Electron Transitions for Hydrogen Atom Bohr’s Atomic Model and Drawbacks 4. An atom consists of small heavy positively charged nucleus in the centre and the electrons revolve around it in circular paths called Y These discrete orbits or shells are called knergy levels|are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. which are represented by letters K, LM, N etc.B. As long as an electron is revolving in a particular stationary orbit, it can neither lose or gain energy. Thus, atom is The change in energy of electron takes place only when an electron moves from one energy shell to another. Also, this change in energy is not continuous but discontinuous. W. The energy of different stationary states in case of hydrogen atom are given by: At highest energy level [E, = Electron coming from higher to lower energy level, electrostatic potential energy decreases. Hence, a -ve sign is placed before a all energy levels. OL oo Peet et [eThe frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy by AE, is given by: &= hv ; (fe h)-hv oa og h h This expression is commonly called Bohr’s Frequency Rule. it kerps. things votohng ata WF OFS) [7 Like energy, the‘angular momentum of an electron in an atom can have certain definite or discrete values and not any value of its own. An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is integral multiple of h/2n that is why only certain fixed{&. The radii of the stationary state of H is expressed as: 2 wherela, = 52.9 pm Or .0529 nm Thus the radius of the first stationary state, called the Bohr orbit, is 52.9 pm or .0529 nm for hydrogen atom. For H like particles, i.e. He*, Li2*, Be** and so on energies of the stationary states are given by the expression: For H like particles, i.e. He*, Li2*, Be* and so on the radii of stationary states is given by the expression: Drawbacks of Bohr'’s Atomic Model Bohr’s model was only applicable to hydrogen and hydrogen like species He*, Li?* etc. It failed to explain the spectrum of multielectron atoms. Each spectral line, when examined at higher magnification, actually consists of a number of smaller fine lines. These are referred to as, hyperfine spectral lines. Bohr's model does not explain the presence of hyperfine lines. Drawbacks of Bohr’s Atomic Model If the source emitting the radiation in line spectrum is placed in magnetic field (Zeeman Effect) and electric field (Stark effect) the spectral lines further split. (feade Broglie Hypothesis aby In 1924, Louis de Broglie, wrote a paper describing that particles like Selectron can also behave as a wave Infact, every matter (particulate in nature of made from particles) when in motion shows wave-like properties . These waves are called matter waves or de Broglie waves. Till now, we know: Light behave as wave. Light also behave as a particle. de Broglie Hypothesis — Experimental Verification Cy in 929) Davison and Germer confirmed with the help an experiment that electron (particle) also shows wave like properties when in motion. Sofall objects around us shows wave like properties when in motion but we aren’t able to perceive them Because [A = h/p}which can be written as(A = h/my — nok observable. > bhsrevable in objtch with vey leo Poss_when | Matter vs Electromagnetic Waves MATTER WAVES ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES rane een kl epee Peauemne asic and magnetic field, perpendicular to Cee eke es Por Mums tetrad ROR ace kurta mom urs eid mee Cane eae Pc Cute ds meee Vo mieiatcasa out \Afi) Their wavelength is given by: \a=c/v)Give a Thought Are you able to identify the exact position and velocity of earth, moon, a bike or a ball? A. Yes B. No Give a Thought Are you able to identify the exact position and velocity of earth, moon, a bike or a ball? LX Yes 8. No * Yes, the position an @ objects can be determined easily as these are large or macroscopic objects. ++> Chandrayaan-3 was landed on the south pole of the Moon because of these exact calculations. + Also, wave properties of these massive objects in motion is also not} lobservable in accordance with de Broglie hypothesis. Give a Thought Are you able to identify the exact position and velocity of microscopic or quantum objects like electron? A. Yes B. NoGive a Thought Are you able to identify the exact position and velocity of microscopic or quantum objects like electron? AL Yes No PCr No, it is impossible to deterr ultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum (or velocity) of an electron or similar quantum objects (proton, neutron etc,). This is also known as Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle given by him in Give a Thought What happens if you try to measure either the position or velocity with accuracy or certainty. If any attempt is made to measure any one of these with higher accuracy the other becomes less accurate or uncertain, $x Ose Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle mca Y ; K Qe + Mathematically the si given by Heisenberg looks ike: ox dx. p= eilsiel) 1" sa cern " Peon ox. may 2B = [Ox .dv> ue *> If the position of the electron is known with high degree of accuracy (Ax is small), then the velocity of the electron will be uncertain [A(v) is large] + If the velocity of the electron is known precisely (A(v) is small), then the position of the electron will be uncertain (Ax will be large)Failure of Bohr’s Atomic Model According to Bohr, electron is always a According to de-Broglie an electron in particle. motion behaves like a wave. ‘According to Bohr, electron moves in This is not possible according to the clearly defined path called orbits. Heisenberg uncertainty principle that This path can completely be defined both the exact position and velocity of only if both the position and the Eee ROTI velocity of the electron are known exactly at the same time. Birth of Quantum Mechanics @ Classical mechanics failed to explain the motion of microscopic particles or quantum particles like electrons. This is because it did not take into account the dual behaviour of matter (de Broglie hypothesis) and Heisenberg uncertainty principle into account. Hence, a new branch of science came into existence called Quantum Mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the motions of the microscopic objects that have both observable wave like and particle like properties Schrédinger Wave Equation ‘on the(wave motion associated with particles like electron In short, it is written as: The solution of this equation gives us values of()and | The total energy of the system takes into account the kinetic energies of all the sub-atomic particles (Sai h (electrons, nuclei), attractive potential between Wave Function] f the electrons and nuclei and repulsive potential among the electrons and nuclei individually.P @ y= become Y hes -ve velurs alerg Yr ave values 20, x do his to make volun +¥% Features of Quantum Mechanical Model [The quantum mechanical model of an atom considers which not only moves in a fixed orbit but can Features of Quantum Mechanical Model {7 Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be determined simultaneously (Heisenberg uncertainty principle) The path of an electron in an atom therefore, can never be determined or known accurately. © This is the reason we talk on probability to find an electron at different points in an atom. ©» The 3D region around the nucleus where the robability to find an electron is maximum is called aDifference Between Orbit and Orbital ORBIT ORBITAL CYMerene eae Eee etre erect kit eaten where the probability of finding the feces Sereda) ieee eed eC Reese eee eee ae ok cd See eee nce ies principle panera (ence na ae Cee ese electrons in an orbit is given b¥2ne) electrons in an orbital EQ) —SS Features of Quantum Mechanical Model [3/ The electrons have quantized or fixed values of energy which are [obtained by the solution of Schrddinger wave equation. Tmhara Dhyaan Kahan Gaya? 5-F-16 Terai iC ATs Cou)Think! Think! Think! The was a that used one quantum number to describe the distribution of electrons in the atom. The only information that was important was the , which was described by the The three coordinates that come from Schrédinger's wave equations are the allowed the electron to occupy therefore required three coordinates, or to describe the orbitals in which electrons can be found. inciple Quantum Number (n The electrons that belong to a particular shell (energy level) are most likely to be found within the corresponding circular area. It is represented by.p which have values from n= 1, finity It tells us about the size and i ‘n?) Electrons that can be there in an orbital = a to find © in this ob psn in His te) Azimuthal Quantum Number (1) Subsidiory [ Steondory Bante NO. have values ranginy shed fanaing ota a a loton-1 {ii) It also tells us about the sub-energy levels/sub-shells within the main energy ee eo It defines the 3D shape of an orbital. For a given value of n, I can level. The energies of different sub-shells within the main shell are|s

The lower the value of (n + |) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same value of (n + I), the orbital with lower value of n will have the lower energy. + Energy of Orbitals in Multielectron Species: 1s 25 2p 35 3p ad 4S OG) (eq fae) (a4) Cad Ge) [ad (vo) . eam inst ect ae ‘ 7 3 3 4 $ 4 Of os Aufbau Principle The word ‘Aufbau’ in German means ‘building up’. The building up of orbitals means filling the orbitals with electrons. In ground state of atoms, the orbitals are filled with electrons in order of their increasing energies. In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and then enter into high energy orbitals only when low energy orbitals are filled Aufbau Principle Nowy vale of (42) fe uill fist occupy Hat eo 8-3-8.Pauli’s Exclusion Principle =") ‘> If anelectron has specific values of 4 quantum number then other electrons are EXCLUDED to have the exact same values of 4 quantum numbers. > In 1926, Pauli stated that, “No two electrons of a multielectron atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.” But how this is possible? Conclusion: 2) Now, no more electron is possible in accordance to Pauli’s exclusion principle. |{ii) It means an orbital can’t contain: n 2 electrons. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle Therefore, this principle can be re-stated as Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must have opposite spi ] This helps in calculating the capacity of electrons to be present in any subshell, Example: ren =i) Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity (hm Energy Level Diagram of Multielectron SpeciesHund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity This rule deals with the filling of electrons into the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (that is, orbitals of equal energy, called degenerate orbitals). According to this, pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied. ® MMM» ® wminw tw oO ut o—— Royle ts a tleehoes (*) : ao”) Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity + Maximum Multiplicity:{Total spin of unpaired electrons is maximum) 17) Electronic Configuration of Atoms [> The distribution of electrons into different shells, subshells and orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration }*> The rules discussed above are used to write the electronic configuration of atoms >There are two ways to represent the electronic configuration of atoms: ae" of, electors ® Q + Principe Semvthal Quart Guat 0Pe) (He) | rey a Beryllium (Be) | Carbon (C) iro) | 4 ast [Eoro rors oa crea Sree Peer orns Oxygen (0) reo al Neon (Ne) Sodium (Na) irr (Mg) ry 0) Silicon (Si) Phosphorus (P) Sulphur (S) eet) ‘Argon (Ar) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca)Halt Bild Fo Bled ss} p Exceptional Configuration anbiteb ove rave StaDIe @ Trick to remember elements from21to 30: Sweety (Scandium) ari (Titanium) (Vanadium) Ct (Chromidm) (Manganese) Fir (Iron) (Cobalt) Nig {Nickel) CuZine (Copper and Zinc) Electronic configuration of elements having atomic number from 21 to 30 is filled according to above rules except atomic number 24 (Chromium) and atomic number 29 (Copper) ‘Neowicv0.(2) > 24 > Chromium (Cr) Prowic wT) >> Coppa) Eecbonic nkiguatin: [Ar] 42 za Ec: [Avast ad = leita) is Exceptional Configuration - Reasons @ It is a well-known fact that symmetry leads to stability. Subshells that are entirely or half-filled have a symmetrical distribution of electrons. This symmetrical distribution of electrons make sure that their shielding of one another is relatively small (lower repulsions between electrons) and the electrons are more strongly attracted by the nucleus, Exceptional Configuration - Reasons @ (Exchange Energy) When two or more electrons with the same spin are present in degenerate orbitals, electrons have a tendency to swap locations, and the energy produced is known as exchange energy. When the subshell is half-filled or totally filled the maximum number of exchanges is possible. As a result, stability is maximum.