Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

Faculty of Materials Technology

Chapter 4. Polymer and

composite processing

Dr. Van-Tien Bui

Email: tienbv@hcmut.edu.vn
Phone: 84‐911552201
 Content
Extrusion-based
5.1 Thermoforming 5.5
processes

Compression &
5.2 5.6 Injection molding
transfer molding

Rotational molding 5.7 Fiber-forming

5.3
and sintering methods

Thermoset Composites
5.4 Extrusion 5.8
Manufacturing Methods
 Selection of plastics processing
 There are many processes for plastics. Selection of a
process depends on many factors including:
- Quantity and production rate
- Dimensional accuracy and surface finish
- Form and detail of the product
- Nature of material
- Size of final product
 Selection of plastics processing
 There are many processes for plastics. Selection of a
process depends on many factors including:
- Quantity and production rate
- Dimensional accuracy and surface finish
- Form and detail of the product
- Nature of material
- Size of final product
Stages of plastics processing

In general, plastics processes have three phases:

1. Heating - To soften or melt the plastic
2. Shaping / Forming - Under constraint of some kind
3. Cooling - So that it retains its shape
 Temperature of plastics processing

Low temperature Softening temperature Molten temperature

- Solution casting
- Thermoforming - Injection molding
- Hand layup - Extrusion

- Foaming - Foaming - Lamination

- Foaming
Raw materials
 Plastic raw materials include Thermosets & Thermoplastics
 Most of plastics are supplied in particulate form (pellets, beads,
granulates) which is convenient for
● Transport and handle
● Blend (with additives)
● Store
● Feed and process
 m < Size < mm
 4.1
Thermoforming
Thermoforming process
Definition: Thermoforming, or sheet forming, is a very old polymer-processing
operation that involves heating a polymer sheet to its softening temperature and then
forming it to a desired shape using vacuum, air pressure, and mechanical mean.
Pressure thermoforming
Materials Used in Thermoforming Process
Thermoforming typically involves heating a sheet of
thermoplastic material and then forming it into a specific shape
using a mold. Some common materials used in thermoforming
include:
 Acrylic (PMMA)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Thermoforming products
 Thermoforming
Advantages Disadvantages
Low machine cost High cost of raw materials (sheets)

Low temperature requirement High scrap

Low mold cost Limited part shapes

Low pressure requirement Only one side defined by mold

Large parts easily formed Inherent wall thickness variation

Fast mold cycles Internal stresses common

Thermoforming animation
Thermoforming process
 5.2
Compression and
Transfer molding
5.2 Compression molding
Definition: Compression molding is a process of molding in which a feeding
material is placed into an open, heated mold cavity. The mold is then closed with a
top plug and compressed with large hydraulic presses in order to have the material
contact all areas of the mold.
Compression Molding Process
1. Charge Loading
Place a pre-weighed amount of
material in a matched metal mold
and closing the mold .

2. Compression
Heat and pressure cause the material
to liquify and flow into the voids in
the tool where it chemically reacts
and hardens into the final shape.
Materials Used in Compression Molding
The material used in compression molding can vary depending on
the application, but some common materials include:
1) Thermosetting polymers, such as phenolic, melamine, and urea-
formaldehyde resins
2) Rubber and elastomers, such as silicone and neoprene
3) Thermoplastic polymers, such as nylon, polypropylene, and
polyethylene
The choice of material depends on the desired properties of the product,
such as strength, durability, flexibility, and heat resistance.
Compression Molding Products

 Kitchenware
 Rubber clothing
 Automotive parts
 Computer and gaming
equipment.
 Appliance housing.
 Medical accessories.
Compression Molding
Advantages Disadvantages
Low capital and tooling costs Low productivity

Low mold maintenance Required additional finishing step

Low residual stress product Limited mold depth

Retained mechanical and electrical

properties
Compression molding animation
5.2 Transfer molding
Transfer molding involves transferring a liquid or melted materials into a
heated mold cavity under high pressure. The material then cures and
solidifies in the mold to form a specific shape. Some common materials used
in transfer molding include:

1.Thermosetting polymers, such as

epoxy, phenolic, melamine, and
silicone resins
2.Composite materials, such as
carbon fiber, fiberglass, and ceramic
composites
3.Elastomer materials, such as
urethane and silicone rubbers
Clip transfer molding
 5.3

Rotational molding
5.3 Rotational molding process
Materials used in rotational molding
Rotational molding involves rotating a hollow mold filled with a
thermoplastic material, typically in a powdered form, around two
perpendicular axes. The material melts and fuses to the inside of
the mold to form a specific shape. Some common materials used
in rotational molding include:
 Polyethylene (PE), including linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE),
high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Nylon (PA)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
Rotational Molding Products
 Tanks– up to 50,000 L
 Environmental products: litter bins, road
cones, bollards, traffic dividers and road
signs.
 Automotive products: diesel fuel tanks,
toolboxes and tractor dashboards.
 Kayaks, canoes and boats
 Products for the outdoors: garden
planters, water butts and furniture.
Rotational Molding
Advantages Disadvantages
Low capital and tooling costs Low productivity

Low scrap Required additional finishing step

Low residual stress product Limited mold depth

Low pressure molding High cost of raw materials (powder)

Ideal for large & hollow part Difficulty in controlling wall thickness

Multi colors product Difficulty in molding ribs

Double wall product Need to precise setting time

Rotational molding animation
Rotational
molding
process
 5.2
Plastic Extrusion
5.4 Extrusion
Definition: Plastics extrusion is a high-volume manufacturing process in
which raw plastic is melted and forced through a shaped die by means of
pressure to form a continuous profile.
Thermoplastic profile extrusion
1. Barrel Extruder

- Barrel is a hollow chamber that

contains the screw to melt and
transport the material
- The barrel is typically made of
metal
- The extruder barrel typically
consists of two main parts: the
barrel body and the barrel insert.
- Heating bands are attached
outside the barrel. Heating bands
are divided into different zones
2. Single Screw Extruders: are the most common continuous extruders due to their
various advantages like low cost, simple design, toughness, reliability, and high
performance/cost ratio.
Feed Compression Metering

Diameter
(D)
Depth Pitch

Length (L)
A typical screw consists of 3 zones:
1.Feed Zone: The flight depth is constant.
2.Transition Zone or Compression Zone: The flight depth starts to decrease. In effect, the
thermoplastic material is compressed and begins to plasticize.
3.Metering Zone: This zone has a smaller flight depth than in the mixing zone but remains constant.
Twin Screw Extruders
Twin screw extruders can be divided into two and can be further
subdivided:
1. Intermeshing extruders
- Co-rotating extruders
- Counter-rotating extruders
2. Non-intermeshing extruders
- Counter-rotating extruders
- Co-rotating extruders
- Co-axial extruders
3. Extruder Die
• An extruder die is a component of an
extrusion machine that shapes the
molten polymer into the desired cross-
sectional shape as it is forced through
the die opening.
• The die is located at the end of the
extruder barrel after the filter.
 Plastic Extrusion Products

As one of the main methods of creating

plastic parts, the overall applications of
the extrusion process are too
widespread. However, the following are
some of the most prominent areas
where plastic extrusion
technologies play an integral part.
• Pipes& Tubes
• Wire Insulation
• Windows
• Doors
• Blinds and Shades
• Cleaning Equipment

The common polymeric materials used are:

Polyethylene; Polyvinyl chloride; Polyamide; Polybutylene terephthalate;
Thermoplastic elastomers; Ethylene propylene copolymers;
Polypropylene; Fluoropolymers
Plastic Extrusion
Advantages Disadvantages
Low tooling and low part cost Limited shape complexity

Continuous process, high productivity Surface finish limitations

Multiple materials are possible in Material limitations

extrusion products
High mixing efficiency
Extrusion
animation
Extrusion process
 01
Injection
molding
Injection molding
Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into
a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals (for which
the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most
commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers.
Process

● 1 - Filling / Melting Stage: The injection molding process begins by filling the hopper with plastic pellets that
feed into the screw barrel of the injection molding machine.
● 2 - Injecting / Packing Stage: Next, the screw pushes the molten plastic into the mold cavity where it takes
form and begins the cooling stage. .
● 3 - Cooling Stage: Coolant lines, typically filled with water, run through the mold to maintain mold temperature,
which helps to cool the part faster. This is highly important as the cooling phase is the most time-consuming
stage of the injection molding cycle due to plastics' insulating properties.
● 4 - Ejection Stage: Once cooled, the mold then opens and the plastic part is ejected by the mold's built-in
ejector pins.
Injection Molding Cycle
Injection Molding Cycle
Injection
mold
Injection mold

Steel mold
Aluminum mold
Injection molding animation
Injection molding process
 Advantages: Disadvantage:
• The main advantage of this process is that • Initial cost/ setup cost of this process is
complex shapes components having small very high due to design, testing and tooling
wall thickness (5-15 mm) can be easily molded of the whole equipment.
and removed from the die without damage. • Investment molding is generally limited to
• Parts which are made by injection molding some special kind of materials like
have good dimensional tolerance. thermoplastic materials or some polymers
• The major advantage of this technique is that only.
the scrap produced by this is very less as • High tooling cost i.e. the mould used is
compare to some other processes. made by several processes and testing the
• Parts made by injection molding process are overall cost of making a single mold is
competing with parts made by investment very high. For different parts different kind
casting and complex machining parts. of molds are required.
• This process is having high production rate as
compare to other techniques.
Applications

• Injection molding is used for making complex shape parts

of various sizes having less wall thickness.
• Typical parts like cup, containers, toys, plumbing fittings,
electrical components, telephones receivers, bottle caps,
automotive parts and components.
 5.5 Extrusion
based processes
Blown Film Extrusion
In the process of Blown Film Extrusion, the common resins that are used are Polyethylenes
(LDPE, HDPE and LLDPE).
Though, various other materials can also be used in this process, as a blend with resins or even
as single layers in the multi-layer film structure.

Schematic diagram of an apparatus that is used to form thin polymer films

Advantages Of Blown Film Extrusion
In a single operation, flat as well as
gusseted tubing are formed
• Regulation of film thickness and width
with the control of air volume in the
bubble
• Elimination of the end effects like edge
bead trim along with non-uniform
temperature which can cause from flat
die film extrusion
• Capability of biaxial orientation, which
allows uniformity in all the
mechanical properties
• Very high productivity
• Allows combination of different
materials as well as properties
 Application
Industry Packaging Shrink Film
Stretch Film
Bag Film
Container Liners
Consumer Packaging Packaging Film For Frozen Products
Shrink Film For Transport Packaging
Food Wrap Film
Packaging Bags
Form, Fill And Seal Packaging Film
Laminating Film Laminating of aluminum or paper used for
packaging milk, coffee, and similar products
Barrier Film Film Made of Raw Materials like Polyamides and
EVOH acting as an aroma or oxygen barrier that are
used to package food, e.g. cold meats and cheese
Agricultural Film Greenhouse Film
Crop Forcing Film
Silage Film
Silage Stretch Film
Films For Packaging
Medical Products
Blown film extrusion process
Extrusion Blow Molding
Extrusion Blow Molding
- Plastic is melted and extruded into a hollow tube
(a parison)
- This parison is then captured by closing it into a
cooled metal mold
- Air is then blown into the parision, inflating it into
the shape of the hollow container, or part
Extrusion blow molding process
Injection Blow Molding
Injection Blow Molding
- Parison is injection molded around a blowing rod
- Injection mold is opened and parision is
transferred to a blow mold
- Soft polymer is inflated to conform to a blow mold
- Blow mold is opened and blown product is
removed
Injection blow molding process
 Blow Molding Products
 Milk bottles
 Pharmaceutical bottles
 Antifreeze bottles
 Garbage cans
 Drums
 Fuel tanks
 Ice chests and coolers
Injection Blow Molding vs
Extrusion Blow Molding
 Blow Molding
Advantages Disadvantages
Well suited for low and high Process and material limitations
production rates
Mold cost is comparative low due to It is not possible to mold in holes,
lower pressure except after the molding
Quick product revisions for increased
flexibility
Tooling is less expensive than other
moldings
Price per part is less than that in
rotational molding
 5.5
Fiber-forming methods
FIBER WHICH PROCESSED BY MELT SPINNING : Polyester, Nylons, Olefins, Polypropylene, Saran, Sulfar etc.
Classification
Melt spinning
REQUIREMENTS OF MELT SPINNING
The polymer should not be volatile.
The polymer should not decompose in the molten state and the melting point.
Polymer should be 30 degree centigrade less than its decomposition temperature.

ADVANTAGES OF MELT SPINNING :

Can be used for both staple and
continuous filament. Direct and simple
process.
No environment pollution.
No solvent required.
Non toxicity and no risk of explosion.
High production speed ( 2500 – 3000
ft/min ).
Low investment cost.
DISADVANTAGES OF MELT SPINNING :
Required more proper maintenance of
the Moisture content.
Heat of input is high.
Solution spinning
Dry spinning
ADVANTAGES OF DRY SPINNING :
Wet spinning It is suitable for heat sensitive polymer.
The post spinning operation is simple.
High spinning speeds can be easily achieved.
Moderate concentration of polymer is
required.
It is relatively flexible process and spinning
conditions can be modified.
Suitable for producing fine denier fibers.
No need to wash the fiber.
DISADVANTAGES OF DRY SPINNING :
Investment cost is high.
Slow process
Difficult to achieve exact cross section of
fibers.
Additional post spinning process is required.
Toxic and risk of explosion.
Heat input is very high.
Can not be used for staple fiber production.
 Solution spinning
Dry spinning
Wet spinning

ADVANTAGES OF WET SPINNING :

Large tows can be handled.
Better than melt and dry spinning
for temperature sensitive polymers.
DISADVANTAGES OF WET
SPINNING :
Slow process ( 70 – 150 yd/min ).
Washing to remove impurities.
Solvent and chemical recovery is
costly.
Lower production rates than melt
or dry spinning due to viscous drag.
GEL SPINNING
Gel spinning is a special process used to obtain high strength or other special fiber properties. The polymer is
not in a true liquid state during extrusion. Not completely separated, as they would be in a true solution, the
polymer chains are bound together at various points in liquid crystal form.

ADVANTAGES OF GEL SPINNING :

Medium speed ( up to 1500 m/min).
Suitable for liquid crystalline
polymers.
DISADVANTAGES OF GEL SPINNING :
Environmental pollution hazards.
Purification of the filament is
needed.
Cumbersome technology
ELECTROSPINNING
Electrospinning is a fiber production method which uses electric force to draw charged threads of polymer
solutions or polymer melts up to fiber diameters in the order of some hundred nanometers.
Electrospinning shares characteristics of both electrospraying and conventional solution dry spinning of fibers.
The process does not require the use of coagulation chemistry or high temperatures to produce solid threads
from solution.
This makes the process particularly suited to the production of fibers using large and complex molecules.
Electrospinning from molten precursors is also practiced; this method ensures that no solvent can be carried
over into the final product.
 5.6
Thermoset Composites
Manufacturing Methods
Thermoset Composites Manufacturing Methods
Composites manufacturing is a process that uses two or more materials to create a new material with unique
characteristics. While composites are most often thought of in terms of carbon fiber, the process can be used
with other materials including glass fiber, aramid fiber and natural fibers.

4 Resin injection
1 Hand layup method

5 Pultrusion
2 Vacuum bag method

6 Filament winding
3 Autoclave method

High and low temperature

7 compression moulding
1. Hand layup method:
The Hand Layup method is simple and suitable for simple components. A coat of resin is applied on a
tool surface and a layer of mat or fabric reinforcement is placed on the tool surface. The process is
repeated till the required thickness of the laminate is reached. This is cured at 25 – 40 degree Celsius.
No pressure is required.
2. Vacuum bag method:
Lay-up of laminates is covered by an airtight rubber membrane and the air under membrane is evacuated,
which helps compaction and removal of air bubbles. This is cured at 25 – 40 degree Celsius at a pressure
of 1 bar.
 3. Autoclave method:
This method is similar to the
vacuum bag method. The laid
up assembly is covered with an
airtight assembly and sealed
against the tool. The assembly
is then placed in an autoclave
where vacuum, pressure and
the cure process is tightly
controlled.
 4. Resin injection:
This method requires top and bottom halves of tools whose shape corresponds to the desired thickness and
configuration of the part. The reinforcing materials, in the form of fabrics or mats, are placed between the tool
halves in dry plates. The resin is injected by means of vacuum. The system is cured at 25 – 40 degree Celsius
at a pressure of 1 bar.
 5. Pultrusion:
This is the reverse of extrusion. Material is pulled through a die. This method is used for producing straight
lengths of solid or hollow cross section.
 6. Filament winding:
Resin covered continuous rovings, bands or mats are placed on a rotating mandrel and cured. This
method is used to produce parts with elliptical or oval cross-sections and circular cross sections