Geomaze Community

mahmoud ahmed hassan abdelrahman

[COMPANY NAME] [Company address]
Why Geophysics?
The earth has it's own physical properties such as different rock densities and layers of strata; rocks that
are conductive or radioactive to varying degrees and local variations of the gravitational or magnetic
fields.
Mineral and hydrocarbon desposts are rare events occupying a tiny portion of the earth's crust.
Consequently the physical properties where they are located are out of the ordinary - referred to by the
term "anomalous"
Geophysical exploration involves the search for these anomalies in the earth's crust.
When we measure geophysical properties the results can give us indirect insight into the geology and
potential of mineral and hydrocarbon deposits hidden benearth the surface.
An understanding of geophysics such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic
at the surface of the Earth provides us the means to measure the physical properties of the subsurface,
along with the anomalies in those properties.
Uses
Exploration geophysics is most often used to detect or infer the presence and position of economically
useful geological deposits, such as ore minerals; fossil fuels and other hydrocarbons; geothermal
reservoirs; and groundwater reservoirs.
Detection illuminates the target style of mineralization, via measuring its physical properties directly.
For example
you may measure the density contrasts between the dense iron ore and the lighter silicate host rock, or
you may measure the electrical conductivity contrast between conductive sulfide minerals and the
resistive silicate host rock.

The main detection techniques used are:

• Seismic – refraction, reflection,MASW, cross-hole, downhole

• Geo-electrical – resistivity,
• Induced Polarisation (IP),
• Self-Potential (SP)
• Electromagnetic (EM)
• Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
• Seismoelectric (SE)
• Magnetic
• Gravity
• Radiometrics
• Borehole Geophysics
Geophysics and Subsurface Mapping
Geophysics may also used to map the subsurface structure of a region, to elucidate the underlying
structures, spatial distribution of rock units, and to detect structures such as faults, folds and intrusive
rocks.
This is an indirect method for assessing the likelihood of ore deposits or hydrocarbon accumulations.
Geophysics may also be used for:
• monitoring environmental impact
• imaging subsurface archaeological sites
• ground water hydrolgical investigations
• subsurface salinity mapping
• civil engineering site investigations
• interplanetary imaging
Seismic
Seismic surveys measure vibration as it passes through the Earth. This is done using a series of
geophones (sensors connected to wires) placed using handheld tools and arranged in an array or specific
pattern. This gives information about the properties of the rocks, often down to depths of several
kilometres. The vibrations may be induced using truck-mounted vibrating weights or small explosives.
Seismic surveys are particularly suited to specific geological forms including flat-lying sedimentary
basins. The three methods commonly used for exploration, engineering, and environmental applications
are:

• refraction

Seismic refraction surveying consists of an in-line geophone array recording the arrival time of
subsurface acoustic energy head-waves. The waves are generated from both ends of, and at
intermediate locations within the geophone array.
Common energy sources used for shallow surveys include striking a sledgehammer against a steel
plate on the ground, or black powder blank explosives (e.g. buffalo gun) triggered in shallow holes
(e.g. 30 cm).
For engineering surveys, between 12 and 48 geophones are commonly used to record ground
movement at surface.
Depth estimates for refracted energy arrivals can be calculated using the measured head-wave
arrival times and known geophone array geometry. Seismic refraction is effective in areas where
 acoustic energy propagation velocities increase with depth and where there is a significant velocity
contrast between upper layer material (e.g. alluvial sediments) overlying more competent lower
layer material (e.g. bedrock, ablation till).
The primary limitation of seismic refraction is that it is dependent upon the assumption (for a given
survey area) that signal velocities will increase with depth as head-waves propagate through the
ground. In instances where low-velocity layers are buried below high-velocity layers (e.g. gravel
deposits buried below ablation till sediments) the method will fail to detect the low velocity layer
(i.e. hidden layer) and produce erroneous refractor arrival depth estimates.
An additional limitation is that the method requires proper coupling between the geophones and the
ground. In areas such as cobble and boulder bars it may not be possible to obtain good ground
coupling. Over active channel areas, refraction survey data is prone to significant noise interference
from moving water and in most instances data collection is logistically impractical to obtain.
A further requirement of refraction surveys is that the geophone array length must at least 5 to 10
times the distance to the target depth zone of interest. The geophone array must also be in a
straight-line to avoid errors in calculated refractor depths.
• reflection

Seismic reflection techniques are the most widely used geophysical technique in hydrocarbon
exploration. They are used to map the subsurface distribution of stratigraphy and its structure which
can be used to delineate potential hydrocarbon accumulations. Seismic reflection maps contrasts
in seismic impedance, which is the product of seismic velocity (the speed at which seismic waves
are transmitted by the soil or rock) and density. The “reflection coefficient” – the amount of energy
reflected at a boundary – is directly proportional to the difference in seismic impedance. Seismic
reflection is much more sensitive to subtle changes and is capable of imaging much finer detail
than seismic refraction. However, data acquisition and processing are significantly more complex.
 • Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)

multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) method is one of the seismic survey methods
evaluating the elastic condition (stiffness) of the ground for geotechnical engineering purposes.
MASW first measures seismic surface waves generated from various types of seismic sources—
such as sledge hammer—analyzes the propagation velocities of those surface waves, and then
finally deduces shear-wave velocity (Vs) variations below the surveyed area that is most responsible
for the analyzed propagation velocity pattern of surface waves. Shear-wave velocity (Vs) is one of the
elastic constants and closely related to Young’s modulus. Under most circumstances, Vs is a direct
indicator of the ground strength (stiffness) and therefore commonly used to derive load-bearing
capacity. After a relatively simple procedure, final Vs information is provided in 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D
formats.

Geo-electrical - Resistvity

Earth geophysical properties include: density, magnetic susceptibility and permeability, seismic velocity,
dielectric permittivity, electrical conductivity/resistivity and chargeability.
Ohm’s law (V=IR where V is the Voltage I is the Current and R is the resistance), states that the
current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two
points, if you run a current through different materials ou can calculate the electrical resistance by
measuring the voltage and current applied.
In practice this means that a resistivity survey will form an electrical circuit through the ground and take
voltage and current measurements to calculate the resistivity of the sub-surface rocks.
Controlled Source Electro-Magnetics (mCSEM) can provide pseudo-direct detection of hydrocarbons
by detecting resistivity changes over geological traps (signaled by seismic survey).
Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) surveys are relatively new compared with GPR and seismic
refraction.ERT is an advanced geophysical technique used to determine the subsurface’s electrical
resistivity distribution by making measurements on the ground surface.

Resistivity, measured in Ωm, is the mathematical inverse of conductivity and represents a bulk physical
property that describes how difficult it is to pass an electrical current through the material. ERT involves
introducing a DC electrical current into the ground with two electrodes and measuring the voltage drop
across the surface of the ground with two other electrodes. Because electrical flow disperses throughout
the ground, these surface measurements provide information about the electrical character of materials
below the earth’s surface. The primary control on the depth of investigation for a measurement is the
distance between the electrodes. ERT profiles are produced by modeling the data from a series of
measurements at different depths and locations along a survey line. ERT data are rapidly collected with
an automated multi-electrode resistivity meter.
Induced Polarisation (IP)
IP surveys induce an electric field in the ground and measure the chargeability and resistivity of the
subsurface. The technique can identify changes in the electric currents caused by different rocks and
minerals. Readings are taken by a small crew who shift a ground array or pattern of transmission and
receiver cables.

In an IP survey, in addition to resistivity measurement, capacitive properties of the subsurface materials

are determined as well. As a result, IP surveys provide additional information about the spatial variation
in lithology and grain-surface chemistry. IP survey can be made in time-domain and frequency-domain
mode. In time domain Induced polarization method, voltage decay is observed as a function of time after
the injected current is switched off. In frequency-domain Induced polarization mode, an alternating
current is injected into the ground with variable frequencies. Voltage phase-shifts are measured to
evaluate impedance spectrum at different injection frequencies, which is commonly referred to as
spectral IP

These surveys are most often used in metallic mineral exploration

Surface EM methods are based mostly on Transient EM methods using surface loops with a surface
receiver, or a downhole tool lowered into a borehole which transects a body of mineralisation. These
methods can map out sulphide bodies within the earth in 3 dimensions, and provide information to
geologists to direct further exploratory drilling on known mineralisation. Surface loop surveys are rarely
used for regional exploration, however in some cases such surveys can be used with success (e.g.;
SQUID surveys for nickel ore bodies).

Self-Potential (SP)
Various potentials are produced in native ground or within the subsurface altered by our actions. Natural
potentials occur about dissimilar materials, near varying concentrations of electrolytic solutions, and
due to the flow of fluids.
Sulfide ore bodies have been sought by the self potential generated by ore bodies acting as batteries.
Other occurrences produce spontaneous potentials, which may be mapped to determine the
information about the subsurface.
Spontaneous potentials can be produced by mineralization differences, electro-chemical action,
geothermal activity, and bioelectric generation of vegetation.
Standard SP surveys utilise non-polarising, porous pot electrodes, which have been specially adapted to
minimise contact voltages. The electrodes in contact with the ground surface should be the
nonpolarizing type, also called porous pots porous pots. Porous pots are metal electrodes suspended in
a supersaturated solution of their own salts (such as a copper electrode suspended in copper sulfate)
within a porous container. These pots produce very low electrolytic contact potential, such that the
background voltage is as small as possible.
Readings are typically taken with one electrode fixed at a base station and a second, mobile 'field'
lectrode that is moved around the survey area. Reading stations are spaced at regular intervals along
linear profiles, closed loops or grids depending upon the desired application. The self potential method is
traditionally used as a mineral exploration tool and for downhole logging in the oil industry. More recently
it has been adapted for hydrogeological and water engineering applications, by the use of more sensitive
equipment and the careful application of data correction processes.

Electromagnetic (EM)
EM surveys induce an electromagnetic field and measure the three dimensional variations in
conductivity within the near-surface soil and rock. Conductive units can be studied to locate metallic
minerals, and to understand groundwater and salinity. Ground readings are taken by a small crew who
shift a ground array or pattern of transmission and receiver cables.

click here for .mp4 video in new window showing how different depths are measured
above is the profile based on the video

EM methods generally measure the electrical resistivity of subsurface materials. There are several
categories of EM instruments. They are differentiated from one another by either the way they generate or
measure electrical potential resulting from the interaction of EM energy surface and subsurface
materials.

The main categories include:

• Frequency Domain,
• Time Domain, and
• Very Low Frequency (FDEM, TDEM, and VLF, respectively)
Very Low Frequency (VLF) may be used to map structure when combined with magnetics. The system
typically responds to variations in overburden conductivity, to large faults or shear zones, and to graphitic
formational conductors. The VLF signal is transmitted around the world by governments, primarily for
submerged submarine communication.
For Australia there is a transmitter at Exmouth (19.5KHz)that suited N-S striking rocks the one at
Woodside Victoria that suited E-W striking rocks was demolished in 2015. , Monte Grande,
Argentina(17.3KHz), TGolfo Nuevo, Chubut, Argentina(12.9KHz), Plaine Chabrier, Reunion
Island(12.3Khz) Signals from these transmitters act as primary fields that are capable of energizing
conductive bodies (such as graphite, metallic minerals and structures) in the ground. Once energized,
the current within these bodies emits a secondary field forming the basis for a geophysical exploration.

Electromagnetic (EM) surveys can be used to help detect a wide variety of mineral deposits, especially
base metal sulphides via detection of conductivity anomalies which can be generated around sulphide
bodies in the subsurface. EM surveys are also used in diamond exploration (where the kimberlite pipes
tend to have lower resistance than enclosing rocks), graphite exploration, palaeochannel-hosted
uranium deposits (which are associated with shallow aquifers, which often respond to EM surveys in
conductive overburden). These are indirect inferential methods of detecting mineralisation, as the
commodity being sought is not directly conductive, or not sufficiently conductive to be measurable.
Electric-resistance methods such as induced polarization methods can be useful for directly detecting
sulfide bodies, coal and resistive rocks such as salt and carbonates.

Ground Penetrating Radar(GPR)

Ground penetrating radar is a general term to describe methods that use radio waves (10 MHz – 1.2 GHz)
to probe subsurface objects or geologic features. GPR is a non-invasive electromagnetic (EM)
geophysical technique for subsurface exploration and characterization. GPR systems transmit impulse
electromagnetic energy (i.e. radio waves) into the ground and detect echoes, or reflected wave front
energy, at the ground surface. This process is somewhat similar to p-wave seismic reflection methods
and theoretical similarities exist between the kinematic properties of elastic and electromagnetic wave
propagation. GPR is capable of profiling sediment stratigraphy and bedrock surface elevations
GPR is a subsurface imaging technique that utilizes high frequency electromagnetic energy (typically in
the 50 MHz to 2 GHz range). The EM waves are transmitted into the subsurface and a portion of them are
reflected back to a receiver each time an interface between contrasting material types is encountered.
The rapid acquisition and processing of GPR data makes it a popular geophysical method for shallow
subsurface exploration. However, GPR signals are attenuated rapidly by soils with high clay content thus
making it more popular for site with high sand content in the soil.
GPR is useful for a variety of applications, including:

• Soil stratigraphy
• Sub-slab void delineation
• Pavement and sub-base thickness
• Bridge deck assessment
• Buried object location
• Utility locationIce thickness determination
• Bathymetry
• Grave location
• Karst feature mapping

Seismo-electric(SE)
Gravity and magnetics are also used, with considerable frequency, in oil and gas exploration. These can
be used to determine the geometry and depth of covered geological structures including uplifts,
subsiding basins, faults, folds, igneous intrusions and salt diapirs due to their unique density and
magnetic susceptibility signatures compared to the surrounding rocks. Remote sensing techniques,
specifically hyperspectral imaging, have been used to detect hydrocarbon microseepages using the
spectral signature of geochemically altered soils and vegetation. Specifically at sea, two methods are
used: marine seismic reflection and electromagnetic seabed logging (SBL).Marine Magnetotellurics
(mMT) or marine

Magnetic(Mag)

To a first approximation, Earth’s magnetic field resembles a large dipolar source with a negative pole in
the northern hemisphere and a positive pole in the southern hemisphere . The dipole is offset from the
center of the earth and also tilted.
The north magnetic pole at the surface of the earth is approximately at Melville Island.

The field at any location on (or above or within) the Earth are generally described in terms described of
magnitude (|B||B|), declination (DD) and inclination (II) The magnitude of the vector representing Earth’s
magnetic field. DD: Declination is the angle that H makes with respect to geographic north (positive angle
clockwise). II: Inclination is the angle between B and the horizontal. It can vary between -90° and +90°
(positive angle down).
Most of the magnetic field comes from inside the earth and it can be from the geomagnetic dynamo or
from crustal rocks that have become magnetised. In addition there are also magnetic fields that come
from outside the earth. The solar wind interacts with Earth’s magnetic field and creates a magnetosphere
that is “tear-dropped” shape. This diurnal variation need to be corrected for.
Generally the easiest way to do this is to have two magnetometers - one that is moving and doing the
survey and a second that is stationary. The stationary one records the diurnal variation which is then
removed from the moving one's data.
This results in a set of magnetic data showing only differences in the earth's magnetic field.
Magnetic surveys measure the variations of the Earth’s magnetic field due to the presence of magnetic
minerals. Subtle variations in the abundance of magnetic minerals are used to interpret rock types and
can assist in identifying resources. These surveys are typically undertaken by a geophysical technician on
foot carrying a magnetometer and a sensor on a pole. They are most often used in metallic mineral
exploration.
Magnetometric surveys can be useful in defining magnetic anomalies which represent ore (direct
detection), or in some cases gangue minerals associated with ore deposits (indirect or inferential
detection). The most direct method of detection of ore via magnetism involves detecting iron ore
mineralisation via mapping magnetic anomalies associated with banded iron formations which usually
contain magnetite in some proportion. Skarn mineralisation, which often contains magnetite, can also be
detected though the ore minerals themselves would be non-magnetic. Similarly, magnetite, hematite and
often pyrrhotite are common minerals associated with hydrothermal alteration, and this alteration can be
detected to provide an inference that some mineralising hydrothermal event has affected the rocks.

Gravity
A gravimeter measures the gravity field to determine variations in rock density in the Earth’s crust.
Ground gravity surveys require a geophysical technician to take gravity measurements at set intervals of
distance and record the precise height at each location. Access to the recording sites can be by vehicle
or helicopter, depending upon remoteness. These surveys are used in mineral and energy exploration.
Contrasts in earth’s gravitational field can often be attributed to local changes in the density of
subsurface materials or the presence of engineered structures. Sensitive gravity meters are utilized to
measure the gravitational field at designated points within the area of interest
Gravity surveying can be used to detect dense bodies of rocks within host formations of less dense wall
rocks. This can be used to directly detect Mississippi Valley Type ore deposits, IOCG ore deposits, iron
ore deposits, skarn deposits and salt diapirs which can form oil and gas traps.

Radiometrics
The radiometric, or gamma-ray spectrometric method is a geophysical process used to estimate
concentrations of the radioelements potassium, uranium and thorium by measuring the gamma-rays
which the radioactive isotopes of these elements emit during radioactive decay.
Airborne gamma-ray spectrometric surveys estimate the concentrations of the radioelements at the
Earth's surface by measuring the gamma radiation above the ground from low-flying aircraft or
helicopters.
All rocks and soils contain radioactive isotopes, and almost all the gamma-rays detected near the Earth's
surface are the result of the natural radioactive decay of potassium, uranium and thorium. The gamma-
rays are packets of electromagnetic radiation characterised by their high frequency and energy. They are
quite penetrating, and can travel about 35 centimetres through rock and several hundred metres through
the air. Each gamma ray has a characteristic energy, and measurement of this energy allows the specific
potassium, uranium and thorium radiation to be diagnosed.
The gamma-ray spectrometric method has many applications but is used primarily as a geological
mapping tool. Changes in lithology, or soil type, are often accompanied by changes in the concentrations
of the radioelements. The method is capable of directly detecting mineral deposits. Potassium alteration,
which is often associated with hydrothermal ore deposits, can be detected using the gamma-ray
spectrometric method. It is also used for uranium and thorium exploration, heat flow studies and
environmental mapping.
Radiometric surveys measure gamma rays which are continuously being emitted from the Earth by
natural decomposition of some common radiogenic minerals. Most gamma rays emanate from the top 30
centimetres of rock or soil which can be detected by airborne surveys or on surface rocks using a hand-
held spectrometer. These surveys are most often used in metallic and industrial mineral exploration.

Gamma-ray spectrometers which are designed for the detection and measurement of low-level radiation
from both naturally occurring and man-made sources, associated with the radioactive elements;
thorium, potassium, and uranium. Gamma Ray Spectrometry provides a direct measurement of the
surface of the earth, with no significant penetration, but permits reliable measurement of the radioactive
element contacts to the mapped bedrock and surficial geology. Potassium (K), uranium (U) and thorium
(Th) are the three most abundant, naturally occurring radioactive elements.
K is a major constituent of most rocks and is the predominant alteration element in most mineral
deposits.
Uranium and thorium are present in trace amounts, as mobile and immobile elements, respectively.
As the concentration of these different radioactive elements varies between different rock types, we can
use the information provided by a gamma-ray spectrometer to map the rocks.
Where the 'normal' radioelement signature of the rocks is disrupted by a mineralizing system,
corresponding radioelement anomalies provide direct exploration guidance.