ENGG1350 Thermofluid Mechanics

1. Properties of fluids

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Course learning outcomes

• Able to appreciate the practical importance of

thermofluid mechanics and understand the basic
concepts and working principles of thermal sciences
and physics of fluids.
• Able to show awareness of ethical, socio-economic
and technological implications of issues involving
thermofluids in the natural and built environments.

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Course lecturer for hydrostatics

• Dr. Ting Fong May Chui (Department of Civil Engineering)

• E-mail: maychui@hku.hk
• Office: Haking Wong Building, Room 6-24

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Suggested books
• Applied fluid mechanics (Global Edition) 7th edition (the main book of
this course)
• Authors: Mott, Robert L.; Untener, Joseph A.
• Identifier: ISBN 9781292073125
• Hard-copy: 1 day reserve in HKU Main Library
• Online access: limited numbers of users at the same time and limited
number of pages for download per day in HKU Libraries Website
• Other libraries: Hong Kong Academic Library Link (HKALL,
https://hkall.hku.hk/), Hong Kong Public Libraries
• Publisher’s website (Pearson Education)

• Engineering Fluid Mechanics 9th Edition

• Authors: Clayton T. Crowe, Donald F. Elger, Barbara C. Williams, John A.
Roberson
• Identifier: ISBN 9780470259771

• Fluid Mechanics 5th Edition

• Authors: J. F. Douglas, J. M. Gasoriek , John Swaffield, Lynne Jack
• Identifier: ISBN 9780131292932
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• Covers of recommended books

The main book

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 Administrative
• Additional study materials
• Fluid Mechanics I, an open
course from California State
Polytechnic University, Pomona
(http://www.cpp.edu/~meonlin
e/fluid-mechanics.shtml):
• Concept/Derivation videos - video
# 1.1 to video # 5 (Recommended,
for review of concepts)
• Lecture videos: Professor John
Biddle's lecture series - Lecture 1
to 5
Example: List of the concept video
for Fluid statics provided by Cal
Poly Pomona 6
 • How large is the force exerted on the dam?

Source: Asia Times Three Gorges Dam (height: 181 m) 7

 • Why ship floats on water?
• How to determine the ship's stability?

The world's first electric cargo ship built by China

Source: businessinsider.com 8
Topics of the hydrostatics module

1. Properties of fluids
2. Hydrostatic pressure and manometers
3. Hydrostatic force on plane and curved surfaces
4. Buoyancy and flotation

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Study objectives for topic #1 Properties of fluids:

• Definition of fluid: differentiating between a solid, a gas,

and a liquid
• Definition of density, specific weight, and specific gravity
and the relationships among them
• Definition of pressure, Pascal’s laws on pressure, and
surface tension
• Definition of viscosity (dynamic viscosity, and kinematic
viscosity)
• Definition of Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid
• Describing viscosity measurement

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Fundamental concepts
• What are fluids?
• Fluids can be either liquids or gases and they can be
characterized by their physical properties (e.g., density, specific
weight, specific gravity, surface tension, and viscosity)

• What is fluid mechanics?

• Fluid mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids, either at
rest (fluid statics or hydrostatics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).

• What are the main topics in hydrostatics?

• Measuring the physical properties of fluid, e.g., surface
tension, viscosity
• Pressure measurement and forces exerted on surfaces due to
fluid pressure
• Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies
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 Definition of fluid
• A fluid is a substance whose molecules move freely past
each other
• Under the action of a shear stress, a fluid is a substance that will
continuously deform (or flow)
• A solid will deform under the action of a shear stress but will not flow like a
fluid
• Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids

Molecules have low Liquids typically flow Molecules move

Mobility of mobility because they are easily even though there around freely with little
Molecules bound in a structure by are strong intermolecular interaction
strong intermolecular forces between molecules 12
forces
 Solid Liquid Gas
Water

Copper
Chlorine
Source: thanhphatcucr.com
Source: www.water.org.uk Source: SchoolWorkHelper

Wood
Source: Unsplash oxygen
Source:istockphoto.com 13
Source: NovaElements
Differences between liquid and gas
Liquid Gas

Macroscopic Liquids take the shape When a gas is held

Description of the container and under pressure in a
will stay in open closed container, it
container tends to expand and
completely fill the
container.

If the container is
opened, the gas tends
to expand more and
escape from the
container.
Compressibility Difficult to compress Easy to compress
Molecular Spacing Small—molecules are Large—on average,
held close together by molecules are far apart
intermolecular forces 14
Definition of pressure

• Pressure is defined as the amount of force (𝐹𝐹) exerted on a

unit area of a substance or on a surface (𝐴𝐴). This can be
stated by the equation:
𝐹𝐹
𝑝𝑝 =
𝐴𝐴
N
• The pascal (Pa) is the SI derived unit of pressure (1 Pa = 2,
m
1kPa = 103 Pa, 1MPa = 106 Pa)

• Fluids are subjected to large variations in pressure

depending on the type of system in which they are used

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Pascal’s laws on pressure
• Pascal’s laws:
• Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of a fluid
• In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts perpendicular
to the boundary

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Pressure calculations
Problem:
• Compute the magnitude of
the pressure in the liquid
under the piston if the total
weight of the piston and the
load is 800 N and the area of
the piston is 3000 mm2
Solution:
𝐹𝐹 800 N
• 𝑝𝑝 = = = 2.7 ×
𝐴𝐴 3000 mm2

105 Pa = 0.27 MPa

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Compressibility

• Fluids are compressive when pressure presents; because the

existence of spaces between molecules

• Compressibility is defined as the change in volume (𝑉𝑉) of a

substance that is subjected to a change in pressure on it
• Fluids have varying compressibility: Gases are readily compressible;
Liquids are only slightly compressible
• Application: compressing air to save storage spaces

• The usual quantity used to measure compressibility is the bulk

modulus of elasticity or, simply, bulk modulus, 𝐸𝐸:
−∆𝑝𝑝
𝐸𝐸 =
(∆𝑉𝑉)/𝑉𝑉

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 • High variations in bulk
modulus among liquids
• Liquid are often
considered as
incompressible for
simplicity

• The term bulk modulus is NOT usually applied to gases, and the
principles of thermodynamics must be applied to determine the change
in volume of a gas with a change in pressure.

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Bulk modulus calculations

• Problem:
• Compute the change in pressure that must be applied to
water to change its volume by 1 %

• Solution:
The 1 % volume change indicates that ∆𝑉𝑉⁄𝑉𝑉 = −0.01,
∆𝑝𝑝 = −𝐸𝐸 ∆𝑉𝑉⁄𝑉𝑉 = 2179 MPa ∗ 0.01 = 21.79 MPa

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Definition of weight and mass

• Mass, m, is a measure of the quantity of fluid, and

also a measure of its inertia or resistance to a
change in motion

• Weight, w, is the amount that a body of fluid

weighs, that is, the force with which the fluid is
attracted towards earth by gravitation

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Calculations of weight and mass

• Weight is a force; mass is the quantity of a

substance

• We can relate weight and mass by applying

Newton’s law of gravitation:
• w = mg
• g = 9.81 m/s2

• Example: calculate the weight of 5.60 kg water

w = 5.60 kg * 9.81 m/s2 = 54.9 N

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Definition of density, specific weight, and
specific gravity
• Density, 𝜌𝜌, is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance
𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝜌 =
𝑉𝑉

• Specific weight, 𝛾𝛾, is the amount of weight per unit volume of a

substance
𝑤𝑤
𝛾𝛾 =
𝑉𝑉

• Specific gravity, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, is the ratio of the density (OR specific weight) of
a substance to the density (OR specific weight) of water at 4°C
𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = =
𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 @4°C 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 @4°C

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Definition of density, specific weight, and
specific gravity
• Calculations of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠:
𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 @4°C=9.81 kN/m3
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 @4°C=1000 kg/m3

𝛾𝛾𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 3
=
9.81 kN/m 1000 kg/m3

• Note: The 𝜌𝜌, 𝛾𝛾, and 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 of fluids vary with temperature

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Calculations of density, specific weight, and
specific gravity
• 𝜌𝜌 or 𝛾𝛾 can be found when the other is known: 𝛾𝛾 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔

• Problem:
• A reservoir contains oil of mass of 950 kg and volume of 0.950 m3,
calculate its density, specific weight, and specific gravity

• Solution:
𝑚𝑚 950 kg 3
• Density: 𝜌𝜌0 = = = 1000 kg/m
𝑉𝑉 0.950 m3
• Specific weight: 𝑤𝑤 = 950 ∗ 9.81 m⁄s 2 = 9.319 kN

𝑤𝑤 9.319 kN 3
𝛾𝛾0 = = = 9.81 kN/m
𝑉𝑉 0.950 m3
𝛾𝛾0 9.81 kN/m3
• Specific gravity: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 9.81 kN/m3
= 9.81 kN/m3
=1
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Calculations of density, specific weight, and
specific gravity
• Problem:
• Glycerin at 20°C has a specific gravity of 1.263. Compute
its density and specific weight

• Solution:
• Density: 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∗ 1000 kg/m3 = 1263 kg/m3
• Specific weight: 𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∗ 9.81 kN/m3 = 12.39 kN/m3

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Definition of surface tension
• Surface tension (𝜎𝜎) is a material property whereby a liquid
at a material interface exerts a force per unit length along
the surface
• It is caused by the stronger molecular attraction of the fluid surface,
compared to that at lower levels
• Quantitatively, 𝜎𝜎 is measured as the work per unit area required to
move lower molecules to the surface of the liquid, the common unit
is N/m:
Work N ∗ m
𝜎𝜎 = = = N/m
area m2
• Liquids have varying 𝜎𝜎
• 𝜎𝜎 is different at different temperatures; lower 𝜎𝜎 presents at higher
temperatures

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Illustration of surface tension
• The effect of capillary action
• A small-diameter tube is inserted
into a reservoir of water
• The relatively greater attraction of
the water molecules for the glass
rather than the air causes the
water surface to curve upward in
the region of the glass wall
• Weight of water (down) is balanced
by surface tension force (up)

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Illustration of surface tension

Source: chem.libretexts.org

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• Problem:
• To what height above the reservoir level will water (at 20°C) rise
in a glass tube, such as that shown in the previous figure, if the
inside diameter of the tube is 1.6 mm? (𝜎𝜎 = 0.073 N / m, 𝛾𝛾 = 9790
N/m3)
Solution:
• Force balance: Weight of water (down) is balanced
by surface tension force (up):
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 − 𝑊𝑊 = 0
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 ∗ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝛾𝛾(∆h)(𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2 /4)=0 , where, “∗
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐” calculates the force in the vertical direction
• Because 𝜃𝜃 is small, it can be assumed to be 0°
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 − 𝛾𝛾(∆h)(𝑑𝑑 2 /4)=0
4𝜎𝜎
∆h= = 18.6 mm
𝛾𝛾𝑑𝑑

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Experiments with Surface Tension

• YouTube video: Seven Science Experiments with Surface

Tension, by Physics Girl
• https://youtu.be/WsksFbFZeeU

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Definition of viscosity

• Viscosity is the internal friction of a fluid, caused by

molecular attraction, which makes it resist a tendency to
flow

shear stress

shear stress
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 Definition of viscosity

Source: FreeImages.com

Source: Dreamstime.com

• How do we quantify viscosity?

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 Definition of viscosity
• Shear force 𝑭𝑭 is an unaligned force pushing one part of a body in one
specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite
direction
• Shear stress τ is defined as a force per unit area, acting parallel to an
infinitesimal surface element
• 𝐹𝐹 = τ ∗ A

Solid
Fluid

Source: psu.edu
If a shear stress is applied to the surface of a When a shear stress is applied to the surface
solid, the solid will deform a little, and then of the fluid, the fluid will continuously
remain at rest (in its new distorted shape). Solid deform, i.e. flow. The fluid cannot remain at
(at rest) is able to resist the shear stress. rest under application of a shear stress.

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Dynamic viscosity

• The fluid has the same velocity as the boundary: velocity at top layer,
𝑣𝑣; velocity at bottom layer, 0
• The velocity changes linearly with depth
• The velocity gradient is defined as ∆𝑣𝑣/∆𝑦𝑦
• The shear stress, τ, is proportional to the velocity gradient:
τ=η ∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦
where: η is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
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Dynamic viscosity
• Dynamic Viscosity η:
τ ∆𝑦𝑦
η= =τ( )
∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑣𝑣
• The unit of η:
N m N∙s
η= 2 ∗ = 2 = Pa ∙ s
m m/s m

• For the commonly used fluid, η ranges from 1 * 10-4 Pa ∙ s to

60.0 Pa ∙ s
• water (25 °C): 8.9 * 10-4
• motor oil (20 °C): 0.079 to 0.630 (depending on the grade)

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Definition of kinematic viscosity

• Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic

viscosity to the density of the fluid
𝑣𝑣 = η/𝜌𝜌

• Unit of 𝑣𝑣
η kg m3
𝑣𝑣= = ∗ = m2 /s
𝜌𝜌 m ∙ s kg

• For the commonly used fluid,𝑣𝑣 ranges from 1 * 10-7

m2 /s to 7 * 10-2 m2 /s

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Viscosity at different temperature

• Liquid’s viscosity decreases

as the temperature
increases
• Smaller energy barriers

• Gas’s viscosity increases as

the temperature increases

38
 Gas’s viscosity at different temperature

• A molecule in a low-density gas is analogous to people jumping back and forth

between two conveyor belts moving at different speeds
• At higher temperature the “jump” is more frequent, larger shear force is
needed for maintaining the layers’ speed
• Gas’s viscosity increases as the temperature increases 39
Viscosity at different temperature

• Viscosity index (VI), is an unitless measure of the

change of viscosity with temperature, mostly used to
characterize the viscosity-temperature behavior of
lubricating oils
• VI is determined by measuring the kinematic viscosity of the
sample fluid at 40°C and 100°C and compared to certain
reference fluid

• Viscosity Index:
• High viscosity index corresponds to small changes in
viscosity with temperature
• Low viscosity index corresponds to large changes in viscosity
with temperature
40
Typical viscosity index curves

41
Experiments of Viscosity

• YouTube video: viscosity oils, by Vall Zimov

• https://youtu.be/V5a4kP-5Jiw

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Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid
• The study of the deformation and flow characteristics of substances is
called rheology
• Fluids for which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
strain (which is a measure of deformation) are called Newtonian fluids

𝜏𝜏

∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦 43
Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid
•Non-Newtonian fluids:
• Time-independent: the viscosity at any given shear stress
that does NOT vary with time
• Time-dependent: the viscosity changes with time

•The time-independent non-Newtonian fluids

• Viscosity has non-linear correlation with velocity gradient
∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦 (Pseudoplastic and Dilatant fluid); ∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦 is also
called shear rate.
• Viscosity has linear correlation with ∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦, but requires
a significant level of shear stress to initiate flow (Bingham
fluid)

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Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid
• The slope of the curve for shear stress versus the velocity gradient is a
measure of the apparent viscosity of the fluid
• Apparent viscosity (η) is the shear stress applied to a fluid divided by the velocity
gradient (i.e., the shear rate)

Bingham fluid Newtonian fluid

Pseudoplastic
Pseudoplastic
Dilatant fluid

Newtonian fluid
Dilatant fluid
Bingham fluid

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Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid

• Time-dependent non-Newtonian fluids

• Are very difficult to analyze because apparent viscosity
varies with time as well as with velocity gradient and
temperature
• Thixotropic Fluids: the apparent viscosity decreases with
time as shear rate remains constant
• Rheopectic Fluids: the viscosity increases with time

46
Experiments of non-Newtonian fluid

• YouTube video: ScienceMan Digital Lesson - Physics - Non-Newtonian

Fluids, by ScienceMandotcom
• https://youtu.be/2mYHGn_Pd5M

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Measuring viscosity

• Various ways of measurement

• Measuring the viscosity in its basic units
• Relative measurement, comparing viscosity among the
fluids

• Devices for characterizing the flow behavior of

liquids are called viscometers or rheometers
• Laboratory instruments
• Quality control for production

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Measuring viscosity
τ
Viscosity: 𝜂𝜂=
∆𝑣𝑣⁄∆𝑦𝑦

49
Rotating-drum viscometer
Measuring viscosity
• Energy loss due to viscosity
• Measure the energy loss by pressure drop
• Relate viscosity to the pressure drop

Source: nptel Capillary Tube Viscometer

50
 Measuring viscosity
• Steps:
1. Fill the vessel and the circular tube with a liquid whose viscosity has to be
measured. Maintain the level of the liquid in the vessel to keep the flow rate
in the tube stable.
2. Measure the flow rate 𝑞𝑞 in tube by weighing the collecting tank over time;
measure the pressure difference between the start and the end of the tube,
ℎ𝑓𝑓 , using piezometers. ℎ𝑓𝑓 reflects the energy loss related to viscosity.
3. Viscosity can be calculated as a function of ℎ𝑓𝑓 , 𝑞𝑞, 𝐿𝐿, 𝑤𝑤 (specific weight), and 𝑑𝑑
(diameter of the tube) using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation (equation is not
covered in this course).

51
Source: nptel
Measuring viscosity
• Glass capillary viscometers

52
Cannon–Fenske routine viscometer Cannon–Fenske routine viscometer
Measuring viscosity

• YouTube Video: Ubbelohde Glass Capillary Kinematic Viscometer

Demonstration, by Mark Bajor
• https://youtu.be/pIoYM5F14xI

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Measuring viscosity
• The ease with which a fluid flows through a small-diameter
orifice is an indication of its viscosity
• Unit of the
measurement result:
Saybolt Universal
seconds (SUS); NOT
standard viscosity unit

Saybolt Universal
Viscometer
54
There are empirical
methods for
converting SUS to 𝑣𝑣;
but SUS is useful itself,
for comparing
different liquids

55
ISO Viscosity Grades
• A set of 20 ISO viscosity grades are defined for the lubricants

56
Exercises

• 1. The maximum pressure that can be developed for a certain fluid

power cylinder is 22.0 MPa. Compute the required diameter for the
piston if the cylinder must exert a force of 45 kN. [51.03 mm]

• 2. Compute the pressure change required to cause a decrease in the

volume of mercury by 3%. Express the result in MPa. (Bulk Modulus
for mercury is 24,750 Mpa). [742.5 Mpa]

• 3. A storage vessel for gasoline (sg = 0.68) is a vertical cylinder 10 m

in diameter. If it is filled to a depth of 6.75 m, calculate the weight
and mass of the gasoline. [3.536 MN, 360.5Mg]

57
Exercises
• 4. Air at 16°C and standard atmospheric pressure has a specific
weight of 12.02 N/m3. Calculate its density. [1.23 kg/m3]

• 5. A fluid has a kinematic viscosity of 6 cm2/s. Its density is 1000

kg/m3. What is its dynamic viscosity? [0.6 Pa ∙ s]

• 6. Explain why gas’s viscosity increases as the temperature increases

and liquid's viscosity decreases as the temperature increases.

58
References

• Images on slide 16, 17, 19, 35, 41, 45, 49, 52, 54, 55, 56; and exercise
questions are from Applied fluid mechanics (Global Edition) 7th
edition (ISBN 9781292073125)
• Images on slide 12, 14, 28, 32, 39, 43, are from Engineering Fluid
Mechanics 9th Edition (ISBN 9780470259771)
• Source of the images on other slides is given where they are used.

59