A thread, commonly known as a screw thread, is a helical structure that wraps around a cylindrical or

conical surface. It allows rotational motion to be converted into linear movement. Threads are essential
in engineering for joining parts, creating movement, and transmitting force. They also ensure strong,
removable connections and enable precision motion control.

Let's explore some of these terms and their significance in various threading processes:

Pitch (P): The distance from any point on a thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread,
measured parallel to the axis. It is one of the key parameters to describe the thread size or dimension.
For example, a 1/4″-20 threads means its diameter is 1/4” and threads per inch is 20. The most common
imperial thread pitches are 1/4″-20, 5/16″-18, 3/8″-16, and 1/2″-13. The most common metric thread
pitch is 1 mm or 1.5 mm. To measure the pitch, you can use a caliper to check the distance between
crests of two threads; you can also get the result through calculation, as long as you know the entire
length of the thread and the number of threads.
Lead (Ph): The lead is the linear distance the thread travels due to a full 360° rotation. In a single start
thread, the lead equals the pitch. In multi-start threads, the lead equals the pitch multiplied by the
number of starts. This means that in a multi-start thread, the lead will always be larger than the pitch.

Lead Angle (φ): The lead angle measures the inclination of a screw helix from a plane that is
perpendicular to the screw’s axis. In more simple words, it is the proportion between the screw’s lead
and its diameter. A screw with a fine pitch and a large diameter will have a small lead angle, whereas a
screw with a coarse pitch and a small diameter will have a large lead angle.

Major Diameter (d): This is the largest diameter of the screw and is also known as the "nominal
diameter" of the thread. Furthermore, The nominal value of the major diameter equals the nominal
thread size. For example, in a UNC 1/4-20 thread, the nominal major diameter is 1/4″ (6.35 mm). For the
external thread the major diameter is measured on the crest of the thread. The major diameter is a
critical dimension to control. Together with the pitch diameter, it forms the addendum of the thread
and controls if the screw would fit on a bolt. The permissible range for the major diameter is derived
from its class. Regarding the internal thread the major diameter is measured on the root of the thread.
The major diameter is not a critical dimension. It only has a requirement to be equal to or larger than
the nominal thread diameter.
Minor Diameter (d1): The minor diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that touches the
smallest diameter of a thread. It depends on the pitch and the thread’s angle. For external threads the
minor diameter is measured on the root of the thread. The minor diameter is not a critical dimension. It
only has a maximum requirement to ensure that the root is relieved. Whereas, for internal thread the
minor diameter is measured on the crest of the thread. The minor diameter is a critical dimension.
Together with the pitch diameter, it controls if the bolt would fit on a screw.
Pitch Diameter (d2): The pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that exactly divides the
thread and groove equally. The pitch diameter is an important dimension for mating threads.

Thread Depth or height (h): The depth or height is the perpendicular distance between the crest and
root of the thread. Fine threads inherently have a shallower depth than coarse threads.

Crest: The crest is a flat (or rounded) surface connecting the flanks at the top of the thread grooves,
whether internal or external. The crest width depends on the amount of truncation applied to the
fundamental triangle, which is defined by the specific thread standard.

Root: The bottom of a surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads. The root width depends on the
amount of tip truncation, which is defined by the specific thread standard.

Flank: The flank is the side of the thread. It connects the root and crest and becomes the mating surface
on an assembled thread. There are two flanks on a thread, the leading flank and the following flank. The
leading flank is the one that goes into the threaded hole first.
Flank Angle (α): The flank angle is the angle formed between the flank and an axis perpendicular to the
axis of the thread. On symmetrical threads the flank angle is equal to half of the thread angle.

Profile Angle (ß): The angle formed by the two sides of the thread with each other. Therefore, for metric
threads with a '60-degree flank angle', the profile angle would be '120 degrees'. It is an essential aspect
of the thread’s geometric profile and influences how threads mesh and interact with each other.
Thread length: This refers to the axial length of a threaded section that includes the full thread form at
both the crest (top) and root (bottom) of the thread. For fasteners where the head usually sits above the
surface, the measurement is from directly under the head to the end of the fastener. For fasteners that
are designed to be countersunk, the measurement is made from the point on the head where the
surface of the material is, to the end of the fastener.

Allowance: Thread allowance is the distance in maximum material condition between the nominal
thread diameter and the crest of an external thread. The allowance is defined in the standards for each
class of each thread. It serves as an indication of how tight or lose the thread is. Allowance is particularly
important in threaded assemblies where parts are subject to variations in production, wear, or
environmental conditions, as it helps prevent issues such as binding or seizing during assembly.

Addendum: The distance between the crest and the pitch line in an external thread is called the thread
addendum. It is designated with has. (Internal threads don’t have an addendum).
Thread Starts: A Thread start refers to the number of distinct, continuous helical grooves that spiral
around the cylindrical surface of a screw or bolt. Each start represents a separate spiral thread that
advances along the length of the fastener. The number of starts influences the thread’s lead, which is
the distance the thread advances in one complete turn. In multi-start threads, the lead is a multiple of
the pitch, determined by the number of starts. This configuration affects how the load is distributed
across the threads and can enhance assembly speed, as multi-start threads advance more with each
turn compared to single-start threads.

Helix: The helix of a screw thread refers to the spiral or helical path that the thread follows as it wraps
around the cylindrical surface of a screw or bolt. This helical shape is a result of the thread’s continuous,
spiral rise along the length of the fastener, creating the threaded profile that engages with
corresponding internal threads or nuts.
Helix Angle: The angle formed between the thread's helix and a line perpendicular to the axis of the
thread. A steeper helix angle reduces friction but can reduce holding power.

Tooth Angle: The shape and angle of the individual thread teeth, which vary based on the thread’s
design and purpose. Tooth angles can be trapezoidal, square, or triangular, influencing the thread’s
strength and friction properties.

Chamfer: A chamfer refers to the angled or beveled edge that is machined onto the lead-in or entry of a
threaded component, such as a bolt or nut. The primary function of a chamfer is to facilitate the smooth
engagement and alignment of the threaded parts during assembly. A chamfer is typically applied to the
first few threads of the external thread (like a bolt) or the internal thread (like a nut).
Form: Thread form refers to the specific shape and geometry of the threads on a screw, bolt, or nut,
defining how the threads interlock and engage with each other. The thread form is characterized by
several key features, such as the thread profile, pitch, and the angles of the thread. It determines how
well the threads fit together, how they distribute loads, and how they perform in various applications.

Length of engagement: Length of Engagement is the axial distance of full threads in contact between the
male and female parts of a threading assembly. It is usually measured in multiples of the pitch. For
example, 5P means a length of engagement of five times the pitch.
Fundamental Triangle: The Fundamental Triangle of a Thread Profile is a triangle that defines the shape
and dimensions of the basic thread profile. The corners of this triangle coincide with three consecutive
intercepts of the extended flanks of the basic profile. Truncations at the thread crest and root are
applied to this triangle to determine the final shape of the thread.

Tolerances: Dictate how much a thread can deviate from the basic profile and achieve a proper
connection. They also define the acceptable limits of variation in thread dimensions and ensure
threaded parts fit together correctly and function as intended.
Thread truncation: Thread truncation refers to the removal of the sharp apex of the fundamental
triangle. This truncation is measured perpendicular to the axis of the threads and can result in either a
rounded or flat shape, depending on the thread standard.

2. Research the application of various thread forms (fine, coarse, British, American, and metric).

Coarse Threads

Coarse threads are often used in applications where installation speed and ease of usage are critical.
Because they have a bigger pitch, fewer threads are required to complete a full turn, resulting in a faster
installation time. Coarse threads are also less likely to peel or bind, making them an excellent choice for
softer materials like wood or plastic. They are frequently used in building, woodworking, and general-
purpose applications. One advantage of coarse threads is their capacity to easily grab materials. The
wider pitch gives a firmer hold and reduces the likelihood of the screws stripping or pulling out of the
material. They are also simpler to start and drive, saving time during installation. A coarse thread may be
preferable if the speed and convenience of installation are more critical.
Fine Threads

A fine thread has a smaller pitch, which means it takes more threads to complete a full turn. This slows
down installation time, but the larger number of threads allows for more precision and control.
Precision industries such as electronics, aerospace, and medical equipment frequently use fine threads.
Fine threads have a bigger surface area and a stronger joint than coarse threads due to their smaller
pitch. They are appropriate for high-stress applications that require a strong and secure connection.
Furthermore, fine threads are less likely to peel or pull out of the cloth, making them excellent for
applications involving material movement. A fine thread may be a preferable choice if you’re putting a
screw that will be subjected to a lot of vibration or stress because it will offer a stronger union.

American thread types/forms

The American national standard or U.S. or Seller’s thread has flat crests and roots. The flat crest can
withstand more rough usage than sharp V-threads. These threads are used for general purposes e.g. on
bolts, nuts, screws, and tapped holes. For the American thread types, the dimensions are always given in
inches (1 inch = 25.4 mm). The flank angle is always 60 degrees. The main difference between the
various American unified threads is the pitch of the threads. These are also indicated in threads per inch.
To determine the pitch, the number of threads is counted in one inch. They are widely used in the
United States for general fastening purposes, including machinery, automotive, and construction.

One of the most common American thread standards is the Unified Thread Standard (UTS), which
includes two main specifications that are Unified National Thread (UNC) and Unified Fine Thread (UNF).
UNC threads have a coarser thread pitch, which means the spacing between threads is greater, and UNF
comes with a finer thread pitch.

Unified Thread Standard (UTS)

The Unified Thread Standard (UTS) defines a 60° thread form in Inch dimensions as described in the
ASME B1.1 standard. It is the North American equivalent of the ISO metric thread system. The UTS
serves as the leading standard for bolts, nuts, and a wide variety of other threaded fasteners used in the
USA and Canada. However, in recent years the metric thread standard is becoming more common. The
standard defines diameter and pitch combinations along with allowances, tolerances, and designations.
It has the same 60° profile as the ISO metric screw thread, but the basic dimensions of each UTS thread
were chosen as an inch fraction rather than a millimeter value. These threads are also used in engine
parts where precise fitting and strong connections are required and they are also used in spacecraft
components where high precision and safety are paramount.

Unified National Coarse Thread (UNC)

 The Unified screw thread is a standard thread, which is mainly used in the USA and is the
American equivalent of the Metric ISO thread. Only the unit of measurement inch instead of
centimeter is used. The flank angle is – as with the ISO thread – 60 degrees. Coarse threads are
more resistant to stripping and are faster to assemble; making them ideal for general purpose
applications where quick assembly is needed. They are easier to manufacture, faster to
assemble, and less prone to cross-threading. They are better suited for materials with lower
tensile strength and commonly used in construction, machinery, and automotive assembly.

Unified National Fine Thread (UNF)

The same applies to the Unified National Fine thread type, which is the American fine thread to
the ISO metric fine thread. As with the UNC, the flank angle is 60 degrees. Fine threads offer
greater tensile strength and better adjustment capabilities, making them suitable for precision
applications. Used in applications requiring high precision and strength, such as aerospace
components, medical devices, and high-pressure systems. They have higher tensile strength,
better resistance to stripping, and improved fatigue life compared to coarse threads.

British Whitworth threads

The Whitworth thread is named after its inventor Sir Josep Whitworth. The British engineer introduced
the world’s first thread standardization in 1841 and thus influenced the mass production of threads. The
Whitworth thread is specified in inches and has a flank angle of 55 degrees. This type of thread is mainly
used in the British Kingdom. These threads are found on bolts and screwed fastenings for special
purposes. It is also used in machinery, locomotives, and older British cars and motorcycles. British
standard tolerances are looser than comparable American standards like UNF; also their threads may
not be as precisely interchangeable.
1. British Standard Whitworth Coarse (BSW/ WW)
The British Standard Whitworth is on the one hand a standard thread and on the other hand a
screw thread. In terms of meaning and use, it is equivalent to the ISO metric thread. It is
specified in inches and has a flank angle of 55 degrees. It is used for general-purpose fasteners,
especially in older machinery. BSW has a steeper thread profile than American and are not as
sharp at the root. British threads are designated by the thread diameter followed by the number
of threads per inch (e.g. 1/2 BSW). BSW threads are still used in some construction applications,
especially in restoration projects or where traditional fastening methods are preferred.

2. British Standard Fine (BSF)

The British Standard Fine is the English variant of the fine thread. The meaning and use
corresponds to that of metric fine thread. The thread is also specified in inches for the BSF and
has a 55 degree flank angle. Similar to BSW but with a finer pitch, BSF threads provide stronger
connections in applications subject to vibration, like automotive and aerospace components.

3. British Standard Pipe (BSP/ G)

 The British Standard Pipe is a Whitworth pipe thread. It is a cylindrical thread and therefore not
self-sealing. It is abbreviated with the abbreviation G. A small special feature is that the inch
specification does not correspond to the inch diameter. For example: BSP 1″ = approx. 33.25
mm. The British standard pipe (B.S.P.) threads with fine pitches are used for steel and iron pipes
and tubes carrying fluids. In external pipe threading, the threads are specified by the bore of the
pipe.
4. British Association (B.A.) thread
This is a B.S.W. thread with fine pitches. The proportions of the B.A. thread. These threads are
used for instruments and other precision works. B.A. threads are often used in precision
instruments, such as optical devices, microscopes, and scientific equipment. They are also
popular in model engineering and hobbyist projects due to their small size and precision.

Metric Threads

Metric threads are standardized globally and measured in millimeters. They are characterized by their
thread pitch and diameter, such as M10 x 1.5, where “M10” indicates a 10mm diameter and “1.5” is the
pitch. The pitch is calculated by measuring the distance between the first and second tooth. These
threads are widely used internationally and are preferred in many engineering and manufacturing
applications due to their standardized measurement system. Furthermore, it is used globally in various
industries, including automotive, electronics, and consumer good.
1. ISO metric thread (M)
The ISO metric thread is a worldwide standardized thread and is probably the best known and
most used in Europe. It is also known as a standard thread. Pitch and diameter are measured in
millimeters. The code letter for the metric thread is (M). The flank angle is 60 degrees. Metric
threads are used for threaded rods, nuts and bolts for securing frictional connections. ISO metric
threads are divided into tolerance classes, such as 6g and 6H, determining the degree of
clearance or interference. Coarser tolerances offer looser fits, while finer tolerances provide
tighter fit. This is applied in the installation of building systems, such as HVAC, electrical, and
plumbing.
2. ISO metric fine thread (MF)
The ISO Metric Fine Thread is similar to the bigger brother of the ISO Metric Thread. Here the
code letters are MF and the flank angle is 60 degrees. However, both differ in the pitch. The
metric fine thread is used for example for watches. Often used where space is limited. For a
regular thread, only a few threads would then be in the engagement. They also provide better
clamping force and are used in applications requiring higher precision and tighter seal. These are
utilized in the assembly of surgical instruments and medical devices, where precision and
reliability are crucial.

3. ISO metric coarse thread (MC)

Coarse Threads are commonly used due to their balance of strength and ease of assembly. They
also have a larger pitch and are ideal for large power equipment where high strength is a
priority. Coarse metric threads are common in industrial equipment and machinery where
strong, durable connections are needed. Coarse metric threads are often used in general
fastening applications, such as assembling machinery, furniture, and automotive components.
They are applied in electrical fixtures and installations to provide secure connections for wiring
and components. Furthermore, they are also used in furniture assembly for their strength and
ease of use, especially in flat-pack furniture and Found in household appliances such as washing
machines, refrigerators, and ovens, providing reliable fastening.
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