Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT NO-1: ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM:
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given Specimen using “Rockwell Hardness
tester”.
OBJECTIVE:
1) To learn about principle & different methods of hardness measurement
2) To learn about the correlation among different types of hardness measurement
3) To be able to understand the correlation between hardness number and the properties of
materials.
APPARATUS:
 Rockwell hardness testing machine.
 Diamond cone indentor, ball indentor.
 Specimens (Hardened steel, Mild steel, Brass, Copper, Aluminium)

THEORY:
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanentindentation under static
and dynamic load. Hardness is the property of the material by which it offers resistance to scratch
or indentation. It is the most important property, as the material is subjected to friction and
scratch. When a material is required to use underdirect static or dynamic loads, only indentation
hardness test will be useful to find out resistance to indentation. This test is an indentation test
used for smaller specimens andharder materials. In this test indentor is forced into the surface of
a test piece in two operations, measuring the permanent increase in depth of an indentation from
the depth increased from the depth reached under a datum load due to an additional load.
Measurement of indentation is made after removing the additional load. Indentor used isthe cone
having an angle of 120 degrees made of black diamond. The principle of Rockwell hardness test
has to do with the application of a standard load (Based on the type of material) through a
standard indentor (cone or ball indentor) for a standard duration of time. The hardness number is
directly obtained in the experiment.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Rockwell hardness is derived from the measurement of the depth of the impression
EP = Depth of penetration due to Minor load of 98.07 N.
Ea = Increase in depth of penetration due to Major load.
E = Permanent increase of depth of indentation under minor load at 98.07 N even afterremoval
of Major load.

SUITABLE APPLICATIONS:
 Rockwell hardness test is generally used for larger sample geometries.
 It is a ‘quick test’ mainly used for metallic materials.
 It can also be used for advanced tests, such as the Jominy (end quench) test(HRC).

EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION:

Figure 1: Rockwell hardness testing machine

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

PROCEDURE:
a) Keep the loading and unloading lever at position “A” which is unloading position.

b) Select suitable indentor & weights according to the scale.

c) Place the specimen on testing table anvil.

d) Turn the hand wheel to raise a job until it makes contact with indentor & continue turning till
the longer pointer at the dial gauge makes 2 ½ rotations. Then it stops at zerocontinue turning
slowly till the small pointer reaches the red spot at 3‟, this is automatic zero setting dial gauge.
e) Turn the lever position “A” to “B” i.e. from unloading to the loading position. So that thetotal
load will act.
f) When the longer pointer of the dial gauge reaches steady position, take back the leverto the
unloading position “A”. [Avoid sudden release at the lever]
g) Now note down the reading in the last dial indicator by notifying the large pointer

h) Turn back the hand wheel and remove the job.

i) Similarly, repeat the step from ‘a-h’ for different trials and for different metals.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

Type of Type of Scale Total load(P)

specimen Indentor Kg-F

C (Black
Hard Metals Diamond cone 150
graduations)
B (Red
Soft Metals Ball (1/16”) 100
graduations)
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

S/No Specimen Type of RHN Average

Indentor RHN
1 2 3
01
Hardened steel Diamond cone
02
Mild steel Ball (1/16’’)
03
Brass Ball (1/16’’)
04
Copper Ball (1/16’’)
05
Aluminium Ball (1/16’’)

RESULT:
Rockwell hardness Number of the given specimen is
 Hardened steel =
 Mild steel =
 Brass =
 Copper =
 Aluminium =

CONCLUSION:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What is the working principle of Rockwell hardness testing?

2) Which type of indentor used in Rockwell hardness testing?

3) Where we get hardness value in Rockwell hardness testing?

4) Which type of impression produced on workpiece in Rockwell hardness testing?

5) What is the range of load applied in Rockwell hardness testing?

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT NO-2 (A) BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM:

To determine the Brinell hardness number of the given Specimen using Brinell hardness tester.

OBJECTIVES:
1) To introduce the principle of indentation hardness testing, emphasizing the limitations &
significance of the results.

2) To learn about the principle and different methods of hardness measurement.

3) To acquire experience of using various types of hardness tester.

APPARATUS:
 Brinell hardness testing machine and Brinell Microscope.

 Ball Indentor of diameter 2.5mm and 5mm

 Specimens (Mild steel, Brass, Copper, Aluminum)

THEORY:

The Brinell Hardness Test is used to determine the Hardness Number of hard, moderately hard,

and soft material E.g.: Brass, Bronze, Aluminum, Gold, and Copper. Very hard material and Brittle

material cannot be tested by Brinell hardness tester. Brinell hardness number (BHN) is obtained

by the ratio of the calculated load andthe spherical area of the Indentation or Impression made on

the specimen by the corresponding Indentor Ball. In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter

(D) is forcedunder a load (F) on to a surface of the test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation

ismeasured after the removal of the load (P). The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is obtained

by dividing the applied force P, in kg-F; by the curved surface area of the indentation, which is actually a
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

segment of a sphere.Since the deformations caused by an indenter are of similar magnitude to those occurring

at the ultimate tensile strength in a tension test, some empirical relationships have been established between

hardness and engineering ultimate tensile strength of metals and alloys. For example, for steels UTS can be

roughly estimated from Brinell hardness as follows:

UTS (in MPa) = 3.45 x BHN

SUITABLE APPLICATIONS:
 Brinell hardness test is used for materials with a coarse or inhomogeneousgrain
structure.
 It is used for larger samples.
 It is also suitable for forgings and castings where the structural elements are large
Equipment Description:

Figure 2: Brinell hardness testing machine.

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

PROCEDURE:

a) Keep the loading and unloading lever at position “A” which is unloading position.
b) Select suitable indentor & weights according to the scale.
c) Place the specimen on testing table anvil.
d) Turn the hand wheel to raise a job until it makes contact with indenter & continue turning till
the longer pointer at the dial gauge makes 2 ½ rotations. Then it stops at zerocontinue turning
slowly till the small pointer reaches the red spot at 3‟, this is automatic zero setting dial gauge.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

Type of Total load(P)

Suitable for
Indentor Kg-F

Ball Indentor 2.5mm Nonferrous soft metals, Soft iron, steelcastings,

187.5
diameter Cast iron, malleable iron.

Ball Indentor 5mm Light alloys casting, forging alloys, diecasting

250
diameter alloys.

S/ Specimen Total Indentor Diameter of Average BHN

No load(P) Diameter(D) Indentation(d) Diameter
Kg-F in mm in mm (mm)
1 2 3
01 Mild steel

02 Brass

03 Copper

04 Aluminium
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

FORMULA:

Brinell hardness number (BHN) =

Where,
The Brinell hardness number is expressed as (value in N/mm2)
D = Diameter of ball indentor in mm
d= Diameter of Indentation in mm
P= Load applied in Kgf
Least Count of Brinell Microscope=0.01mm

RESULTS:
Brinell hardness number of the given specimen is
 Mild steel =
 Brass =
 Copper =
 Aluminium =

CONCLUSION:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1) What is the material & diameter of indentor used in brinell hardness test ?
2) What is the mean by B.H.N?
3) What is formula for B.H.N ?
4) What is the working principle of brinell hardness test?
5) What is maximum & minimum load applied in brinell hardness test?

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

POLDI HARDNESS TEST

AIM:
To determine the hardness of a given sample by using poldi hardness tester.

OBJECTIVE:
1) To learn about principle and different method of hardness measurement.

2) To learn about the correlation among different types of hardness measurement.

3) To acquire experience of using different types of hardness tester.

APPARATUS:
Standard test bar, test specimen, moderate hammer, instrument.

THEORY:

Poldi hardness test is a dynamic hardness test and can be used at any stage of processing of
metals. The instrument consists of a hardened steel ball of 10mm diameter fixed to a hollow
cylindrical casing; a movable plunger is fixed rigidly in the casing by means of spring. A
standard test bar is inserted in the gap provided between the plunger bottom and the steel
ball. The test bar is hardened for a predetermined value and is tapered for easy insertion.

POLDI HARDNESS TEST EQUIPMENT

Poldi Hardness Test Set Up

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

PROCEDURE:

1) The sample is cleaned and placed on a clean, smooth and flat surface.
2) The standard test bar is inserted between the bottom of the plunger and the steel ball.
3) The instrument is placed vertically on the metal surface.
4) A load of ½ kg is applied by hammer blow on the specimen which results in the two
indentations, one on the metal surface and the other on the standard test bar
5) The diameters of indentations are measured by a magnifier supplied along with the
tester.
6) The hardness of the specimen is equal to the value given in the grid formed by the
indentation diameters on the standard test bar and specimen respectively from a book
supplied withthe machine.
7) Tensile strength for steels can be calculated by

UTS (mpa) = 3.4×BHN

8) The hardness values of aluminum, brass and steel are determined.

FORMULA:

The required hardness value can be obtained by using the equation

B.H.NSP = Brinell Hardness Number of sample specimen

B.H.NSD = Brinell Hardness Number of standard specimen
D = Diameter of ball indentor
dstd = Diameter of standard specimen
dsp = Diameter of sample specimen
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Diameter of
Diameter of
Diameter of indentation on Hardness
Indentation on
Sr.No Specimen indentor in the standard bar Value
the specimen in
mm in mm
mm

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

The hardness values of the given samples (BHN) are

Aluminums-

Brass –

Steel-

CONCLUSION:

VIVA QUESTION:

1) What is the working principle of Poldi hardness test ?

2) What is the material & diameter of indentor used in poldi hardness test ?
3) How to measure the diameter of impression in poldi hardness test?
4) What is hardness of standard specimen?
5) What are the advantage & limitations of the poldi hardness test?

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT NO-3: IMPACT TEST

AIM:
To conduct Izod and Charpy tests on Mild steel, Aluminium and Brass to find Toughness under
Impacting loading.

OBJECTIVE:
1) Familiarize with methods for toughness measurement with impact test.

2) Determine the effect of carbon content, alloying element and cold work on the energy
absorption capability of steel.

3) Observe the effect of temperature on the energy absorption capability of steels.

APPARATUS:-
Impact Tester MT 3076, Notch specimen of Mild steel and Aluminium.

THEORY:-

PRINCIPLE:-

Under certain situations a ductile material fails in a brittle manner in the service and such a
failure is characterized by low absorption of energy.

The factors which contribute to the brittle failures are

1) Tri-axial state of stress 2) Low – temperature 3) High strain rate

The brittle failure may result due to the any one or from the combination of these factors
in sufficient magnitude. A tri-axial state of stress, which exists at the tip of defects in the
component and low service temperature are mostly responsible for brittle failure. These factors
become more important at high rates of loading. Hence, the susceptibility of materials for brittle
failure under the existence of these factors is determined by such tests, which apply fast loads
like impact tests.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPLANATION: -

1) Tri-axial State of Stress: - Tri-axial state of stress is developed at the root of notch and hence
notched specimens are used in these tests. The tendency of brittle failure in the presence of
notches is called notch sensitivity and hence the notched impact test measure the notch
sensitivity of the material. Variation of this condition is achieved by using different types of
failures.
2) Effect of Temperature: - The effect of temperature is accessed by testing the specimen at low
temperature. The temperature at which a ductile material fails in a brittle manner is called
Ductile-Brittle Transition Temperature.

3) Material with high strain: - material which shows identical properties when tested in tension
can show pronounced difference in their properties, when tested in notched impact test.
Therefore, it is essential to test the materials for notched impact test to evaluate their difference
in behavior in the presence of notches or at low service temperature.

DIAGRAM:-

. Impact tester
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

FACTORS AFFECTING IMPACT STRENGTH: -

1. Velocity: - This is the velocity of striking hammer. The velocity of 3 to 5 m/s does not

affect the results. Above some critical velocity, impact resistance, decreases markedly.

Therefore, practical velocities are usually kept below the critical velocity.

2. Specimen: - The energy absorption of the specimen decreases with decreasing either

its width or its thickness. This is due to decrease in the volume of the specimen. The angle of

the notch does not appreciably affect results until it exceeds 60o. However, the sharpness of the

notch increases. This is due to increase in the stress concentration.

3. Temperature: - Below certain temperature, metal fails in brittle manner showing less

energy to failure. Similarly, above certain temperature a ductile failure is observed which

requires more energy to failure. This intermediate temperature range, where mixed failure is

observed is called transition temperature range.

CHARPY IMPACT TEST

As per the specifications made by ASTM, during the testing if arm is lifted by height ‘h’ and
is allowed to hit over a specimen, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy and after
hitting there be absorption of some energy and resorting of energy with new height h’.

Formula for toughness is given by

T = mg (h — h’)

DIAGRAM:-
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. Direction of impact in Charpy Test

PROCEDURE FOR CHARPY IMPACT TEST: -

1. Specimen of standard size with notch should be fixed as per type of test i.e. for Charpy
impact test notch should be at center and opposite to striking head.

2. Angle should be maintained that of striking hammer as per the test.

3. The striking hammer is allowed to hit the specimen suddenly.

4. The reading of energy absorbed during fracture should be noted directly from the dial.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering
SPECIMEN PARAMETERS:-

1. Specimen Size: - 10 X 10 X 55 (in mm)

2. Pendulum Weight: - 20.932 Kgs.

3. Angle of release: - 140°

4. Position of notch: - At Center and opposite to striker.

5. Length of Arm: - 0.825 meter

OBSERVATION TABLE: -

Material Energy Absorbed at the time of fracture

Mild Steel

Aluminium

Brass

CONCLUSION: -

1) It is observed that Mild Steel absorbs less energy whereas Aluminium absorbs more
energy.

2) Mild steel breaks at the notch in brittle manner.

3) Aluminum bends at the notch in ductile manner and forms cup and cone fracture.

4) Therefore, Mild Steel is harder than Aluminium.

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

IZOD IMPACT TEST

This test is carried out by Standard ASTM values. During, this testing same Principle
of Construction and Distribution of energy is used, as in case of Charpy Impact Test i.e.

T = mg (h — h’)

DIAGRAM:-

Fig. Direction of impact in Izod Test

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

PROCEDURE FOR IZOD IMPACT TEST: -

1) Specimen of Standard size with notch should be held vertical as the notch faces to the
striking head i.e. cantilever position

2) Angle of striking should be kept at 85°21'

3) Then the striking hammer is allowed to strike the specimen.

4) Note the reading for energy absorption, from the scale.

SPECIMEN PARAMETERS:

1. Specimen Size: - 10 X 10 X 75 (in mm)

2. Pendulum Weight: - 21.79 kgs.

3. Angle of hit: - 85°21'

4. Position of notch: - At 28 mm from one side and facing to striker

OBSERVATION TABLE: -

Material Energy Absorbed at the time of fracture

Mild Steel

Aluminium

CONCLUSION: -

1. It is observed that Mild Steel absorbs more energy whereas, Aluminium absorbs less
energy.
2. Mild Steel and Aluminium breaks at the notch in brittle manner and forms cup and
cone fracture.
3. Impact resistance increases under Izod.
4. As critical velocity decreases impact resistance increases for Mild steel.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering
5.
VIVA QUESTIONS :

1) What is mechanical property we find in impact test ?

2) What are the different type of impact test ?

3) What is difference between izod & charpy impact test ?

4) How much is the weight of hammer used in impact test?

5) What is notch sensitivity

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT NO- 4: DYE PENETRANT TEST

AIM:

Determination of discontinuities which are present on surface in a metal and non metal, with
the help of Dye Penetration testing Methods.

OBJECTIVES:
1) To gain experience with and understanding of the types, advantages and application of

various NDT methods.

2) To be able to choose the best NDT method of given part.

THEORY:
Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI) also called as Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) or Penetrant
Test (PT) is fast, economical and widely used non-destructive test method to detect surface-
breaking discontinuities in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
Penetrant test is based upon the principles of capillary action where liquid penetrates into a
cavity.

Penetrant test is performed by cleaning the test surface thoroughly, applying colored or
fluorescent penetrant and allowing penetration time, removal of excess penetrant followed by
application of developer (dry or liquid form). The developer assists to draw penetrant out from
the surface breaking discontinuities.

After developer dwelling the test surface is examined for bleed out under natural light or black
(UV) light (depending on the type of penetrant used).

Dye penetrant Inspection (DPI) is predominantly used on non-ferrous materials in aerospace

industries, shipping and offshore, petrochemical industries and stainless industry

Some of the common parts tested are stainless steel welded joints, aluminium alloys joints,
turbine blades, stainless steel fittings, castings and forgings, weld overlays, aerospace engine
parts, etc.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PROCEDURE:
1. Cleaning: The surface to be detected is first cleaned and the surface is made free from oil,
dirt, dust, oxide layers etc.
2. Application of Dye : After cleaning/ washing, dye is applied with different colours such as
red, black, yellow which moves in the minute crack with the capillary action.
3. Wiping : Wiping is the process after application of dye of removing the extra dye, which
remains on the surface.
4. Application of developer : Developers are used either in powder (dry) or in paste form (wet).
When this developer applied on the surface, it spreads over areas where crack is present.
Thus the defect can be detected by observing the above steps.

Steps in dye penetrant test

ADVANTAGES : -

1. Dye penetraant testing is economical than other testing.

2. Magnetic, non-magnetic materials can also be tested effectively with this test.
3. Minute cracks can also be detected by this test.

LIMITATIONS : -

1. Only surface cracks can be detected.

2. Porous components cannot be tested effectively.
3. Plated components cannot be tested effectively.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) What is the working principle of dye penetrant test

2) State the different steps in the test ?
3) What are the advantage & limitations of dye penetrant test?
4) Can this test used for both ferrous & non ferrous metals as well ? why?
5) Give three application of dye penetrant test?

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO-5
AIM-

Preparation of metallic specimen for metallographic study by grinding, polishing and etching.

OBJECTIVES-

1. Familiarization with the procedure for preparation of material specimen for microscopic

examination

2. Familiarization with the compound optical microscopic and metallographic.

3. Examination of surface characteristics of engineering materials.

4. Grain size determination of metals.

5. To study structural characteristics or constitution of metal or alloy in relation to its

physical & mechanical properties

INTRODUCTION-

There are two examination methods-

1. Macroscopy
2. Microscopy
In macroscopy the examination of structural characteristic or chemical characteristic ofmetal or an alloy is
done by unaided eye or with aid of low power microscope or binocular usually under 10X.

In microscopy similar examination is done with prepared metal specimens, employing magnifications with
optical microscope of from 100X to as high as 200X. Apart fromobservation of micro structural details in a
metal or alloy, other defects such as grain boundaries, twins, precipitates can be observed readily in microscopic
examination.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The preparation of metallurgical specimen generally can e divided into series of stagessectioning/sampling,
mounting, grinding, polishing & etching.

PROCEDURE OF TEST

1] SECTIONING / SAMPLING-
The choice of sample for microscopic study may be very important. If a failure is to be investigated
the sampling should be chosen as close as possible to the area of the failure& should be compared
with on taken from the normal section. If the material is soft, such as nonferrous metals or alloy &
non heat treated steels, the section is obtained by manual hack sawing /power saw. If the material is
hard, the section may be obtained byuse of an abrasive cut off wheels. This wheel is thin disk of
suitable cutting abrasive rotating at high speed. The specimen should be kept cool during the cutting
operation.

2] ROUGH GRINDING –

Whenever possible the specimen should be of a size & shape that is convenient to handle.A soft sample may
be made flat by slowly moving it up to & back across the surface of aflat smooth file. The soft hard may be
rough ground on a belt sander with specimen kept cool by frequent dipping in water during the grinding
operation. In all grinding & polishing operation, the specimen should be moved perpendicular to the existing
scratches this will facilitate, recognition of stage when the deeper scratches are replaced by shallower one
characteristic of the finer abrasives. The rough grinding is continued until the surface is flat & free from wire
brushes & all scratches due to hacksaw or cut- off wheel are no longer visible.

3] INTERMEDIATE POLISHING –

After the previous processes the specimen is polishing on a series of emery paper containing successively
finer abrasive (Si-C). The first paper is usually no. 1 than 1/ 0,2/0, 3/0, & finally 4/0. The intermediate
polishing operation using emery paper is usually done dry. However, in certain case such as preparation of
soft material, SiliconCarbide has greater removal rate & as it is resin bonded, can be used with a lubricant,
which prevents overshooting of the sample, minimizes shearing of soft metals & also provides a rising
action to flush away surface removal product so the paper won’t be clogged.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

4] FINE POLISHING –

The time consumed & the success of fine polishing depends largely on the case that we exercised during the
previous polishing processes. The final approximation to the flat, scratch free surface is obtained by the use
of a wet rotating wheel covered with a specialcloth that is charged by carefully sized abrasive particles. A
wide range of abrasive is available for final polishing, while many will do a satisfying job, these appear to
be presence of gamma form of aluminium-oxides (Al2O3), for ferrous & copper based materials & Cerium
oxide for Aluminium, Magnesium & their alloys, other final polishing abrasives often used are diamond,
chromium oxide & magnesium oxide etc. Achoice of proper polishing cloth depends upon the particular
material being polished & the purpose of metallographic study. Many cloths are available of varying lap or
pile, from those having no pile, such as silk, to those of intermediate pile such as broad cloth,billiard cloth,
canvas cloth & finally to a deep pile such as velvet synthetic clothes are also available for general purpose
of which two under the trival names of gamal & microcloth are most widely used.

5] ETCHING –
The purpose of etching is to make the many structural characteristics of the metal or alloyvisible. The process
should be such that the various parts of the microstructure may be clearly differentiated. This is to subject
the polished surface to chemical action. In the alloys composed of two or more shapes. The competent are
revealed during etching by a preferential attack of one or more of the constituents by the reagent because of
differencein chemical composition of the phases. In uniform single phase alloy contact is obtained and the
grain boundaries are made visible because of difference in the rate at which various grains are attacked by
the reagent This difference in the rate of attack by reagent which is mainly associated with angle of the
different grain structure section to the plane of the polished surface. Because of chemical attack of the
chemical reagent the grain boundary appears as valleys in the polished surface light from the microscope
hitting the side of these valleys will be reflected but of the microscope making the grain boundaries appears
dark lines. The section of the appropriate etching reagent is determined by metalor alloys & the specific
structure desired for viewing.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Etching Reagent Composition Use

Nitric Acid White nitric acid ‘1 to 5 ml Carbon steels and
ethyl or methyl cast iron
alcohol’100 ml(95%
Picric acid Picric acid ’49 ethyl Carbon steels
or methyl alcohol’
Ferric chloride Ferric chloride and Structure of
and hydrochloric hydrochloric acid 50 ml austenitic nickels
water 100 ml stainless steel
Ammonium hydroxide Ammonium hydroxide 90 Copper and its alloys
and hydrogen parts water 5 parts hydrogen
peroxide 2 to 5
Palmerton reagent Chromic oxide 200 Zinc and its alloys
gm sodium sulphate 15 gm
water
Ammonium molybdenum Molybdic acid 100 gm Lead and its alloys
ammonium hydro 140ml water
240 ml, filters add tonitric acid
S.P.gr. 60 ml
Hydrofluoric acid Hydrofluoric acid 0.5 ml Aluminum and its
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

AIM: -
To study the complete working operation of Metallurgical Microscope

OBJECTIVES: -

1. Familiarization with the different components of metallurgical components.

2. Familiarization with compound optical microscope and metallographic.

3. To study magnification system and how to increase in magnification.

INTRODUCTION: -

The metallurgical microscope is the most important tool of the metallurgist. It consists an objective

and an eye-piece. Its primary function is to reveal the details of the object. The clarity and the extent

to which the details are revealed depends on the degree to which these optical systems are created.

A metallurgical microscope helps determining

1. Grain Size & shape

2. Size shape & distribution of various plane and inclusion.

3. Mechanical & Thermal treatment of alloy.

Metallurgical microscope is an optical microscope differing from other microscope in the

method of specimen illumination. Since metallic specimen are opaque substances they must be

illuminated by frontal lighting, therefore the source of light is located within the microscope tube as

shown in fig 2.2 T This is achieved by plain glass reflector installed in the tube. The optical scheme

of metallurgical microscope is shown in fig 2.1

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The image quality and its resolving power are mainly determined by the quality of the objective.
The objective magnification depends on its focal length ( the shorter the focal length the higher is
magnification) . The eyepiece is the lens nearest the eye. The image is magnified by eyepiece in X6,
X8 or X10

The total magnification of the microscope may be calculate by the formula

M= L*E/ F
Where, L- The distance from back of objective to eyepiece.

E- Magnification of Eye piece.

F- The focal length of objective.

The common magnification of metallurgical microscope is in the range of 50 X to 1000 X

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS: -

The table type microscopes are consisting of

1. Stage: - A flat movable table supporting specimen. This can be moved up or down byknobs.

2. Tubes: - The vertically movable tube containing eyepiece, objective and plane
reflector. The tube length varies from 160 mm to 250 mm.

3. Rough & fine focus Adjustments - The limbs of microscope carry the coarse & fine
adjustments.

4. Objective – The body tube carries revolving nose piece carrying the three objectives. This
enables quick change of the objective which helps for a quick resolving the structureof metal,
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The important properties of an objective are-

1) Magnifying Power

2) Resolving Power

It is the property by which an objective shows distinctly represented two small adjacent bonds in the
structure of the object. This is usually expressed as number of lines per mm that can be separated
which depends on the numerical operator, the wavelength of the light used. Resolution is particularly

important during the microscopy of the micro constituents of metals consisting of fine lamination
with core resolution which appears asone uniform area, where as an objective with higher numerical
appearance reveals deepernature of the structure

Fig- Metallurgical Microscope

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Department of Mechanical Engineering

WORKING:
Incident light strike the plane glass reflector kept at 45 degree and is partially reflected down
onto the specimen. The rays of light get returned by reflection from the specimen pass through the
objective and glass reflector to form the final image which can be seen through the eyepiece.

The magnification obtained with the optical microscope is about 2000X, the complete
specimen surface can be able to scan under the lens system.

Ray diagram of Metallurgical microscope

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Effect of magnification on microscope

CONCLUSION:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41

Department of Mechanical Engineering

VIVA QUESTIONS :

1) Show on iron carbon diagram, low carbon steel, medium carbon and high carbon steels.
2) Draw microstructure of low carbon , medium carbon and high carbon steels.
3) Define the terms: Austenite, Martensite, Tempered martensite, pearlite, ferrite, bainite.
4) What are the important properties of low carbon, medium carbon & high carbon steels.
5) Show on Iron carbon diagram the cast iron parts?
6) Draw microstructure of free carbon present in Gray cast iron, Nodular cast iron , Malleable
cast iron and White cast iron
7) Discuss the mechanical properties of white cast iron, nodular cast iron and malleable cast
Iron.

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering
EXPT NO-6
AIM:

Observation & drawing microstruture of Mild Steel, Low Carbon Steel, Medium Carbon Steel,
Eutectoid Steel and Hypereutectoid Steel.

OBJECTIVES:
1. Familiarization with the different microstructures of steels.
2. Familiarization with the different phases present in the steels.
3 Familiarization with the different operations of Metallurgical Microscope.

APPARATUS:
Metallurgical microscope, prepared samples of Mild Steel, Low Carbon Steel,
Medium Carbon Steel, Eutectoid Steel and Hypereutectoid Steel.

DESCRIPTION:

Steel: -
Steels are the alloys of iron and carbon in which the carbon content is between 0.008 and 2.0
%. OR An iron base alloy, malleable in some temperature range as initially cast, containing
manganese, usually Carbon, and often other alloying elements.

Phases in Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

α-ferrite - Solid solution of C in BCC Fe

Stable form of iron at room temperature.
The maximum solubility of C is 0.025 wt% at 727 °C
Transforms to FCC y-austenite at 912 °C
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

ϒ-austenite - Solid solution of C in FCC Fe.

The maximum solubility of C is 2 wt % at 1147 °C.
Transforms to BCC δ-ferrite at 1395 °C.
Is not stable below the eutectic temp. (727 °C) unless cooled rapidly
δ –ferrite - Solid solution of C in BCC Fe
The same structure as a-ferrite
Stable only at high temp., above 1394 °C, Melts at 1538 °C

Fe3C (iron carbide or cementite) - This intermetallic compound is metastable, it remains as

a compound indefinitely at room temp. but decomposes (very slowly, within several years) into

α-Fe and C (graphite) at 650 - 700 °C

CRITICAL TEMP. OF IRON- IRON CARBIDE DIAGRAM

• Ao(Curie temp. of Cementite):- 210°C, cementite becomes paramagnetic from
ferromagnetic.
• A1(lower critical temp.):- 727°C, Pearlite transforms to austenite. It is also called as
Eutectoid temp. It does not depend on the carbon% present in the alloy.
• A2(Curie temp. of ferrite):- 768°C, Ferrite becomes paramagnetic from ferromagnetic.
• A3(Upper critical temp. for hypo-eutectoid steels) 727-910°C, Completion of ferrite to
austenite transformation.
• Acm(upper critical temp. for hypereutectoid steels):- 727-1147°C, Completion of
cementite to austenite.
• A4:- 1400-1492° C, Completion of austenite to δ - ferrite transformation.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 5: Iron-Iron carbide (Fe-Fe3C) Equilibrium Diagram

EQUILIBRIUM REACTION

• Peritectic Reaction:- at 1492°C & 0.18% Carbon

L + δ ϒ(at constant temp.)
• Peritectic transformation exhibit in steel having C % in between 0.1-0.55%, other steels
do not undergo peritectic transformation (<0.1% & 0.55 %<).
• This transformation occurs at a very high temp., where the steels show burning & hence
is no use for the modification of properties of steels.
•
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

• Eutectic Reaction :- at 1140°C & 4.3% Carbon

L Y+ Cementite (at constant temp.)
• Eutectic mixture of Y + Cementite is known as Ledeburite.

• Eutectoid Reaction :- at 727°C & 0.8% Carbon

ϒα + Cementite (at constant temp.).
Eutectoid mixture of α + Cementite is known as Pearlite
Discuss slow cooling of certain compositions of steel as per following diagrams
• Low carbon steel or Hypo eutectoid steel
• High carbon steel or Hyper eutectoid steel
• Eutectoid steel.
• Standard Microstructures of Mild Steel, Low Carbon Steel, Medium Carbon Steel,
Eutectoid Steel and Hypereutectoid Steel.
•

(c) Microstructure Detail

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

For drawing the microstructures in the journal, the easy way of drawing the required
microstructures are given below:

A) Specimen : Mild Steel

Composition : ______ % Carbon [ whichever given for
draw]
Mechanical : Nil
Treatment
Heat Treatment : Annealing
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital

B) Specimen : Medium carbon steel (Hypoeutectoid steel)

Composition : ______ % Carbon [ whichever given for draw]
Mechanical Treatment : Nil
Heat Treatment : Annealing
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : The structure is two phase. Dark phase is pearlite and white
phase is ferrite. The ratio of ferrite and pearlite is almost
50:50

Fig. 6a: Specimen (A) Fig. 6b: Specimen (B)

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering
C] Specimen : Eutectoid steel
Composition : 0.8% Carbon
Mechanical Treatment : Nil
Heat Treatment : Annealing
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : The structure is almost 100% pearlite. Some grains of
pearlite are well resolved.

Fig. 6c: Specimen (C)

D) Specimen : Hypereutectoid steel

Composition : ______ % Carbon [ whichever given for draw]
Mechanical Treatment : Nil
Heat Treatment : Annealing
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : Two phase structure is observed. White phase is
cementite network is observed at grain boundries of
coarse pealite grains.

Fig. 6d: Specimen (D)

 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

TITLE: STUDY AND DRAWING OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST IRONS.

OBJECTIVES:
1. Familiarization with the different microstructures of Cast irons.
2. Familiarization with the different phases present in the Cast irons.
3. Familiarization with the different operations of Metallurgical Microscope.

THEORY:
Cast irons contain 2 to 6.67 % of carbon. Since high carbon content tends to make the cast
iron very brittle, most commercially manufactured types are in the range of 2.5 to 4% of carbon. The
ductility of Carbon is very low and it cannot be rolled, drawn or worked at room temperature.
However they melt readily and can be cast to complicated shapes which are usually machined to
final dimensions. Since the casting is only the suitable process applied to these alloys, they are known
as cast irons.
Although the common cast irons are brittle and have lower strength properties than most
steels, they are cheap, can cast more readily than steel and have other useful properties. In addition,
by proper alloying good foundry control and appropriate heat treatment is possible. The properties
of any cast iron can be varied over a wide range.
Microstructural details:

Different types of Cast Iron are:

1. Gray cast iron

2. White cast iron

3. Nodular cast iron

4. Malleable cast iron

5. Chilled cast iron

6. Alloy cast iron

WHITE CAST IRON:

In white cast iron most of the carbon is present in the combined forms as cementite. White cast
irons contains large amount of cementite as continuous inter dendritic network. It makes the cast
iron hard, wear resistance but extremely brittle and difficult to machine.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering
White cast irons are limited in engineering applications because of brittleness and lack of
machinability. They are used where resistant to wear is important in service, such as cement mixer,
ball mills certain types of drawing dies and extrusion nozzle. A large tonnage of white cast iron is
used as a raw material for manufacture of malleable cast iron.
The composition of typical malleable cast iron is as follows
Carbon: 2.9%, Silicon: 1.15%, Manganese: 0.6%, Phosphorous: 0.15%, Sulphur: 0.5%, and Fe
balance
MALLEBLE CAST IRON:
In which most of the carbon is uncombined form of irregular particles known as tempered
carbon. This is obtained by heating the white cast iron to 920 to 1000 °C followed by slow cooling
to room temperature. While on heating, the cementite structure tends to decompose in to ferrite plus
tempered carbon (Graphite). The lubrication action of the graphite imports high machinability to
malleable cast iron and lower the melting point makes it much easier to cast than steel.
Malleable cast irons are tough, strong and shock resistant. The addition of copper and
molybdenum in combination produces malleable cast iron of superior in corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties. The malleable cast iron is used for wide applications such as agricultural
implements, automobile parts, manhole covers, rail road equipment gears, cams and pipe fittings etc.
GREY CAST IRON:
In which most or all of the carbon is uncombined form of graphite flakes. The tendency of
carbon to form as graphite flakes is due to increased silicon and carbon content and thereby
decreasing the cooling rate. It is a low melting alloy, having good cast ability and machinability. It
has low tensile strength, high compression strength and very low ductility. Grey cast iron has
excellent damping capacity and is often used as base for machinery or any equipment subject to
vibration. It is also used for machine tool bodies, pipes and agricultural implements. The presence
of graphite flakes provides lubricating effect to sliding bodies.
The composition of typical grey cast iron is as follows
Carbon: 2.8 to 3.6%, Silicon: 1 to 2.75%, Manganese: 0.4 to 1%, Phosphorous: 0.1 to 1%, Sulphur:
0.06 to 0.12%, and Fe balance.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

NODULAR CAST IRON: (SPHEROIDAL GREY CAST IRON)

Nodular cast iron is also known as ductile iron. Spheroidal graphite iron is a cast iron in
which graphite is present as tiny spherical shapes or spheroids. The compact spheroids interrupt the
continuity of the matrix much less than graphite flakes. This result in higher strength and toughness
compared with a similar structure of grey cast iron.
Nodular cast iron differs from malleable cast iron in that it is usually obtained as a result of
solidification and does not require heat treatment. The spheroids are more rounded than irregular
aggregates of temper carbon found in malleable cast iron. The formation of spherical graphite is due
to addition of magnesium to the molten grey iron.
The composition of typical S.G. cast iron is as follows
Carbon: 3 to 3.5%, Silicon: 2 to 2.5%, Manganese: 0.15 to 0.6%, Phosphorous: 0.025 to 0.4%,
Sulphur: 0.015 to 0.04 %, and Fe balance

Applications of Cast Irons:

Agricultural tractor and implement parts, automotive and diesel crank shafts, piston and
cylinder heads, electrical fittings, motor frames, hoist drums, flywheels and elevator buckets, steel
mill, furnace doors and bearings wrenches levers and handles.

Specimen : Gray Cast Iron

Composition : 3.5% Carbon, 2% Silicon
Mechanical : Nil
Treatment
Heat Treatment : Nil
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : Gray Cast Iron showing type A
distribution of graphite flakes
(uniform distribution and random
orientation) is observed. Matrix is
ferrite plus pearlite.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Specimen : White Cast Iron

Composition : 4% Carbon ,0.5% Silicon
Mechanical : As cast
Treatment
Heat Treatment : Nil
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : Transformed dendrites of austenite
(pearlite) are observed. Intermediate
region shows transformed ledeburite
structure i.e. pearlite and cementite
Specimen : Malleable Cast Iron
Composition : 4% Carbon, 0.5% Silicon
Mechanical : As cast
Treatment
Heat Treatment : Two stage malleablization heat
treatment
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : Nodules of temper carbon
(Graphite) are observed in matrix of
white ferrite phase.
Specimen : Ductile Cast Iron/ Nodular Cast Iron/
Spheroidal graphite Cast Iron
Composition : 3.3% Carbon ,2.4% Silicon,0.05%
Magnesium
Mechanical : As cast
Treatment
Heat Treatment : Nil
Magnification : 100X
Etchant : Nital
Remark : Typical Bull’s eye structure is observed.
Nodules of graphite are surrounded by
ferrite in matrix of pearlite.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

CONCLUSION:

VIVA QUESTION
1) Define Microscopy & Macroscopy

2) Why sample preparation is necessary to reveal the microstructure?

3) Discuss the steps involved in sample preparation.

4) What is the working principle of optical metallurgical microscope ?

5) What is the name of lenses at topmost & bottom most side of microscope?

6) What is maximum magnification obtained in optical metallurgical microscope?

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE:
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

EXPT NO-7 JOMINY END QUENCH TEST FOR HARDENABILITY

AIM:
To determine the hardenability of a particular steel sample with help of Jominy End Quench
Test

OBJECTIVES:

1) To obtain hardenability curves for given steel sample

2) Observe the effects of carbon content and alloying

3) To study as a function of quench rate and investigate the hardenability of a particular

steels

INTRODUCTION

Hardenability is the ease with which a steel piece can be hardened. It is also the depth
of hardening produced under given condition of cooling. Hardenability depends on content of
alloying elements & grain size of the material. Coarse-grained material has better hardenability
than fine-grained material. This is due to the fact that grain boundary reduces the cooling rate.
Any factor that reduces the cooling rate will decrease the hardenability. Hardenability is
different than hardness. Hardenability is an ability to harden while hardness is a measure of the
resistance of material to plastic deformation. There are various methods to determine the
hardenability. For e.g. Grossman method, Jominy end quench method etc.
When a piece of steel of any appreciable size is heated to its austenizing temperature &
then quenched, the cooling rates during quenching vary across the cross section. The cooling
rate at the surface & the center are not same. The difference in their rate increases with rise in
severity of quenches or decreases in the speed of heat absorption. At the centre of the cross
section, the cooling rate is slowest. This may give rise to the formation of pearlite. The
relatively permanent & most common method of determining the hard ability of steel is the
Quench test. This is also called as ‘Jominy End Quench Test’.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

PROCEDURE

In this test the hardenability of a low-alloy steel is compared to that of a plain carbon steel.
The experimental procedure is as follows:
1. Position a Jominy specimen on the tray and push the tray into the furnace set at austenizing
temp. using tongs and heat resisting gloves.
2. Adjust the water column height in the Jominy end quenching tank to 65 mm above the
orifice with faceplate valve wide open. Close the faceplate without changing the water
column height adjustment so that when the faceplate is opened later on the water column will
rise immediately to 65mm.

3. After soaking period in the furnace transfer the Jominy specimen to the specimen holder of
the Jominy end quenching apparatus. Then after the Jominy specimen is in place, turn on the
water and quench the bottom end of the specimen Transfer from furnace to quench should be
rapid (in minor than 5 seconds).
4. Cooling is done for 20 minutes.
5. Two flat surfaces are ground opposite to each other along the length of the specimen and
Rockwell Hardness is measured at the intervals of 1/16 inch distance.
6. Graph is plotted to obtain hardenability curve.

Jominy specimen and its quenching conditions for end quench hardenability test
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

TEST SET UP :

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Distance from Hardness Sr. Distance from Hardness

No. Quench end No. Quench end

1 9

2 10

3 11

4 12

5 13

6 14

7 15

8 16
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

GRAPH

Plot a graph of Hardness (X-axis) Vs distance from the quenched end (Y-axis)

RESULT TABLE

Plot a hardenability curve of Rockwell hardness vs. distance from the quenched end. (Fig. 3 )

1) From the curve, the Jominy distance = ____________ mm

2) The hardenability of the specimen = _____________ points

CONCLUSION:

The Jominy end quench test is the standard method for measuring the hardenability of steels.
This describes the ability of the steel to be hardened in depth by quenching. The hardenability
depends on the alloy composition of the steel, and can also be affected by prior processing,
such as the austenitisation temperature.

Knowledge of the hardenability of steels is necessary in order to select the appropriate

combination of alloy and heat treatment for components of different size, to minimise thermal
stresses and distortion.
 Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune- 41
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) Define hardenability and how it differ from hardness

2) At what temperature the specimen is heated ?

3) Which type of heat treatment is given to specimen?

4) How the hardenability of a particular steel can be increased by?

5) Hardenability is affected by which factors?

INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE: