CHAPTER 5

Implementation of Building
Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal
Systems and Case Studies

5.1 Introduction
The recent rapid expansion in installed photovoltaic (PV) capacity is largely
due to the increase in grid-connected photovoltaic systems mounted on
buildings. The term ‘‘building integrated’’ refers to PV systems that constitute
part of a building envelope, but has also been used to describe systems that are
simply mounted on the rooftops of buildings. For this reason, it is best to
describe building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems as those that are
readily integrated with the physical building or with the building’s grid con-
nection. The integration of such systems usually requires the advice of pro-
fessional civil engineers, architects and PV system designers during the design
of the system and the building. In this case, a good evaluation of the installation
site is required so as to maximize solar coverage and electricity output. BIPV
systems are usually installed on facades, building window systems and as
flexible rolls on roofs. Consequently, BIPV systems often have restricted views
of the Sun, and their orientation must be optimized for the particular cir-
cumstances of their installation site.1
BIPV technologies can achieve significant cost reductions when they are used
as part of the building envelope and thereby offset the cost of the building
materials they replace. Many modern exterior claddings can have costs per
square metre comparable to the price of PV modules. At the leading edge of
BIPV systems are the three main thin-film photovoltaic technologies (a-Si,
CdTe and CIGS) that are at present commercially available. The most
important issues for the successful integration of thin-film BIPV technologies
include gaining experience on the design and operation of such systems as well

RSC Energy Series No. 4

Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems: For Sustainable Developments
By Basant Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari
r B. Agrawal and G. N. Tiwari 2011
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org

170
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 171
as acquiring knowledge of their life-cycle costs. This chapter provides an overall
view of BIPV technologies in countries where its implementation is at mature
stage and summarizes ongoing research.

5.2 Implementation in Germany

The cumulative solar PV-installed capacity in Germany has increased from
195 MW in 2001 to 5337 MW in 2008, making Germany the largest market for
PV installations worldwide with a global market share of 35% in the year
2008.2 A further 2.5 GW was added in that year, taking the total to 7.8 GW at
end of the year 2009. Solar power now meets about 1% of the country’s
electricity demand. The capacity factors are relatively low due to the low
insolation for most of Germany, about 80–90 W m2.
Germany has positioned itself as an excellent location for solar energy
investments due to strong governmental support, the availability of a highly
qualified workforce, and a plentiful supply of scientific research centres and
universities, such as the Fraunhofer and Max Planck Institutes. All these fac-
tors put together guarantee rapid and smooth implementation and develop-
ment of PV projects in the country. The German support mechanism for PV
systems is a feed-in tariff. There are four tariffs altogether and they vary,
depending on the size. The highest tariff is for installation of a system with a
size of less than 30 kWp capacity. In addition, there is an automatic increase or
decrease of the degression rate if the installed capacity is above or below certain
values in a year. The façade tariff bonus was withdrawn in 2009. The tariffs are
granted on the day the contract starts and they are guaranteed for 20 years.
Waldpolenz Solar Park is the world’s largest thin-film PV power system,
installed by JUWI Group in Waldpolenz. It was fully operational by the end of
2008 and electricity producing capacity is 40 MWp. 550 000 cadmium telluride
(CdTe) modules made by First Solar are being used, which supply about 40 000
MWh of electricity per year. Among the BIPV installations, a 5 MWp PV
system on the rooftop at Bürstadt and 3.9 MWp on a single roof at Muggen-
sturm are among the largest in the world. Other solar roofs of the megawatt
category can be seen on four factory stores of the private company Franz
Fischer in Dingolfing (Bavaria; 3.7 MWp) and in the Michelin Solar Park
Homburg (Saarland; 3.5 MWp). On the roof of the new Trade Fair in Munich
an impressive 2.1 MWp have been installed, the roofs of the Solar Park Pfers-
dorf achieve 2 MWp and a logistics centre in Relzow (Mecklenburg, West
Pomerania) has 1.5 MWp.

5.2.1 BIPV Systems on the Rooftop and as a Façade of the

Mont-Cenis Academy
The town of Herne possesses a 1 MW rated capacity BIPV system on the roof
and as a façade of a spectacular building, making it one of the largest BIPV
systems in the world. Figure 5.1 shows an aerial view of the BIPV system on the
172 Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 The BIPV system at Mont-Cenis Academy: top, aerial view of the rooftop
BIPV array; bottom left, inside view; bottom right, BIPV façade and free
ventilation system in the glass walls.3,4

rooftop, an inside view and the façade, respectively, of Mont-Cenis Academy

(51132 0 29 0 0 N 7115 0 14 0 0 E) at Herne Sodingen. The academy has average winter
and summer ambient temperatures of 4.8 1C and 14.35 1C, respectively. The
annual sunshine lasts for nearly 1454 hours, i.e. 3.98 hours per day.
The 2900 semi-transparent PV modules with an overall 925 kWp rated out-
put combine to make 9800 m2 for the BIPV roof. The use of modules with
different cell-area ratios and different levels of translucency creates a pattern
resembling a cloud-patterned sky. It is possible to walk on the roof for main-
tenance and every point on the roof can be reached easily. Another 284
modules with overall 75 kWp rated output are integrated in the southwest
façade and cover about 800 m2 area of the building. The solar cells (poly- and
monocrystalline type) have efficiencies of 12.5% and 16%, respectively. The PV
modules are up to 3.2 m2 in size and tilted due south at an angle of 51 in order to
let the rain wash the surface and leave the modules clean.
PV modules and glass panes of the overhead glazing rest on aluminium
profiles and are held in place with aluminium pressure plates. The vertical PV
and glass façade is carried out as a structural glazing façade. Their glass panes
and PV modules are glued onto aluminium profiles. All the aluminium profiles
are mounted on the load-bearing wooden substructure designed especially for
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 173
this project. The interconnecting plugs and the required cabling are integrated
in the aluminium profiles which hold the PV modules and glass panes into
place. Like this they are invisible and protected against weather conditions and
ultraviolet light.
The measured energy output is 600–650 MWh per year, which is nearly twice
as much power as the building needs, and the CO2 reduction is 525 tonnes per
annum.5 The surplus energy of the system is used in nearby homes. Owing to
failure of the natural ventilation system, the air temperatures below the PV
modules are much higher than expected. If site conditions had been taken into
consideration while designing the system, such as optimized inclination and
orientation, it could have resulted in much higher output. Although the PV
modules are mounted only with a slope of 51, the saw-tooth roof causes some
shading on the PV modules in the early morning and evening hours as well as in
winter, when the Sun is low at the horizon.

5.2.2 A BIPV System as a Rooftop in Burstadt

Figure 5.2 shows a 5 MPp BIPV system built on a local logistics business’s roof
at Burstadt (49138 0 50 0 0 N 8127 0 50 0 0 E) in Hessen and has been in operation since
2005.6 There are 29 182 monocrystalline modules (made by BP Solar) covering
roughly 45 000 m2 of roof area.7 The plant produces about 4200 MWh of
electricity per year at an efficiency of 10%. It accounts for 9% of the annual
electricity consumption of Burstadt, which corresponds to the consumption of
about 1200 households. The power is fed through three inverters into the public
grid.
Some junction boxes prone to overheating were replaced in 2006 and 2007 as
a precautionary measure. However, on 21st June 2009, fire exploded and
destroyed nearly 200 m2 of the BIPV system. As a precautionary measure and
to enhance security the whole plant was shut down.8 On the roof, 18 modules

Figure 5.2 A BIPV system as a rooftop at Burstadt, Hessen.

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Figure 5.9 A PV system integrated on the southern horizontal louvres and roof
shelter of the Itoman City Government Building: left, aerial view; right,
closer view of the southern louvres.

operate during power failure in case of disaster. As the Itoman City Hall is in
the coastal area, consideration of corrosion protection against briny air had
been taken into account. The solar cells are protected with two layers of tem-
pered glass provided on both the front and back sides to have a self-washing
effect by rainwater.

5.4.3 A PV Integrated Shelter for the Bus and Taxi Terminal at

Kanazawa Station
Figure 5.10 shows the PV system of capacity 110 kWp installed as a shelter for a
bus and taxi terminal at Kanazawa station (36134 0 41 0 0 N 136138 0 51 0 0 E) in Ish-
ikawa and has been in operation since 2005.20 Amorphous silicon modules
made by the Kaneka Corporation were used in the array. The electricity gen-
erated by the system is used for lighting of underground passages and for
displays.

5.4.4 The Solar Ark Building at Gifu Prefecture

Figure 5.11 shows the Solar Ark building constructed by Sanyo at the Gifu
Prefecture (35119 0 50 0 0 N 136140 0 17 0 0 E). Around 5046 PV panels were incorpo-
rated and have a cumulative capacity of about 630 kWp to produce electricity.21
The Ark is 315 metres long, weighs 3000 tonnes and can produce 530 MWh of
clean energy per year. It includes 412 lighting units between the solar panels,
each with 51 red, green and blue LEDs. The entire system is computer con-
trolled and can create a variety of images and characters. The outstanding fact
is that most of the monocrystalline modules used were factory rejects headed
for the scrap pile. The Ark stands as one of the best examples of BIPV design.
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 183

Figure 5.10 A PV integrated system for the shelter of a bus and taxi terminal at
Kanazawa station.

Figure 5.11 The Solar Ark building constructed by Sanyo at the Gifu Prefecture.

5.5 Implementation in the United States

In the United States, there is no single market for PV systems but a con-
glomeration of regional markets and special applications for which PV modules
offer the most cost-effective solution. Since 2002, the grid-connected market has
been growing much faster owing to a wide range of ‘‘buy-down’’ programmes,
sponsored either by individual states or utilities. The main breakthrough was
reached when the 2005 Energy Bill was passed by the Senate. In January 2006,
the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) passed the ‘‘California
Solar Initiative’’ to offer rebates on solar PV systems.
In 2008, the US was the third largest market, with 342 MW of PV instal-
lations, 292 MW of which were grid connected.22 California, New Jersey and
Colorado account for more than 75% of the US grid-connected PV market. In
2008 the cumulative installed capacity was around 1.15 GW (768 MW grid
connected). Production grew by 53% to 414 MW, mainly driven by the pro-
duction increase of thin-film manufacturers United Solar (a-Si) and First Solar

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188 Chapter 5
insufficient level. A renewed effort was initiated in 2001 by the ‘‘First Basic Plan
for Renewable Energy Development and Dissemination’’. The Government
magnified the effort in 2003 by enacting the ‘‘Second Basic Plan for Renewable
Energy Development and Dissemination’’, which contained an ambitious plan
for PV dissemination of 1.3 GWp by 2012.27 Korea sees PV systems as a pro-
mising industry which could create a large number of jobs by utilizing the
infrastructure and the resources of semiconductor and display industries, where
Korea has a world-class leadership.
The market expanded accordingly to about 6 MW in 2005, which was about
140% growth from 2.5 MW in 2004. In 2006, 2452 systems of total capacity
6.5 MWp were installed on single-family houses. PV systems on multifamily
apartments were a new application in 2006 and it is expected that this will be a
popular market. Under the programme, beneficiaries pay 30% of the total
system price. In 2008, Korea came fourth in the list of installed PV capacity
according to EPIA statistics.28 This position was achieved owing to a favourable
feed-in tariff system with a cap of 500 MWp in 2008. In that year the Korean
government changed its successful feed-in tariff system. As a result of this
change, the recently ignited Korean PV market is likely to shrink over the next
three to four years compared with the success in 2008. The forecast market size
in 2009 is around 98 MWp, increasing to 132 MWp by 2010. Further growth to
more than 160 MWp is foreseen for 2011. The government aims to reach 1.3
GWp of cumulative installation by 2012. The emphasis is on the development of
rooftop BIPV systems for residential use. This includes 100 000 rooftop systems
each with a capacity of 3 kWp for the roof of single-family house, 40 000 systems
each with a capacity of 10 kWp for public buildings and 30 000 systems each
with a capacity of 20 kWp for the commercial sector.

5.6.1 A Sun Room Integrated with Semi-transparent

PV Modules
Figure 5.16 shows external and internal views of semi-transparent PV modules
as glazing components in a sun room and covered balcony used by Park et al.29
in Korea. The system consists of layers of glass, encapsulation material (EVA
sheet), PV cells, EVA sheet, glass, an air gap with a spacer and glass. Figure
5.16 also shows the monitoring results of irradiance, outdoor temperature and
temperature variation of semi-transparent PV modules during spring (a typical
day during May).29 It was found that the temperature of an air gap among
layers of the PV module was the highest and was followed by that of the PV
cell-supporting glass.
The PV module with bronze glass had a higher temperature compared to the
module with clear glass. However, the clear glass used at the backside of the PV
module provides more daylight inside the building as its light transmittance is
92%, compared to the bronze glass’ rate of 43%. With the assumption that the
surface temperature of the backside glass is equivalent to the PV module
temperature, the temperature of the PV module rose by 55 1C on a clear day.
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 189

Figure 5.16 Semi-transparent PV integrated sunroom: top, external view; bottom left,
inside view; bottom right, temperature variation of different layers of
modules on a typical day in May.

The power generation of the PV module decreased by about 0.48% per 1C

increase in the indoor test (standard test conditions) and decreased approxi-
mately 0.52% per 1C increase in the outdoor test (under 500 W m2 of
irradiance).

5.6.2 The BIPV System at the Samsung Institute of Engineering

& Construction Technology
Figure 5.17 shows the PV system integrated on the roof (marked as A and B)
and south façade (marked as C) of the Samsung Institute of Engineering &
Construction Technology.30 The PV cells are mounted on the south façade and
on the roof of the Instiute in the Giheung area in the southern part of Seoul,
Korea. Special care was taken in the building design to have the PV modules
shade the building in the summer so as to reduce cooling loads, while at the
same time allowing solar energy to enter the building during the heating season
and provide daylight. As part of certain design compromises that took into
account aesthetics, safety and cost considerations, non-optimal tilt angles and

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192 Chapter 5

Figure 5.18 Roof-mounted PV system at the Politecnico di Milano: left, aerial view;
right, monthly energy production.

inverters convert the power from the six 20-module strings and two 1.1 kW
inverters convert the power from the two 15-module strings.
Figure 5.18 (right) represents the monthly energy production of the PV plant,
measured during 2003.35 The complete working-record database for the five
years operative life of the PV plant allowed development of a simulation model,
very useful to elaborate reliable forecasts of electrical production at similar
installations. The total electrical production of the Politecnico PV installation
over a period of 25 years is estimated at about 24.9 MWh. It should be men-
tioned that the useful life of the plant is considered to be 25 years; however, the
average life of a PV installation could be considerable higher.

5.7.2 The Roof-mounted System with a Hybrid PVT Façade at

Orbassano
In 2001, a hybrid PVT façade was commissioned over the roof of a building at
Orbassano, Turin, by the Fiat Research Centre (CRF). Figure 5.19 (top) shows
the solar roof inclined at 531 to the horizontal with a surface area of about
426 m2, containing a BIPVT system over 160 m2. The BIPVT system has about
130 PV modules (BP SX150L) containing multicrystalline silicon solar cells.
The PV module has a total power capacity of 19.5 kWp. All the modules are
provided with a ventilation gap and thermal insulation at the base. The mod-
ules are configured in 22 strings connected in series; 21 are composed of six
modules and one is of four modules. The inverters (two units) are installed
inside the building to convert the current from dc to ac.
The PV elements produce electrical energy while the forced air circulation
through the ventilation gap recovers the thermal heat and cools the cells as well,
resulting in an increment in the PV conversion efficiency. The electricity gen-
erated by the PV modules is used to feed a heat pump and internal electrical
requirements. The heat produced is used by the air-conditioning plant in the
kitchen, in winter for pre-heating of the renewal air and in summer to feed the
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 193

Figure 5.19 Hybrid PVT façade at the Fiat Research Centre: top, aerial view; bottom,
annual thermal and electrical output.

dehumidification system. This integrated solar façade is monitored on-line by a

highly sophisticated system, managed by the technicians of CRF.
With variable airflow of 9000 m3 h1, the air reaches temperatures up to
60 1C, according to the specific climatic conditions. The annual thermal and
electrical performance results are shown in Figure 5.19 (bottom). Butera et al.36
estimate that the performance is around 10% higher with respect to a tradi-
tional PV installation. The thermal efficiency varies in average from 20% to
40% during the day (higher values are obtained in the early hours of the
morning and late hours in the evening). However, the average electrical effi-
ciency obtained is around 9–10% during the day. The annual production of
electricity and heat from the hybrid façade contributes to total primary energy
savings of about 185 MWh, corresponding to 36 tonnes of CO2 emission
reduction to the atmosphere annually.

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utilization in buildings in rural and remote regions. The following Golden Sun
policy issued in July 2009 brought about a real demand of 642 MWp through 294
projects.40 Guided by government policies, several large-scale grid-connected
power plant projects were approved in 2009. These include the 1 GW photovoltaic
power plant project in Qaidam, a 200 MW photovoltaic power plant project in
Golmud and a 500 MW photovoltaic power plant project in Wuzhong. BIPV
systems are widely applied on exposed walls, sun-shading shelters, patios, tiles,
roofs and sound-proof walls, as well as in fields of private apartments, schools,
hospital buildings, airports, platforms of subway stations and large workshops.
Thus, the BIPV market will see a bright prospect in the future. It is estimated that
the accumulated installation capacity of the Chinese PV industry will reach
20 GWp by 2020 and this prediction is just the same with the energy bureau.
In the last few years, a number of medium-scale BIPV systems were completed
in Hong Kong, including government buildings, commercial buildings, schools
and institutional buildings. Most of these BIPV systems are of the gird-connected
type to eliminate the bulky and troublesome battery banks. Some of these pro-
jects are retrofitted on existing buildings, while others are parts of new buildings.

5.8.1 The BIPV System on the Shaw Amenities Building of

Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Figure 5.22 (top) shows the grid-connected BIPV system installed on the roof
and walls of the Shaw Amenities Building (22118 0 16 0 0 N 114110 0 45 0 0 E) at Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, with the aim to investigate the cost-effective
design under Hong Kong weather conditions and demonstrate the technology
to the local industries and market.41 Figure 5.22 (bottom) shows the circuit
diagram of the installation. The system consists of 100 PV panels (made by BP)
each of 80 Wp and containing monocrystalline silicon solar cells. PV systems
integrated on the three walls and the roof of the building cover 55 m2 of surface
area. The number of PV panels integrated on the horizontal roof, vertical east
facades, vertical west facades and vertical south facades are 40, 20, 18 and 22,
respectively. In order to increase the dc voltage, 7 PV modules are connected in
series. An air gap is maintained between the massive wall and the vertical
façades to facilitate natural ventilation. This would keep the modules’ tem-
perature lower and provide relatively higher efficiency during hot summer
conditions. Owing to the grid connection, battery banks were not required,
saving approximately 20% of the initial investment compared with remote PV
systems. The system is rated at 8 kW with an output dc voltage of 75–105 V and
an output ac voltage of 220 V.
As the PV systems are integrated into the rooftop and façades at three dif-
ferent orientations, all of them have different power outputs. Table 5.1 gives the
results of the monthly energy output from the BIPV systems at different
orientations.41 On sunny days the system produces sufficient electricity for the
lighting circuit of a 250 m2 floor area. The horizontal roof PV panels produce
more power compared with the same surface area of PV panels on the walls,
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 197

‫ﻧﺼﺐ ﭘﺎﻧﻞ در ﺟﮭﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬

Figure 5.22 The BIPV system at Hong Kong Polytechnic University campus: top,
aerial view; bottom, circuit diagram.

Table 5.1 Monthly power output from PV arrays for different orientations (in
kWh).
Façade Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
Roof 294 220 231 252 294 286 367 347 346 389 346 336 3708
South 156 90 72 48 36 31 36 54 90 150 163 180 1106
West 72 60 63 72 88 88 116 106 99 99 86 83 1032
West 72 60 63 72 88 88 116 106 99 99 86 83 1032
Total 592 430 429 444 506 493 635 613 634 737 681 682 6878
198 Chapter 5
since the annual average solar incident angle is the smallest compared with the
solar incident angles of the other three facades. Out of the total annual energy
required for the lighting, 16 700 kWh, 41% of the energy is supplied by the
installed BIPV system with an overall efficiency of 9%. The total harmonic
from the BIPV system is less than 12% for most of the time, even when the
incident solar irradiation is very weak.
The power price of the BIPV system is HK$ 1.5–2.0 per kWh, while the
average price of electricity purchased from the two local power companies is
about HK$ 0.90 per kWh. The cost of the BIPV systems with monocrystalline
silicon PV modules is about HK$ 40 per Wp, including installation and other
component costs (inverters, safety control and cables). When the cost reduction
of the building façade outer skins due to PV integration is considered, the
payback period for the roofs is about 20–30 years. Hence, the analysis shows
that a grid-connected BIPV application is still not economical, but the tech-
nology should be promoted due to its huge potential in terms of environmental
protection and future development, e.g. greenhouse emission costs, business
losses due to pollution in urban areas and medical cost increases caused by
pollution from conventional power generation plants.

5.8.2 The PV Mounted Roof of the Hong Kong EMSD

Headquarters
Figure 5.23 shows the aerial view of the PV mounted roof of the headquarters of
the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department (EMSD) (22119 0 33 0 0 N
114112 0 12 0 0 E) of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.42 The figure
also shows the view of the semi-transparent modules fitted on the glazing roof
from the inside. The horizontal roof contains nearly 2300 PV modules tilted at
201 to the horizontal facing south and covers 7900 m2 of surface area. Each PV
module consists of 72 series-connected monocrystalline silicon PV cells. There
are in total 20 sets of semi-transparent PV modules integrated into the roof of the
gallery for day lighting in addition to electrical power, each containing 100 series-
connected monocrystalline PV cells sandwiched between two sheets of glass. The
total installed power capacity of the two PV systems is 350 kWp. The dc output
of the installation is converted into ac by a number of inverters. The ac power
generated by the PV installation supplements the electricity supply from the
power company to meet the electrical power requirement of the building. Figure
5.23 also shows the power output for a year from October 2005 to September
2006.43 It is observed that the annual energy output is around 400 MWh. This
would save 280 tonnes of CO2 emission into the atmosphere annually.

5.8.3 The PV System Integrated with Permanent Buildings at

Shanghai World Expo 2010
Figure 5.24 shows the Theme Pavilion, the China Pavilion and the Expo Center
buildings, respectively, at the Shanghai World Expo 2010 (31111 0 38 0 0 N

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212 Chapter 5
modules (made by Mosearbaer) containing polycrystalline solar cells are
installed, titled towards the south at an angle of 301 from the horizontal. Fif-
teen inverters, each of 11 KVA, are used to generate 1000 V. The system has a
capacity of producing 142 kWp output. The system has been under operation
from January 2010 and the observed power output for that month was 85 kWp.
It is claimed that the output was lower in January due to the winter season and
partial shadows on the arrays, but it will produce higher output in the month of
June (summer season). It is further expected that the system will produce about
200 MWh annually. The PV arrays have a water-pipe connection with a hose
and flexible pipe for cleaning the modules once a week.

5.13 Recent Research and Conclusions

To generate PV power on a large scale, grid-connected PV power plants are
installed these days. Some of the largest plants installed on farms include the
60 MWp Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park, the 54 MWp Strasskirchen Solar Park,
the 53 MWp Lieberose Photovoltaic Park, the 50 MWp Puertollano Photo-
voltaic Park, the 46 MWp Moura photovoltaic power station, the 45 MWp
Kothen Solar Park, the 42 MWp Finsterwalde Solar Park and the 40 MWp
Waldpolenz Solar Park. Setting up PV power plants on a farm does not provide
any advantage other than the production of electricity. Moreover, they are not
cost-effective if the land cost is added to the overall cost of the plant.
Mounting PV systems over a building would help in reducing the overall cost
of the plant by utilizing the unused roof and façade surface area. Recently, a
40 MWp capacity plant has been mounted over the rooftop of a global logistics
service provider with headquarters in Antwerp, Belgium. This is considered to
be the largest BIPV system installed up to the end of the year 2009. A few more
rooftop-mounted BIPV systems such as the 5 MWp plant at Burstadt, the
3.84 MWp plant at Muggensturm, the 2.9 MWp plant at the Telefonica Business
Park Complex and the 5.2 MWp plant at the Sharp Corporation LCD plant in
Kameyama have been discussed. Most of these systems are mounted directly on
the flat roof without giving proper inclination to the PV modules. As the cost of
PV modules is quite high, to utilize them to their highest capacity they should
be inclined towards the equator at an angle equal to the latitude of the location,
which is considered optimum for the best performance on an annual basis. If
the PV system is to run the air-conditioner for cooling or heating purposes,
depending upon the summer or winter season, then they should tilted towards
equator at an angle of 151 of the latitude of the site.
A number of PV systems have been mounted over horizontal rooftops with
inclination equal to the latitude of the site, including the BIPV system at
Toyota’s NAPCC manufacturing plant, the Hong Kong EMSD Headquarters
and the WHO South East Asia office. Many times it is found that a shading
problem occurs, especially during the winter months, which reduces the overall
output of the system. To avoid any shading problem a proper distance between
the two rows of the PV modules needs to be maintained by the design engineer.
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 213

PV array
Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation
during summer
during winter

PV array Horizontal roof Horizontal roof

Figure 5.33 A PV system mounted in rows, end view: left, on a flat roof; right, on an
inclined roof.

Let us consider a rooftop, shown by the horizontal line in Figure 5.33 (left),
where the PV modules are mounted with an inclination. In order to avoid
shading throughout the year, the number of PV rows that can be accom-
modated on the roof is three. Now let us consider a PV system mounted on the
rooftop where the whole frame is inclined, as shown in Figure 5.33 (right). In
this case there would be no shading problem and the rows of the array could be
closer to each other. As this increases the surface area of the roof, the number
of PV rows fitted on the roof is four. Thus, the mounting of the PV modules on
a frame as shown are much more cost-effective. Hence, mounting the PV
modules on the louvres of the roof shelter of the Itoman City Government
Building is a better design. A even better option is to mount the PV modules
over a tilted roof, as applied at the Crowne Plaza Hotel in Alice Springs. If the
PV system mounted on the rooftop over the inclined frame is raised, it will
create a living space underneath. In other words, if the PV array is integrated
into the rooftop, it will be much economical as the cost of construction of the
building is shared.
PV solar cells have a negative effect on the high temperature of the electrical
output of PV modules. To keep the electricity efficiency close to a satisfactory
level, it is essential to lower the temperature of PV modules. Generally, PV
modules are combined with a thermal energy extraction unit, where a circu-
lating fluid such as air or water is used to extract the heat, and constitute the
hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PVT) system.61 On extracting the heat, the
operating temperature is reduced and leads to an increase in the electrical
efficiency of the system. As PVT systems provide useful thermal energy in the
form of either sensible heat or latent heat, the total exergy output from PV
modules is much higher than that from plain PV modules. The effect of air mass
flow rate, air channel depth, length and packing factor on a single pass have
been presented.62,63
Hegazy64 and Chow et al.65 give interesting modelling results for air-cooled
PV systems. Free convective air was used as cooling to remove heat from the
back of PV modules and to keep the electrical efficiency at an acceptable
level.66,67 Free convective air cooling is a simple and low-cost method, but a
214 Chapter 5
forced-flow scheme provides a desirable cooling rate at all times. Chow et al.68
found that forced convective cooling under a higher coolant flow velocity is
better than a natural flow design. Nevertheless, the additional fan power
consumption reduces the net electrical gain of the system. Tiwari et al.69,70 have
presented a variety of results regarding the effect of design and operation
parameters on the performance of air-type PVT systems. Aste et al.71 has
presented experimental and theoretical results of a research and development
programme carried out at the Politecnico di Milano on the design, development
and performance monitoring of a hybrid PVT air collector.
PV façades and solar roofs are promising ways to integrate photovoltaics
into a building structure in that they provide significant additional benefits over
and above the electricity and thermal yield. They both form part of the outer
structure of the building, saving the costs of conventional roof and cladding
materials. Konttinenn et al.72 determined the thermal stress on BIPV modules
along with field testing. Bloom73 has presented results for glass–glass PV
modules as façades with forced ventilation.
Agrawal and Tiwari74 proposed integration of PVT systems into the rooftop
of a building, called the building integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT)
system. The BIPVT system, when used as the rooftop, reduces the construction
of a conventional roof and thereby the cost. In addition to this, the system
supplies the electrical power required for household purposes along with
thermal energy for space heating, especially during peak load hours. Such a
system is of higher use as it will produce electricity at a higher efficiency along
with the required heat needed for space heating of the building to a reasonable
temperature, especially in cold climatic conditions, and for industrial proces-
sing in moderate climatic conditions. A semi-transparent BIPVT system with
the walls, roofs or windows of the building can provide day lighting in addition
to electrical and thermal requirements. Such systems need a proper design so
that the daylight received by the living space does not glare.
Apart from thin-film BIPVT systems, concentrator PV systems designed for
building integration have also been gaining ground. These systems often work
at low and medium concentration levels if installed on the rooftop of a building.
Low concentration levels are preferred for integration into façades since direct
views of the Sun are restricted and the diffuse component of light represents a
larger proportion of the total irradiation available in such cases. Indeed,
restrictions in the availability of direct light has led to many designs of building
integrated concentrators that utilize the passive benefits of building integration,
such as solar gain control, interior light distribution and collection of thermal
energy for preheating of water in order to increase the total system efficiency
and cost effectiveness.1
Even though there are at the moment a number of innovative ideas and
designs for such technologies, the field of BIPVT systems still has room for
improvement. Research into the complex interaction between the building
envelope and BIPV modules is still required, since the inclusion of such systems
can affect the solar gain of buildings as well as the thermal conductivity of the
areas where they are installed.
Implementation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Thermal Systems 215

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:‫ﺗﻤﺮﯾﻦ‬
.‫ را ﮔﺰارش ﮐﻨﯿﺪ‬BIPVT ‫ وﯾﺎ‬PVT ‫ﯾﮏ ﭘﺮوژه اﻧﺠﺎم ﺷﺪه‬
‫ و ﻣﻘﺎدﯾﺮ ﺑﺮق و‬،‫ ﻧﺼﺐ ﺷﺪه‬PV ‫ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎت‬،‫در ﮔﺰارش ﺧﻮد طﺮح ﺣﺮارﺗﯽ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷﺪه‬
.‫ﺣﺮارت ﺑﺪﺳﺖ آﻣﺪه را ذﮐﺮ ﮐﻨﯿﺪ‬