
stellt, anzustreben.
These points can occur where the solder ceases to flow along the lead wire, so the
Nach
aim must be der Herstellung
to produce ander Lötverbindungen
arrangement sind dieinLötstellen
as shown Fig. 3.38.und deren
Umgebung gründlich von Flussmittelresten zu reinigen. Dies ist erforderlich,
After making thehohen
um einen soldered
(w20connections,
000 MW) und the solderIsolationswiderstand
konstanten pads and their surroundings
sicher must
zustellen. Flussmittelreste in jeglicher Form, also auch Kolophonium
be thoroughly cleaned to remove all traces of flux. This is necessary to ensure aus dem
Harzkern des Lötdrahts, können in Verbindung mit Feuchtigkeit zu einem
high (≥20 000 MΩ) and consistent insulation resistance. Residual flux in any form
verringerten bzw. veränderlichen Isolationswiderstand führen. Die Problematik
(i.e., including colophony from wird
des Isolationswiderstands the in
resin core
Kapitel 3.6ofnäher
the solder) can,
betrachtet. in Reinigen
Zum conjunction with
moisture, derresult in lower
Lötstellen eignenor variable
sich insulation resistance.
mit DMSReinigungsmittel TheWattestäb
getränkte problems associated
chen. Damit
with insulation wird das Lösungsmittel
resistance are covered aufgegeben
in more detail und unmittelbar
in Sectiondanach
3.6. Amitcotton bud
einem neuen Stäbchen wieder abgetupft. Dieser Vorgang ist solange zu
soaked in SG cleaning agent is suitable for cleaning the soldering points. One is used
wiederholen, bis an der Lötstelle und um diese herum keine Flussmittelreste
to applymehr
the solvent
erkennbar and another, dry cotton bud applied immediately afterwards to
sind.
soak it up. This procedure must be repeated until no more residual flux can be seen
on or around the soldering point.
HBM
52 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

At this point it is again worth remembering that great care must be exercised when
doing this work on open faced SG’s. It lies in the nature of the thing that, exposed very
fine measuring grid structures are susceptible to mechanical stress and impurities
(e.g., through splashes of solder). It is therefore recommendable prior to soldering
and subsequent cleaning of the soldered points, to cover the measuring grid with
54
adhesive tape until the final protective covering is applied.

1 strain relief (adhesive)

1 free from solder

Fig.3.38: Showing the ideal length relationship on the soldering point when using
stranded
Fig. 3.38: Showing lead length
the ideal wires relationship on the soldering point when using stranded
lead wires
At this point it is again worth remembering that great care must be exercised
when doing this work on open faced SG’s. It lies in the nature of the thing that,
exposed very fine measuring grid structures are susceptible to mechanical
3.5 Balancing
stress and impuritiesand
(e.g.,compensation
through splashes ofmeasures
solder). It is therefore recom
mendable prior to soldering and subsequent cleaning of the soldered points,
to cover the contribution
A significant measuring grid withachieving
towards adhesivethe
tape until the
intended final protective
technical cover
specification of a
ing is applied.
transducer is made by the balancing and compensation measures described in detail
in the following Sections. These include:
– Compensation of a temperature error in the Wheatstone bridge circuit, as well as
3.5 Balancing and compensation measures
temperature compensation of the zero point (TC0).
A– significant
Correction of unbalance in
contribution the Wheatstone
towards achievingbridge circuit, also
the intended bridge or
technical zero point
specifica
compensation.
tion of a transducer is made by the balancing and compensation measures
– Compensation
described of temperature
in detail dependence
in the following Sections.ofThese
the transducer
include:sensitivity, as well as
temperature compensation of the sensitivity itself (TCC ).
•– Sensitivity
Compensation of a temperature
and nominal error in the Wheatstone bridge circuit, as
value balance.
well as temperature compensation of the zero point (TC0).
In practice this means the introduction (described later) of fixed and temperature
•sensitive
Correction of unbalance
resistors in the Wheatstone
in the Wheatstone bridge or inbridge circuit,
the input lines.also
Fig.bridge or
3.39 initially
zerothe
shows point compensation.
basic circuit diagram of a SG transducer incorporating these resistors.
• Compensation of temperature dependence of the transducer sensitivity, as
well as temperature compensation of the sensitivity itself (TCC).
• Sensitivity and nominal value balance.
In practice this means the introduction (described later) of fixed and temperat
ure sensitive resistors in the Wheatstone bridge or in the input lines. Fig.3.39
initially shows the basic circuit diagram of a SG transducer incorporating
these resistors.

HBM
 55

in die Speiseleitungen. Die Abb.3.39 zeigt zunächst das prinzipielle Schaltbild

Balancing and compensation measures 53
eines DMSMessgrößenaufnehmers mit den genannten Widerständen.

IB

RE

R1

R0 R4

UA
UB

Rí0 R3

R2

RíE

Abb.3.39: Prinzipschaltbild eines Messgrößenaufnehmers nach dem DMSPrinzip

Fig. 3.39: Basic circuit diagram of a strain gage transducer
Die einzelnen Arbeiten sollten in der hier angegebenen Reihenfolge ausge
führt werden. Dadurch ist gewährleistet, dass sich die einzelnen Maßnahmen
The individual
ergänzen tasks
und in should
ihrer be carried
Wirkung out nicht
möglichst in thegegenseitig
sequence laid down here. This
beeinträchtigen.
ensures that the individual measures supplement each other, and as far as possible
avoids adverse interaction between them.
3.5.1 Die Abgleich und Kompensationselemente
Diese
3.5.1 Abgleich und Kompensationselemente
The balancing and compensation elements zeichnen sich durch ihre
praxisgerechte Gestaltung aus. Die Widerstandsnetzwerke können in einfa
cher
TheseWeise wie Dehnungsmessstreifen
balancing and compensation elements installiert werden
are notable for(siehe Kapitel design.
their practical 3.3.2).
Über das Einstellen
The resistance der can
networks notwendigen
be applied Widerstandswerte
in a simple manner in informiert
the samedas
waynach
as the
folgende Kapitel. Die Tab.3.6 gibt einen Überblick über die verfügbaren
strain gages (see Section 3.3.2). The following Section covers setting of the necessary
Typen, ihrevalues.
resistance technischen
Tab. 3.6 Daten und
provides die Anwendung.
a summary of the available types, their technical
specifications and application.

HBM
54 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

Tab. 3.6: Balancing and compensation elements for constructing balanced and temperature
compensated transducer circuits. The number of resistance steps and the maximum ad-
justable resistance (per half) can be seen from the type designation.
Adjustable foil resistors
for zero point for temperature for temperature
Designation
balancing compensation compensation
of the zero point of sensitivity
Type NA1 6/4, 73 TN1 3/1,05 TC 1 4/60
Design
(magnified)

Resistor Constantan alloy Nickel Nickel

material
Temp. coeff. — 5.0 ⋅ 10−3 /°C 5.0 ⋅ 10−3 /°C
of the resistor
(+20 °C …
+70 °C)
Maximum 4.73 (per half) 1.05 (per half) 60
resistance [Ω]
No. of stages 6 (per half) 3 (per half) 4
Individual 2.4 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.15 32 16 8 4
resistance 0.3 0.15 0.08
in steps ±20 % ±20 % ±20 %
Resist.
tolerance [Ω]
Special Resistance values can be set by cutting the conducting paths.
features Binary incrementing of the settable resistance values.
Explicit marking of all resistance values on the elements.

Symmetrical, double structure with three

connections to link onto bridge corner points,
so allowing balancing or compensation
in positive and negative direction.
 Balancing and compensation measures 55

Adjustable foil resistors

for zero point for temperature for temperature
Designation
balancing compensation compensation
of the zero point of sensitivity
Achievable Zero point TC0 error can be TCC error in steel
balancing compensated to approx. or aluminum
to approx. 0.15 %/10 K relative to elastic elements
0.0285 mV/V or 2 mV/V or 4000 µm/m can be compen-
57 µm/m (smallest (at smallest resistance sated to approx.
∧
resistance step: step: 0.15 Ω = 0.03 %/10 K
∧
0.08 Ω = 11 µm/m/10 K) (at smallest
114 µm/m) resistance step:
∧
4Ω =
2.3 µm/m/10 K)
57

3.5.2 Setting the resistance values

3.5.2 Setting the resistance values
The arrangement of the resistance networks allows simple and reliable setting
of the
The necessary of
arrangement resistance values.
the resistance The procedure
networks is the
allows simple andsame forsetting
reliable all three
of the
elements.
necessary resistance values. The procedure is the same for all three elements. cir
The individual resistors are bridged and are introduced into the The
cuit by mechanically cutting these bridges. The separation is made as shown
individual resistors are bridged and are introduced into the circuit by mechanically
in Fig.3.40
cutting theseatbridges.
the points
Theindicated by isarrows.
separation made as shown in Fig. 3.40 at the points
indicated by arrows.
Cutting several bridges permits any chosen combination of individual resist
ors.
Cutting several bridges permits any chosen combination of individual resistors.

Possible cutting points

shown by

Fig.3.40: Adjustable foil resistor TN1 3/1.05 for temperature compensation of zero
point (enlarged diagram)
Fig. 3.40: Adjustable foil resistor TN1 3/1.05 for temperature compensation of zero point
(enlarged diagram)
There are two different possible methods of cutting the conducting paths.
These are described below. All work should be done under an illuminated
magnifying glass.

The cutting is best made using a highprecision miniature milling tool (dental
cutter, Fig.3.41).

The cutter drive (handheld with integral motor) should run at approx.
10,000rpm. Before commencing work secure the elastic element together
with the applied resistance networks to a firm base.
56 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

There are two different possible methods of cutting the conducting paths. These are
described below. All work should be done under an illuminated magnifying glass.
The cutting is best made using a high-precision miniature milling tool (dental cutter,
Fig. 3.41).
The cutter drive (hand-held with integral motor) should run at approx. 10 000 rpm.
Before commencing work secure the elastic element together with the applied resis-
58
tance networks to a firm base.

Abb.3.41: HartmetallRundkopffräser zum Durchtrennen der Leiterbahnen. Der

Fräserkopf sollte einen Durchmesser von ca. 0,8mm haben; (vergrö
Fig. 3.41: Carbide dental burr (round-head milling cutter) for cutting PC-board conductors.
ßerte Darstellung)
The head should have a diameter of approx. 0.8 mm (shown enlarged)

Zum Auftrennen wird der Fräser ohne Aufbringen einer zusätzlichen Kraft,
also nur
To cut themit dem Eigengewicht,
conductor the cutter must über
be die Trennstelle
moved geführt.area
over the selected Der without
Vorgangapply-
ist
so
ingoft zu wiederholen
extra bis die
force, i.e., purely Leiterbahn
under auf einer
its own weight. ThisLänge von mindestens
procedure must be repeated
0,5mm
until the conductor is interrupted over a length of at least 0.5 mm. Working ist
unterbrochen ist. Das Arbeiten ohne zusätzliche Andruckkraft without
besonders wichtig,
applying extra force denn es soll möglichst
is particularly important,nursince 5 mm
diethe dicke,
object is toleitende Schicht
remove only the
0.5 µm thickwerden.
abgetragen conductingDaslayer.
darunterliegende
Damage to the 4040mmµmdicke
thickKunststoffTrägerma
plastic carrier material
terial darf nur geringfügig verletzt werden. Auf keinen Fall darf
below must be only very slight. Under no circumstances should onediese iso this
penetrate
insulatingSchicht
lierende layer down to the elastic
vollkommen bis aufelement as this will introduce
den Federkörper the risk
durchbrochen of short
werden,
circuiting.
da sonst die Gefahr eines Kurzschlusses besteht.
A scalpel
Eine can be zu
Alternative used as an
dem alternative
genannten to theistdental
Fräser burr. With the
die Verwendung scalpel
eines make
Skal
two parallel
pells. Dabeiperpendicular
werden zwei incisions
paralleleapprox. 0.5im
Schnitte mm apart in von
Abstand the conductor.
ca. 0,5 mm Here too
work with as little pressure as possible. The segment between the
senkrecht zur Leiterbahn angebracht. Auch hier sollte mit möglichst geringertwo incisions must
be completely
Kraft gearbeitetremoved
werden.using
Das fine pointed
zwischen dentweezers.
Schnitten Fig.liegende
3.42 andSegment
Fig. 3.43 der
show
breaks madeistwith
Leiterbahn mit the milling
einer cutter
feinen, and the
spitzen scalpelvollständig
Pinzette respectively. herauszulösen. Die
Abb.3.42 und Abb.3.43 zeigen die mit Fräser bzw. Skalpell erzeugten Un
terbrechungen.

Abb.3.42: Mikroskopische Aufnahme der mit dem RundkopfHartmetallfräser

erzeugten Leiterbahnunterbrechung. Die KunststoffTrägerschicht ist
lediglich an der Oberfläche angefräst".
 Eine Alternative zu dem genannten Fräser ist die Verwendung eines Skal
pells. Dabei werden zwei parallele Schnitte im Abstand von ca. 0,5 mm
senkrecht zur Leiterbahn angebracht. Auch hier sollte mit möglichst geringer
Kraft gearbeitet werden. Das zwischen den Schnitten liegende Segment der
Leiterbahn ist mit einer feinen, spitzen Pinzette vollständig herauszulösen. Die
Abb.3.42 und Abb.3.43 zeigen dieBalancing
mit Fräserand
bzw. Skalpell erzeugten
compensation Un
measures 57
terbrechungen.

Fig. Abb.3.42: Mikroskopische Aufnahme der mit dem RundkopfHartmetallfräser

3.42: Microscopic photograph of a break made in a conductor by a round-headed carbide
erzeugten Leiterbahnunterbrechung. Die KunststoffTrägerschicht ist
milling cutter. The
lediglichsurface
top an derof the plasticangefräst".
Oberfläche carrier layer is merely “scratched” by the cutter.
59
HBM

Fig. Abb.3.43: Mikroskopische Aufnahme der mit dem Skalpell erzeugten Leiterbahn
3.43: Microscopic photograph of a break made in a conductor by a scalpel. The section
unterbrechung. Das zwischen den Schnitten verbleibende Lei
of conductor remaining betweenwurde
terbahnsegment the two incisionsentfernt.
vollständig must be completely removed.

Bei der Arbeit mit dem Skalpell ist das Durchtrennen der KunststoffTräger
When working with the scalpel it is virtually impossible to avoid cutting through the
schicht selbst bei vorsichtiger Vorgehensweise fast unvermeidbar. Da aber die
plastic carrier
dadurch layer even when
entstehenden exercising
Fehlstellen in dergreat care. However,
Isolationsschicht since
nicht the als
größer damage
die to
theSchnittbreite
insulating layer
des is only over
dünnen the cutting
Skalpells widthAbb.3.43),
sind (siehe of the thinistscalpel (see Fig. 3.43),
eine Kurz
there is practicallypraktisch
schlussgefahr no risk ofnicht
short circuits. Wenn
gegeben. Nevertheless,
aber die if onezwischen
Wahl can choose denbetween
either of these two methods, preference must be given to the milling
beiden erwähnten Verfahren besteht, so ist dem Fräser der Vorzug zu geben, cutter because,
whenda used with
hier bei care, it will
sorgfältigem not penetrate
Vorgehen the insulatingan
die Isolationsschicht layer at any
keiner point. While
Stelle
durchtrennt wird. Während des Durchtrennens sollten seine Auswirkungen
making the break its effects should be monitored on an ohmmeter or directly on the
mittels This
amplifier. eines OhmMeters
will allow earlyoder direkt am
recognition of Verstärker
any possibleüberwacht werden.
faults such as short-circuits
Dadurch können mögliche Fehler,
or incorrectly set resistance values. wie z.B. Kurzschlüsse oder falsch einge
stellte Widerstandswerte, frühzeitig erkannt werden.

3.5.3 Die Kompensation eines Temperaturgangfehlers der

Wheatstoneschen Brückenschaltung
(Temperaturkompensation des Nullpunkts)
Dieser Temperaturgangfehler wirkt sich direkt auf die Stabilität des Nullpunkts
aus, daher auch die Bezeichnung Temperaturkoeffizient des Nullpunkts (TK0).
Um diesem Effekt begegnen zu können ist es zunächst notwendig, die Ursa
58 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

3.5.3 Compensation of a temperature error in the Wheatstone

bridge circuit (temperature compensation of the zero point)

This temperature error has a direct effect on the stability of the zero point, hence its
designation also as the “temperature coefficient of the zero point” (TC0). To counter
this effect it is first necessary to look at its causes.
In contrast to the ideal, symmetrical Wheatstone bridge circuit with theoretically no
temperature variation, actual practice shows that the zero signal is dependent to a
greater or lesser extent upon temperature.
This temperature dependence is invariably due to unsymmetrical components of
temperature sensitive resistances within the bridge. These asymmetries cannot be
eliminated even by working very carefully. The reasons for this are:
– Unequal lengths of connection paths within the bridge.
– Within the tolerance range, even in high-quality strain gages, there can differences
in the decisive parameter of temperature characteristic, i.e., their temperature
behavior is not exactly equal. (To minimize this effect all the SG’s in a full bridge
should come from the same pack).
When the specified measuring accuracy demands it, the above mentioned error
can be largely compensated. This is done by introducing an additional temperature
sensitive resistor in the bridge arm with the smaller temperature error (adjacent to
the arm with the larger temperature error), which can be seen from the algebraic
prefix of the measured temperature error. The resistor must have the same tempera-
ture dependence or change its value with temperature by the same amount as the
asymmetries causing the temperature-dependent zero signal. In accordance with the
theory of the Wheatstone bridge, whereby changes in adjacent arms of the bridge
are deducted from each other when they have the same prefix, the effects cancel
each other out (see basic equation (1) for the Wheatstone bridge circuit).
A simple method of compensation is offered by the “Adjustable foil resistance for
temperature compensation of the zero point” in Section 3.5.1. Fig. 3.44 shows the
arrangement of this element in the bridge circuit.
 Balancing and compensation measures 61
59

R1 R4
(+) (−)
SG 1 SG 4

Connect in this
arm for positive
TC0
UA UB

TN13/1.05 Connect in this

arm for negative
TC0
R2 R3
(−) (+)
SG 2 SG 3

Fig.3.44: Wheatstone bridge circuit with the Adjustable foil resistor for temperat
ure compensation
Fig. 3.44: Wheatstone of the
bridge circuit zero
with the point" (Conductor
“Adjustable material:
foil resistor Nickel). The
for temperature com-
symmetrical design and thus the possibility of siting at the
pensation of the zero point” (Conductor material: Nickel). The symmetrical design bridgeand thus
corners allows compensation of positive or negative temperature sig
the possibility of siting at the bridge corners allows compensation of positive or negative
nals.
temperature signals.

If, say, lack of space prevents the use of the resistor network, a comparable
If, say,can
effect lackbe
of obtained
space prevents the fine
by using use of theThis
wire. resistor
wirenetwork, a comparable
must also be made ofeffect
a
material with a significant resistance temperature coefficient. Copper or nickela
can be obtained by using fine wire. This wire must also be made of a material with
significant
wires resistance
are suitable. Astemperature coefficient.
a general rule, Copper
when using or nickel
these wiresthe
materials arefollowing
suitable.
As a general rule, when using these materials the following resistance
resistance temperature coefficient values (applicable to the temperature range temperature
from +20 °C
coefficient values °C) should
(applicable
to +70 to the applied: range from +20 °C to +70 °C) should
betemperature
be applied:
Copper : a + 4 @ 10 *3 W K
W
−3 Ω
Nickel :Copper
a+5@ ∶ 10
𝛼 =*3
4 ⋅W10
K Ω /K
W
Ω
Nickel ∶ 𝛼 = 5 ⋅ 10−3 /K
Shown below is the theoretical method of determining Ω the necessary resist
ances.
Shown below is the theoretical method of determining the necessary resistances.
Resistance value RTN1 for compensating TC0 must be calculated when using
Resistance value RTN1 for compensating TC0 must be calculated when using the resistor
the resistor network. The basis of this calculation is the temperature error
network. The basis of this calculation is the temperature error measured over the
measured over the operating temperature range.
operating temperature range.
Depending upon the associated electronic equipment, the temperature error is
measured either in mV/V or in µm/m. HBM
60 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

In the first case the RTN1 to be set is calculated from the following equation:

UO RSG
RTN1 = 4 ⋅ ⋅ (2)
UB Δ𝜗 ⋅ TCTN1
Derivation of equation (2):
UO 1 ΔR𝜗
= ⋅ (3)
UB 4 RSG
Equation (1) page 8, modified for the quarter bridge circuit:
ΔR𝜗 = 𝛼 ⋅ R0 ⋅ Δ𝜗
ΔR𝜗 = TCTN1 ⋅ RTN1 ⋅ Δ𝜗 (4)
By substituting this equation—describing the temperature dependence of the electri-
cal resistance—in (3), and expressing in terms of RTN1 , we obtain equation (2).
When the temperature error is given in µm/m resistance RTN1 is calculated according
to the following equation:
𝜖 ⋅ RSG
RTN1 = 2 ⋅ (5)
Δ𝜗 ⋅ TCTN1

Derivation of equation (5):

ΔR𝜗
=k⋅𝜖 ≈2⋅𝜖
RSG
ΔR𝜗 = 2 ⋅ 𝜖 ⋅ RSG (6)
Here too equation (4) is substituted for ΔR𝜗 nd then resolved according to RTN1 .
Where:
The resistance value to be set on resistor network TN1 3/1.05 in [Ω]
RTN1 :
RSG : Resistance of the strain gage used in [Ω]
R0 : Original resistance at reference temperature in [Ω]
ΔR𝜗 : Temperature dependent resistance change in [Ω]
TCTN1 : Temperature coefficient 𝛼 of compensation resistance in [(Ω/Ω)/K]
TC of nickel resistor (+20 °C … + 70 °C) to be set on resistor network
TN1 3/1.05: 5.0 ⋅ 10−3 (Ω/Ω)/K
Δ𝜗: Temperature change in [K]

Output signal due to the temperature:

U𝑂
U𝐵
: Relative bridge output voltage in [V/V]
𝜖: Apparent strain in [m/m]
 Balancing and compensation measures 61

If the previously mentioned copper or nickel wires are to be used, the resistance of the
wire and its length must be calculated, such that the resistance change in response
to a given change in temperature is equal to the amount to be compensated.
If the temperature variation is measured in the form of bridge unbalance UO /UB , that
is in mV/V, the following equations apply:
UO 1 ΔR𝜗
= ⋅ (Basic relationship (3))
UB 4 RSG
UO
ΔR𝜗 = 4 ⋅ RSG ⋅
UB
ΔR𝜗 = RWire ⋅ 𝛼Wire ⋅ Δ𝜗
ΔR𝜗
RWire = (7)
𝛼Wire ⋅ Δ𝜗

Where resistance per unit of length is known:

RWire
LWire = (8)
RLWire

If the temperature range is measured in units of strain, µm/m, the following equations
apply:
ΔR𝜗
=𝑘⋅𝜖 ≈2⋅𝜖
RSG
ΔR𝜗 = 2 ⋅ 𝜖 ⋅ RSG
ΔR𝜗
RWire =
𝛼Wire ⋅ Δ𝜗
RWire
LWire =
RLWire

Where:
RWire : Resistance of inserted wire in [Ω]
𝛼Wire : Temperature coefficient of wire material in [(Ω/Ω)/K]
RLWire : Resistance of wire per unit of length [Ω/mm]
LWire : Length of inserted wire in [mm]
Parameters not defined here are contained in the list on page 60.

3.5.3.1 Practical considerations concerning temperature compensation of zero

point in the Wheatstone bridge circuit

Before carrying out the following balancing and compensation corrections on the
example transducer or elastic element described in Section 3.1.1.4, note that this
 65

3.5.3.1 Practical considerations concerning temperature compensation

of zero point in the Wheatstone bridge circuit
62
Before The Routeout
carrying to the
the Measurement Transducer
following balancing and compensation corrections on
the example transducer or elastic element described in Section 3.1.1.4, note
that this transducer
transducer together
together with withillustrated
the stand the standinillustrated in Fig.3.45
Fig. 3.45 must must
be regarded as be re
a single
garded as
fixed unit. a single fixed unit.

Installation Load introduction point

Strain relief

Transducer
connection lead

Stand

Fig.3.45: Simple example transducer for practical illustration. In this type of trans
ducer the defined distance between the point of load introduction, strain
Fig. 3.45: Simple example transducer for practical illustration. In this type of transducer the
gages and clamping device is particularly important
defined distance between the point of load introduction, strain gages and clamping device is
particularly important
This is the only way in which all measurements can be related to a defined,
repeatable starting point. The signal caused by the inherent weight of the
This is the
elastic only way
element, in which
which mustallnot
measurements
be neglected caninbethis
related to a defined,
example, repeatable
is reliably taken
starting
into point.inThe
account thesignal
bridgecaused by the inherent
and sensitivity weightoperation.
balancing of the elastic element,cable
Possible which
must not
effects be neglected
(force shunt) are in this example, is reliably taken into account in the bridge and
minimized.
sensitivity balancing operation. Possible cable effects (force shunt) are minimized.
It lies in the nature of the thing that measurements to discover the temperat
It lies
ure in the nature
behavior and the ofnecessary
the thing that measurements
compensation to discover
measures the temperature
are quite extensive.
behavior and the necessary compensation measures are
This is because, while the measurements are being taken the transducers quite extensive. This is
because,
must while the measurements
be maintained precisely at the arespecified
being taken the transducers
temperatures. The must
chosenbe main-
tem
tained precisely at the specified temperatures. The chosen temperature
perature range should depend upon the transducer’s intended operating tem range should
depend upon
perature. theexample
In this transducer’s
the intended operating
most effective rangetemperature. In this example
for most transducers is the
most effective range for°C
most transducers −10 °C to +70 °C. The
covered, namely, −10 to +70 °C. Theistemperature
covered, namely,
variation is measured at
temperature variation is measured at each end point and in between at +20 °C and
+40 °C. In order to obtain exact results, temperature equilibrium is necessary at each
individual temperature stage. The dwell time necessary for this depends upon the HBM
mass of the transducer or the elastic element, as the case may be.
On our example transducer a temperature error of 𝜖 = +30 µm/m is measured in the
nominated temperature range.
 Balancing and compensation measures 63

measured: 𝜖 = +30 µm/m = +30 ⋅ 10−6 m/m

Δ𝜗 = 80 K

given: RSG = 350 Ω

TCTN1 = 5 ⋅ 10−3 ΩΩ /K

k≈2

required: RTN1
𝜖⋅RSG
RTN1 = 2 ⋅ Δ𝜗⋅TCTN1
in accordance with equation (5)
30⋅10−6 ⋅350 Ω
=2⋅ 80 K⋅5⋅10−3

RTN1 = 0.053 Ω

This calculated value of resistance should be set on the network. However, the small-
est resistance step which can be set on network TN 1 3/1.05 is 0.15 Ω. This value
is derived from the accuracy requirements generally applicable to the transducers
specified in the introduction to this publication. With a nickel resistance of 0.15 Ω, a
TC0 offset of approx. 0.3 %/10 K is achieved relative to 4000 µm/m or 2 mV/V respec-
tively. Accordingly, the TC0 error can be compensated to about half this range, namely
to about 0.15 %/10 K. In this example, however, a TC0 error of 0.09 %/10 K relative to
4000 µm/m output signal is immediately achieved more or less by chance. The need
to trim the network is therefore eliminated, or would lead to “over-compensation”.
In certain instances some benefit may be derived from further reduction of the TC0
error, in which case the necessary compensation can be achieved by inserting a wire,
as described in the preceding Section.
To demonstrate on a practical example the effect of “over-compensation” and that of
the inserted wire (in this case copper wire) the smallest stage (0.15 Ω) in the resistor
network has been introduced into the bridge arm with the smaller temperature error
(see Section 3.5.3). Fig. 3.46 shows the different curves for the temperature error
before and after compensation.
 67

(0.15Ohms) in the resistor network has been introduced into the bridge arm
with the smaller temperature error (see Section 3.5.3). Fig.3.46 shows the dif
64 The Route to the Measurement Transducer
ferent curves for the temperature error before and after compensation.

20 20 TC0 before
18 compensation
15

10

6
5

0
Apparent strain å in mm/m

−5

−9
−10
TC0 after com
−13 pensation with
−15 wire resistor

−20

−25

−30

−35
−37 TC0 after over
compensation"
−40
−10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature í in °C

Fig.3.46: Temperature errors in the example transducer before and after the vari
ous compensation
Fig. 3.46: Temperature measures.
errors in the example The risk of before
transducer overcompensation" existing
and after the various com-
in this case is avoided by using the copper wire.
pensation measures. The risk of “over-compensation” existing in this case is avoided by using
the copper wire.

Determined below is the required length of the copper wire.

measured: 𝜖 after over-compensation = −55 µm/m = −55 ⋅ 10−6 m/m

Δ𝜗 = 80 K

given: RSG = 350 Ω

k≈2

𝛼Copper = 0.004 ΩΩ /K
HBM
RLWire = 0.014 Ω/mm for copper wire 0.04 mm diameter
 Balancing and compensation measures 65

required: LCu Wire

ΔR𝜗 = 2 ⋅ 𝜖 ⋅ RSG

= 2 ⋅ 55 ⋅ 10−6 ⋅ 350 Ω

ΔR𝜗 = 0.0385 Ω
ΔR𝜗
RCu Wire = 𝛼Wire ⋅Δ𝜗
0.0385 Ω
=
0.004 Ω
Ω
/K⋅80 K

RCu Wire = 0.120 Ω

RCu Wire
LCu Wire = RLCu Wire
0.1203 Ω
= Ω
0.013988 mm

LCu Wire = 8.6 mm

After inserting the compensation resistance in the form of a copper wire (now in
the adjacent arm of the bridge), re-checking the temperature error shows a value of
−0.06 %/10 K. This residual temperature error meets very high requirements when
achieved in the manner just described (i.e., with considerable effort). Experience has
shown that, the residual errors of 0.15 %/10 K achieved by using the resistor network,
and thus with comparatively little effort, is quite adequate.

3.5.4 Correcting an unbalance in the Wheatstone bridge (bridge or

zero balance)

Although modern measurement amplifiers used with the transducer generally offer
zero balancing facilities, in actual practice the design aim is for the transducer to
generate practically no signal in the unloaded state. A prerequisite for this is that the
Wheatstone bridge is symmetrical. If this is so, the bridge is balanced to zero.
The causes of signals from an unloaded transducer, i.e., a basic unbalance in the
Wheatstone bridge circuit, are as follows:

– Asymmetries due to different lengths of connection paths within the bridge

– Asymmetries due to slight differences in the resistance of the strain gages
– Asymmetries caused by inserting a resistor during the previous zero point temper-
ature compensation
– Asymmetries due to possible distortion of the strain gage during its installation

The basic unbalance generated in these ways can be balanced by introducing a non
temperature sensitive resistor into the arm of the bridge with the smaller resistance,
66 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

i.e., opposite to the already inserted network TN1 3/10.5. This bridge arm can be iden-
tified from the algebraic prefix of the signal from the unloaded transducer. Balancing
is also carried out in accordance with the theoretical principles of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit, as described in Section 3.5.3.
A simple facility for balancing the bridge is the “Adjustable foil resistor for zero point
balancing”. Fig. 3.47 shows the arrangement of this element in the bridge circuit
70
opposite the TC0 compensation element.

R1 R4
(+) (−)
SG 1 SG 4

Connect into this

arm when bridge
unbalance is
negative
UO UB

Connect into this

arm when bridge NA1 6/4.73 TN1 3/1.05
unbalance is
positive
R2 R3
(−) (+)
SG 2 SG 3

Fig.3.47: Wheatstone bridge circuit with Adjustable foil resistor for zero point bal
ancing" (conductor material: Constantan alloy) and the opposite TC0
Fig. 3.47: Wheatstone bridge circuit with “Adjustable foil resistor for zero point balancing”
compensation element. The symmetrical design and thus the possibility
(conductor material: Constantan alloy) and the opposite TC0 compensation element. The
of sitting at the bridge corner points allows a positive or negative bridge
symmetrical design and thus the possibility of sitting at the bridge corner points allows a
unbalance to be corrected.
positive or negative bridge unbalance to be corrected.

In cases where the resistor network cannot be inserted, e.g., due to lack of
In casesawhere
space, the
similar resistor
result cannetwork cannot
be obtained be inserted,
here e.g., due
too by using fine to lackThe
wire. of space,
wire a
similar result can be obtained here too by using fine wire. The
must have the lowest possible temperature coefficient analogue. Wire madewire must have the
lowest
of possiblealloy
Constantan temperature
offers a coefficient
solution. analogue. Wire made of Constantan alloy
offers a solution.
When using the resistor network it is necessary to calculate the value of the
When usingR
resistance the resistor network it is necessary to calculate the value of the resistance
NA1 needed to balance the bridge. The basis for this calculation is
RNA1absolute
the needed to balance
bridge the bridge.asThe
unbalance basis for this
measured calculation
at the reference is the absolute bridge
temperature.
unbalance as measured at the reference temperature.
Dependent upon the associated electronics the bridge unbalance will be
Dependent upon the associated electronics the bridge unbalance will be measured
measured either a) in mV/V or b) in mm/m.
either a) in mV/V or b) in µm/m.
 Balancing and compensation measures 67

In case a) the resistance RNA1 to be set is calculated from the following equation:

UO
RNA1 = 4 ⋅ RSG ⋅ (9)
UB

Derivation of equation (9):

UO 1 ΔR
= ⋅
UB 4 RSG

Solving equation (1) modified for the quarter bridge circuit in terms of ΔR, RNA1 = ΔR
When the bridge unbalance is measured in µm/m resistance RNA1 is calculated from
the following equation:

RNA1 = 2 ⋅ 𝜖 ⋅ RSG (10)

Derivation of equation (10):
ΔR
=k⋅𝜖 ≈2⋅𝜖
RSG

solved in terms of ΔR, RNA1 = ΔR

Where:
RNA1 : The required resistance value in [Ω] to be set on resistor network
NA1 6/4.73
ΔR: Resistive asymmetry leading to bridge unbalance corresponding to RNA1
in [Ω]
RSG : Resistance of single SG used, this corresponds to bridge arm resistance in
[Ω]

measured bridge unbalance:

UO
UB
: Relative bridge output voltage in [V/V]
𝜖: Strain in [m/m]

3.5.4.1 Practical considerations concerning correction of an unbalance in the

Wheatstone bridge circuit

In the example transducer, a bridge unbalance of = −342 µm/m (reference tempera-

ture 20 °C) was measured after carrying out the TC0 compensation measures.
68 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

measured: 𝜖 = −342 µm/m = −342 ⋅ 10−6 m/m

given: RSG = 350 Ω

required: RNA1 = ΔR

RNA1 = 2 ⋅ 𝜖 ⋅ RSG

= 2 ⋅ 342 ⋅ 10−6 ⋅ 350 Ω

RNA1 = 0.24 Ω

This resistance value must now be set as closely as possible on resistor network
NA1 6/4.73. This is achieved by combining or separating resistance stages 0.15 Ω and
0.08 Ω. The total balancing resistance thus obtained is 0.23 Ω.
The algebraic sign of the measured bridge unbalance determines the arm in which the
resistor must be fitted, and which half of the symmetrical network must be activated,
(see Fig. 3.47).

3.5.5 Compensation of the temperature dependence of the

sensitivity of the transducer

Without suitable countermeasures, in addition to the zero signal, the output signal
from a loaded transducer is similarly influenced by an unwanted temperature depen-
dence. This is manifested in changes in the sensitivity of the transducer in response
to varying operating temperatures. The following applies to all transducers supplied
with a constant voltage:

Bridge output voltage at nominal load − zero signal

Nominal sensitivity =
Bridge excitation voltage
UO
C= (11)
UB

The reasons for this dependence of the nominal sensitivity on the temperature are:

1. The temperature dependence of Young’s modulus of the elastic element material.

The Young’s or elasticity modulus E of the elastic element material used in con-
struction of transducers reduces with increasing temperature. The result is that, a
constantly loaded elastic element experiences greater strain at a higher tempera-
ture than at a lower one. The strain consequently registered by the SG is not only
dependent upon load but also upon temperature. A positive temperature coef-
ficient this exists for the sensitivity. Published literature contains only relatively
general information about the temperature dependence of Young’s modulus of
certain materials, because no account is taken of scatter due to alloying.
 Balancing and compensation measures 69

Tab. 3.7: Temperature dependence of Young’s modulus in commonly used elastic element
materials over the range 0 … 100 °C
Material ΔE/Δ𝜗[10−5 /K]
Spring steel 51 CrV4 −26
74
Spring steel X5 CrNi CuNb 1744 −19
Copper-beryllium CuBe 2 −35
2. The temperature dependence of the gage factor (k) of strain gages
Aluminium AlCuMg 2 −58
The gage factor is a measure of the sensitivity of the strain gages.
2. The temperature dependence of the gage factor (k) of strain gages
The gage factor iska+ DRR 0of the sensitivity of the strain gages.
measure
Dll 0
ΔR/R0
k=
Dl + å ΔI/I0
l0 ΔI
=𝜖
I0
DRR 0 ΔR/R0
k+ å k= (12)
(12)
𝜖
The gagefactor
The gage factoralso
also exhibits
exhibits temperature
temperature dependence.
dependence. Fig.3.48
Fig. 3.48 showsshows the of
the curve
curve of typical gage factor against
typical gage factor against temperature.temperature.

10
Dk/k20 in %

−10
−200 0 200 400

Temperature í in °C

Fig.3.48: Temperature dependence of gage factor. The example shows the curve
for a SG with
Fig. 3.48: Temperature Constantan
dependence alloyfactor.
of gage measuring grid (CuNi55/45)
The example shows the curve for a SG
with Constantan alloy measuring grid (CuNi 55/45)
In foil strain gages with a grid made of Constantan (a copper/nickel alloy) this
dependence is positive and is approx. 0.8...1 ⋅ 10−4/K. Precise specifications
In foil
are strain gages
contained withrelevant
in the a grid made of Constantan
SG data sheets. (a copper/nickel alloy) this depen-
dence is positive and is approx. 0.8 … 1 ⋅ 10−4 /K. Precise specifications are contained
From
in thethe preceding
relevant SG datastatements
sheets. it can be seen that the temperature depend
ence of the sensitivity is influenced by both effects in the same direction.
From the preceding statements it can be seen that the temperature dependence of
For
the compensation purposes
sensitivity is influenced by series resistors
both effects with
in the large
same positive temperature
direction.
coefficients must be inserted in the input leads of the Wheatstone bridge cir
cuit. When the transducer is then exposed to heat the input voltage will be re
duced by an amount equal to the increase in the output signal due to the pre
viously mentioned temperature effects. The result is that, the ratio UO/UB and
thus the sensitivity will remain almost constant.

HBM
70 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

For compensation purposes series resistors with large positive temperature coeffi-
cients must be inserted in the input leads of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. When the
transducer is then exposed to heat the input voltage will be reduced by an amount
equal to the increase in the output signal due to the previously mentioned tempera- 75
ture effects. The result is that, the ratio UO /UB and thus the sensitivity will remain
almost constant.
A simple method of compensation with temperature sensitive resistors is
offered
A simplebymethod
the "Adjustable foil resistor
of compensation withfor temperature
temperature compensation
sensitive resistors of the
is offered
sensitivity". Fig.3.49
by the “Adjustable foilshows theforarrangement
resistor temperatureofcompensation
these elements in the
of the input
sensitivity”.
leads. The
Fig. 3.49 resistance
shows values for
the arrangement ofthe network
these areindesigned
elements the input to balance
leads. the tem
The resistance
perature
values fordependent
the networkchanges in Young’s
are designed modulus
to balance for the most
the temperature commonly
dependent used
changes
elastic element
in Young’s materials.
modulus for the most commonly used elastic element materials.

R1 R4
SG 1 (+) (−) SG 4 TC1 4/60

UO UB

NA1 6/4.73 TN1 3/1.05

R2 R3
(−) (+) SG 3 TC1 4/60
SG 2

Fig.3.49: Wheatstone bridge circuit with Adjustable foil resistor for temperature
Fig. 3.49: Wheatstone bridgeofcircuit
compensation sensitivity" (conductor
with “Adjustable foilmaterial: Nickel).
resistor for For symmetry
temperature compen-
reasons, the calculated resistance RTC1 should be equally distributed
sation of sensitivity” (conductor material: Nickel). For symmetry reasons, the calculated
between the two input leads, i.e. one network per lead.
resistance RTC1 should be equally distributed between the two input leads, i.e. one network
per lead.
When using the resistance network the value of resistance RTC1 needed to
compensate the TCS must be calculated. The basis for this calculation is the
When using
output themeasured
signal resistance at
network theload
nominal valueover
of resistance RTC1 needed
the necessary to compensate
temperature
the TCS must be calculated. The basis for this calculation is the output signal measured
range.
at nominal load over the necessary temperature range.

HBM
 Balancing and compensation measures 71

The value of resistance RTC1 to be set is calculated as follows:

K1
ΔR𝜗 = ( − 1) ⋅ RB (13)
K2
ΔR𝜗
RTC1 = (14)
TCTC1 ⋅ Δ𝜗

Where:

ΔR𝜗 : Temperature dependent change in resistance in [Ω]

RTC1 : The required resistance value in [Ω] to be individually set on resistor
network TC1 4/60
RB : Bridge resistance in [Ω]
TCTC1 : Temperature coefficient a of the compensation resistance in the unit
[Ω/Ω/K] to be set on resistor network TC1 4/60. TC of nickel resistor
(+20 °C … + 70 °C) ∶ 5.0 ⋅ 10−3 Ω/Ω/K
K1 : Output signal from transducer carrying nominal load at maximum oper-
ating temperature in [mV/V] or [µm/m]. These units can be converted
from one to the other using the ratio 4000 µm/m = 2 mV/V applicable to
full bridges and strain gages with a gage factor of 2.
K2 : Output signal from transducer carrying nominal load at reference tem-
perature in [mV/V] or [µm/m]

3.5.5.1 Practical considerations concerning compensation of the temperature

dependence of sensitivity

Measurement of the temperature dependence of sensitivity in the example trans-

ducer gave the following results:
Output signal from transducer carrying the selected nominal load of 1 kg at reference
temperature 20 °C:

2498 µm/m = K2

Output signal from transducer carrying a load of 1 kg at the maximum operating

temperature of 70 °C:

2539 µm/m = K1
72 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

measured: K1 = 2539 µm/m

K2 = 2498 µm/m

Δ𝜗 = 50 K

given: RB = 350 Ω

TCTC1 = 5 ⋅ 10−3 ΩΩ /K

required: RTC1
in accordance with (13):

K1
ΔR𝜗 = ( − 1) ⋅ RB
K2

2539 µm/m
=( − 1) ⋅ 350 Ω
2498 µm/m

= 5.7 Ω
ΔR𝜗
RTC1 =
TCTC1 ⋅ Δ𝜗

5.7 Ω
=
5.0 ⋅ 10−3 ΩΩ /K ⋅ 50 K

22.8 Ω = (2 ⋅ 11.4 Ω)

A value must now be set on the resistor network TC1 4/60; it must be as close as
possible to the calculated value and be shared equally between the two input leads.
This can be achieved by combining or separating the resistance stages 4 Ω and 8 Ω in
both networks.
When structural aspects preclude measurement of the temperature coefficients
(which frequently happens in practice), the TCS can be approximated by following a
standardized compensation procedure shown below.
This can be illustrated by an example:
RB = 350 Ω (bridge resistance)
RTC1 = 30 Ω (estimated value for compensation resistance)
RTotal = 380 Ω (total resistance of input circuit)
 Balancing and compensation measures 73

Temperature-dependent due to variable change in %/K

Δ𝜖 due to ΔE/ΔE20° (steel) approx. +0.03
SG measured value due to Δk/k20° approx. +0.01
Transducer sensitivity ΔC/C20° approx. +0.04
The resistance of the measuring circuit must therefore increase by 0.04 %/K.
In the selected example that is:

380 ⋅ 0.04
ΔRTotal = = 0.152 Ω/K
100

Temperature coefficient of balancing element TCTC1 = 5.0 ⋅ 10−3 /K

The basic resistance of TC1 at 20 °C is calculated from:

ΔRTC1 0.152 Ω/K

RTC1 = = = 30.4 Ω
TCTC1 5 ⋅ 10−3 /K

The closest partial resistance of the TC1 is 32 Ω.

Compared to the result from measurements and calculation (see page 72), scatter
of the variables concerned makes the above-mentioned procedure less accurate,
although for many uses it is certainly still adequate.

3.5.6 Balancing the sensitivity of the transducer

SG transducers are normally designed to deliver an output signal of 2 mV at their

∧
nominal load (= 1000 µm/m component strain) and 1 V input. The sensitivity is
therefore 2 mV/V. Achievement of a relatively tight tolerance on sensitivity is useful,
e.g., when a transducer has to be exchanged because of a defect. It will then not be
necessary to recalibrate the measuring system.
It is not possible to build transducers with exact round figure sensitivities. This is due
to the unavoidable mechanical and electrical tolerances and the already mentioned
balancing and compensation measures. The elastic element should therefore be
dimensioned so that, in the unbalanced state under nominal load it provides a signal
greater than 2 mV/V, e.g., 2.4 mV/V.
To trim the output signal to 2 mV/V we now insert a fixed resistor (with a low tem-
perature coefficient) into the input leads. This resistor, designated as RE , reduces the
input voltage and so consequently the output voltage.
The market offers a large variety of high stability high precision resistors, so they are
relatively easy to obtain. Alternatively, one can produce their own elements with
appropriate resistance material.
74 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

The resistance RE needed to trim the sensitivity can be calculated from the following
equation:

K1
RE = RB ⋅ ( − 1) (15)
K2

Where:
RE : The required balancing resistance in [Ω] in the form of a fixed value
resistance distributed equally between the two input leads
RB : Bridge resistance in [Ω]
K1 : Transducer sensitivity prior to balancing in [mV/V]
K2 : Desired transducer sensitivity after balancing in [mV/V]
We will not consider a practical example at this point, since the design of our example
transducer is aimed more at the preceding balancing and compensation measures,
and less at setting a defined sensitivity.

3.6 Measures to protect the SG installation

Protection of the SG installation is a further important step in the process toward

the finished transducer. This measure is a significant factor in determining whether
the properties of the manufactured transducer will be durable in the long term, and
whether the transducer will resist external influences. Such external influences are
primarily taken to mean mechanical effects and environmental influences. Of the
environmental influences moisture is the most significant.
The effect of moisture on the measurement point can be, for example, to form a
shunt resistance across the strain gages, i.e., the insulation resistance is reduced.
These shunt resistances alter in response to changes in temperature and moisture,
and manifest themselves as long-term drift in the output signal.
The following example is intended to give an impression of the magnitude of the
possible error.
At a strain 𝜖 of 1000 µm/m and a SG resistance RSG = 350 Ω with a gage factor of k = 2
we get an absolute resistance change of R = 0.7 Ω when the transducer is subjected
to nominal load. If insulation resistance RN is regarded as a shunt resistance across
the SG, then the total resistance will be given by:
At a strain å of = 1000 mm/m and a SG resistance RSG = 350Ohms with a
gage factor of k = 2 we get an absolute resistance change of R = 0.7Ohms
when the transducer is subjected to nominal load. If insulation resistance RN
is regarded as a shunt resistance across the SG, then the total resistance will
be given by: Measures to protect the SG installation 75

1 + 1 ) 1 (16)
R Total R SG R N
1 1 1
= + (16)
RR
Total
N @ RR SG
SG
R N
R Total + (17)
RSG RN R SG ) R N
RN ⋅ RSG
RTotal = (17)
RSG + RN
RTOTAL

As already noted, the insulation value RN should be equal to or greater than 20 000 MΩ.
With a SG resistance of 350 Ω this would give the following total resistance:

350 Ω ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1010 Ω
RTotal =
2 ⋅ 1010 Ω + 350 Ω

RTotal = 349.999 Ω

As we can see, the minute change in resistance to be set can be safely disregarded. If
the insulation resistance now decreases to, say, 2 MΩ (possibly due to the effects of
HBM
moisture), we obtain the following equation:

350 Ω ⋅ 2 ⋅ 106 Ω
RTotal =
2 ⋅ 106 Ω + 350 Ω

RTotal = 349.94 Ω

This produces a difference in the total resistance for the two cases of ΔR = 0.06 Ω,
i.e., the change in resistance simulates an strain or change in strain of 85.7 µm/m. At
a nominal load of 1000 µm/m this would represent an error of almost 10 %.
This example shows in a striking manner the extent to which the accuracy of a
transducer can be degraded by moisture. It is also clear that the effect of moisture
increases with larger nominal resistance of the strain gages.
Protection of the installation is indispensable in order to counteract these problems.
The SG accessory range contains a series of suitable covering agents. The HBM publi-
cation “Strain Gages and Accessories” and Bibliography item [4] assist any decision
relating to the extent to which environmental conditions are allowed to influence
the system.
Fig. 3.50 shows that, on our example transducer the SG and the balancing and com-
pensation elements are initially covered with a thin coating of PU 120 polyurethane
76 The Route to the Measurement Transducer

varnish, which in turn is covered with SG 250 silicone rubber. This standard form
of protection has, amongst other things, been well proven on transducers used in
laboratory environments where it provides adequate protection against the forms of
moisture82encountered in these areas, and against mechanical effects.

Abb.3.50: Schutz der Installation durch Polyurethanlack PU120 und Silikonkau

Fig. 3.50: Protection of the
tschuk SG installation
SG250. with PU 120 polyurethane
Die Dehnungsmessstreifen und die übrigen varnish
Elementeand SG 250
silicone rubber. The strain gages and the other elements remain
bleiben durch die transparenten Schichten erkennbar recognizable through the
transparent layers.

HBM
4 Bibliography

[1] K. Hoffmann. An Introduction to Measurements using Strain Gages. Darmstadt:

Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH.
[2] K. Hoffmann. HBM brochure: Applying the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
[3] K. Hoffmann. HBM brochure: How to avoid or minimize errors in strain gage
measurement.
[4] K. Hoffmann. HBM brochure: Practical hints for the application of strain gages.
[5] K. Hoffmann. Manuscript A/001 e: Measurement transducers with SG’s.
[6] HBM publication. Strain Gages and Accessories.
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