Theoretical questions on which Morphology microorganisms.

1. Building biological microscope with immersion lens.

Using the microscope, calculation of magnification
and resolution.
To build a biological microscope with an immersion lens,
the following steps can be followed:
Materials:
- Eyepiece lens
- Objectives
- Primary lens
- Immersion oil
- Microscope slide and cover slip
- Light source and condenser
- Rack and pinion mechanism for focus
- Stage for the slide
Construction:
1. Assemble the eyepiece lens and objective lenses into
the primary lens.
2. Mount the primary lens onto the microscope frame.
3. Attach the light source and condenser below the stage.
4. Add immersion oil onto the underside of the objective
lens for increased resolution.
5. Place the slide on the stage and use the rack and pinion
mechanism to focus the specimen.

To calculate the magnification of the microscope, the

following formula can be used:

Magnification = (Magnification of eyepiece lens) x

(Magnification of objective lens)

To calculate the resolution, the following formula can be

used:
 Resolution = (Wavelength of light) ÷ (Numerical
Aperture)
Where the numerical aperture is determined by the
objective lens and immersion oil used.
By adjusting focus and using immersion oil to increase
resolution, the microscope can be used to view and study
microscopic specimens in greater detail.
2. Differences of darkfield microscopy, its purpose.

Darkfield microscopy is a type of microscopy that is used

to visualize samples that are too small or too transparent
to be seen with ordinary brightfield microscopes. The
main feature of darkfield microscopy is the use of a
special condenser that blocks any direct light from
entering the objective lens, producing a white image with
bright objects against a dark background.
The purpose of darkfield microscopy is to enhance the
contrast of the specimen being studied, making it easier
to see details that are typically difficult to distinguish
using other microscopy techniques, especially in live or
unstained specimens. It is commonly used to observe
bacteria, fungi, and other small organisms, as well as
cells, tissues, and even whole organisms that are too thin
or transparent to be viewed under other forms of
microscopy. Darkfield microscopy is useful in fields such
 as medicine, microbiology, and biology, where
visualization of live or unstained specimens is critical.

3. The principle of phase contrast microscopy, the

necessary equipment. Why do we use this method of
microscopy?
The principle of phase contrast microscopy is based on
the phenomenon of light waves changing phases as they
pass through transparent objects. The wave fronts of the
light rays that pass through the object lag behind the
wave fronts that pass through the surrounding medium,
creating a phase shift between these two waves. This
phase difference results in contrast between the object
and the background, allowing us to see fine details in
transparent specimens.
To achieve phase contrast microscopy, specialized
equipment is required, including a phase contrast
microscope objective, a phase contrast annulus with a
phase plate, and a light source with a stable and uniform
illumination.

We use this method of microscopy because it allows us to

view specimens that are difficult to visualize with other
techniques, such as live and unstained cells, tissues, and
small organisms. Phase contrast microscopy is especially
useful in the study of biological specimens, where
traditional brightfield techniques may damage or kill the
specimen, or where the specimen is too transparent to be
seen effectively. This method allows for the visualization
of dynamic biological processes in real-time and allows
for a more detailed understanding of cellular behavior
and function. Additionally, phase contrast microscopy is
non-invasive and requires minimal sample preparation,
 making it a fast and efficient tool for studying biological
samples.
4. The principle of fluorescent microscopy, which uses
fluorescent microscopy.
The principle of fluorescence microscopy is based on the
property of certain substances to absorb light at one
wavelength and emit light at another, longer wavelength.
This is known as fluorescence.
Fluorescent microscopy is a type of light microscopy that
utilizes fluorescent molecules, also called fluorophores,
to label and illuminate specific structures or molecules
within a biological specimen. In a fluorescent
microscope, a specific wavelength of light is used to
excite the fluorophores, causing them to emit light of a
different color. The emitted light is then captured by the
microscope's imaging system and displayed as an image.
To use fluorescent microscopy, the sample must first be
labeled with a fluorophore, either through direct labeling
with a fluorescent dye, or through indirect labeling with a
fluorescently tagged antibody or other probe that binds
specifically to the structure of interest. The simplest way
to label a specimen is to stain it with a fluorescent dye
that binds to the specific structure of interest, but there
are also many specialized techniques for labeling specific
molecules or structures.
Fluorescent microscopy is a powerful tool in biological
research because it allows specific structures or
molecules to be visualized in detail, even within complex
biological samples. Different properties of the
fluorophores, such as their emission spectrum, lifetime or
polarization, can be used to reveal more information
 about the specimen, such as the location, orientation, and
dynamics of molecules within cells.
5. The structure of the electron microscope, principles of
electron microscopy.
The electron microscope (EM) is a powerful tool used to
study the structure and properties of materials at the atomic
and sub-atomic scale. It uses a beam of electrons instead of
visible light to generate magnified images of objects under
study. There are two types of electron microscopes -
transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning
electron microscope (SEM) - each with its own set of
principles and structure.
Structure of Electron Microscope:
1) Electron Source: An electron gun is used to produce a
beam of electrons. The source material used can be either
tungsten or LaB6.
2) Electromagnetic Lenses: The electron beam is focused
and guided using electromagnetic lenses. These lenses
consist of small coils of wire that are used to create a
magnetic field, which changes the path of the electrons.
3) Specimen Chamber: The specimen chamber is where
the sample is placed for imaging. It is typically a vacuum
chamber, which allows the electrons to travel unobstructed.
4) Detector: The detector is used to capture the image of
the sample. It can be either a photographic film or a digital
camera.
Principles of Electron Microscopy:
1) Electron-Wave Interference: The principle of electron-
wave interference is used to highlight the structural details
of a specimen. The electron beam is directed at the
specimen, and the electrons passing through the specimen
are scattered, diffracted, and refracted. As a result of this
process, the electrons create complex interference patterns,
which can be used to obtain information about the sample's
structure.

2) Electron-Beam Scanning: In SEM, the electron beam is

scanned over the surface of the sample, and the electrons
scattered from the sample are collected and used to generate
an image. The beam is scanned in a raster pattern to
generate a complete image.

3) Electron Transmissions: In TEM, the electron beam is

transmitted through the sample, and the electrons that pass
through are detected and used to generate an image. The
image is created by varying the intensity of the electrons
that pass through different regions of the sample.

In summary, electron microscopy is a powerful tool used in

the study of the structure and properties of materials. It
works on the principle of interference, scanning, and
transmission of electron waves, and the EM structure
consists of an electron source, electromagnetic lenses, a
specimen chamber, and a detector to capture the image.
6. Principles of classification of microorganisms. What
reign microorganisms belong to (bacteria, viruses).
Microorganisms can be classified based on several
principles, including their morphology, metabolism,
genetics, and ecology.
One of the most common ways to classify
microorganisms is based on their cellular structure. There
are three main categories of microorganisms: bacteria,
archaea, and eukaryotes. Bacteria are unicellular
organisms with no nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles. They are the most abundant and diverse group
of microorganisms and can be found in various
 environments on Earth. Archaea, on the other hand, are
also unicellular prokaryotes but differ from bacteria in
their cell wall and membrane composition. They are often
found in extreme environments such as hot springs, salt
flats, and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Lastly, eukaryotic
microorganisms are typically larger and have a more
complex cellular structure, including a nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. They include fungi,
protozoa, and algae.
Another way to classify microorganisms is based on their
mode of nutrition. Some microorganisms are autotrophs,
meaning they can produce their own food using light
(photosynthesis) or chemicals (chemosynthesis). Others
are heterotrophs and rely on external sources of organic
matter for their nutrition.
Viruses, although often classified as microorganisms, are
not considered living organisms as they lack the ability to
reproduce and metabolize on their own. They are
essentially a package of genetic material (DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein coat.
In summary, microorganisms can be classified based on
their cellular structure, mode of nutrition, and genetic
makeup. The most common groups are bacteria, archaea,
and eukaryotes, while viruses are not considered living
organisms.

7. Classification of prokaryotic is by Berdzhi.

organisms is primarily based on their cellular
morphology, metabolic pathways, and genetic makeup.
Prokaryotic organisms can be classified into:
1. Bacteria: These are the most numerous and diverse
group of prokaryotes. They have a wide range of shapes
(sphere, rod, spiral), sizes, and metabolic pathways.

2. Archaea: These are often found in extreme

environments and have unique metabolic pathways. They
are similar to bacteria in size and shape but differ in
genetic makeup and cell membrane structure.

3. Cyanobacteria: These are photosynthetic bacteria that

use sunlight to synthesize their food. They are
responsible for the oxygenation of the atmosphere and
are often found in aquatic environments.

4. Spirochetes: These are spiral-shaped bacteria that have

flagella for motility. They are often found in the
gastrointestinal tract of animals.

5. Actinobacteria: These are rod-shaped bacteria with

branching filaments. They are involved in the
decomposition of organic matter and the production of
antibiotics.

6. Proteobacteria: These are diverse bacteria that include

many pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella,
and Vibrio cholerae. They have a wide range of
metabolic pathways and are often found in soil, water,
and the human gut.

7. Firmicutes: These are gram-positive bacteria that

include many important pathogens such as
Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
 They are also involved in the fermentation of foods and
production of antibiotics.
8. General forms of bacteria.
There are several general forms of bacteria:
1. Cocci: spherical or round-shaped bacteria
2. Bacilli: rod-shaped bacteria
3. Spirilla: spiral-shaped bacteria
4. Vibrios: short, curved rods
5. Filamentous: thread-like or elongated bacteria
6. Pleomorphic: bacteria that can change shape or size
depending on their environment.
The specific shape and arrangement of bacteria can provide
valuable information when identifying bacterial species.

9. Simple methods of staining.

There are several simple methods of staining that you can
use:
1. Gram staining - This technique is used to differentiate
between different types of bacteria. Crystal violet stain is
used to stain the bacteria followed by iodine solution and
alcohol. Then, a counterstain of safranin is added to see
the bacteria's color change.

2. Hematoxylin and eosin staining - This staining

technique is commonly used in histology to visualize the
cellular structure of tissues. Hematoxylin is used to stain
the nucleus while eosin stains the cytoplasm, resulting in
a contrast between the cells.

3. Oil red O staining - This staining technique is used to

detect fat cells in tissue samples. Oil Red O is added to
stain the fat cells, which will turn red.
 4. Periodic acid-Schiff staining - PAS staining is used to
detect carbohydrates in cells and tissues. Periodic acid
oxidizes the carbohydrates, which releases aldehydes that
react with Schiff reagent and produces a pink color.

5. Sudan black staining - This staining technique is used

to identify lipid-rich cells, such as fat cells. Sudan Black
stain is added to the sample, and the lipid droplets are
stained black.
10.Capsule, structure and functions.
A capsule in bacteria is a protective layer that surrounds the
cell wall. It is composed of a thick layer of polysaccharides or
glycoproteins that provide an additional barrier against the
host immune system and help the bacterium attach to surfaces
or cells. Capsules can also provide a nutrient reserve for the
bacterium and serve as a reservoir for enzymes or virulence
factors.
Structurally, the capsule is a dense and sticky layer that can
range in thickness from few nanometers to several
micrometers. The capsule is typically composed of repeating
units of polysaccharides, often modified with O-acetyl or O-
methyl groups, which confer resistance to host antimicrobial
peptides.
Functionally, the capsule provides several advantages to the
bacterium. It can prevent desiccation, protect the bacterium
from environmental stressors such as phagocytic cells or
toxins, and facilitate the formation of biofilms. Capsules can
also modulate the host immune response by masking the
bacterial surface molecules, inhibiting complement activation,
or interfering with opsonization.
Overall, the capsule is an essential virulence factor for many
pathogenic bacteria, providing a fundamental mechanism for
survival and pathogenesis by conferring resistance to host
immune defenses.
11.A cell wall - structure and functions
The cell wall of bacteria is a rigid, protective layer that covers
the entire cell. It is made up of peptidoglycan, a complex
polymer made up of sugars and amino acids. This material
provides strength and stability to the cell, making it resistant to
osmotic pressure and physical damage.
Structure:
The bacterial cell wall is composed of three main components:
peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharides, and teichoic acids.
Peptidoglycan is the main structural component of the cell
wall and is composed of repeating units of N-
acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM).
These units are linked together by short peptide chains to form
a mesh-like network that surrounds the cell. The
lipopolysaccharides are located on the outer surface of the cell
wall and play a role in protecting the cell from harmful
substances. Teichoic acids are a type of polymer found in the
cell walls of certain bacteria and play a role in modulating the
cell’s surface charge and adhesion properties.
Functions:
The cell wall of bacteria has several important functions:
1. Protection: The cell wall provides a physical barrier that
protects the cell against the external environment. It prevents
harmful substances from entering the cell and helps maintain
the cell’s shape and integrity.
2. Osmotic regulation: The cell wall helps regulate the
movement of water and other substances in and out of the cell.
This is important for maintaining the osmotic balance of the
cell.
3. Antibiotic resistance: The cell wall of many bacteria is
highly resistant to antibiotics, making it difficult to treat
bacterial infections. This is due to the presence of certain
enzymes in the cell wall that can break down antibiotics.
4. Adhesion: The cell wall plays a role in allowing bacteria to
adhere to surfaces and form biofilms. This is important for
bacterial colonization and infection.
Overall, the cell wall is a vital component of bacterial cells,
providing protection, structural support, and regulating
important cellular processes.

12.Cytoplazmatic membrane - structure and functions.

The cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria, also known as the cell
membrane, is a thin, flexible layer that separates the cytoplasm
from the external environment. It is made up of a phospholipid
bilayer, which consists of two layers of phospholipid
molecules arranged with their hydrophobic tails facing each
other and their hydrophilic heads facing outwards.
Structure:
The cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria is composed of
phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates. The phospholipids
in the membrane are arranged in a bilayer with the
hydrophobic tails pointing inward and the hydrophilic heads
pointing outward. The proteins in the membrane are embedded
in the lipid bilayer and serve a variety of functions. Some of
these functions include the transport of molecules, signal
transduction and energy production. The carbohydrates in the
membrane help to stabilize the membrane and aid in cell
recognition.
Functions:
The cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria performs several
important functions, which include:
1. Selective permeability: The cytoplasmic membrane is
selectively permeable, meaning it allows some molecules to
pass through while restricting others. This is crucial for
regulating what enters and exits the cell.
2. Transport of nutrients: The membrane contains
transporters that allow the passage of nutrients such as sugars,
amino acids, and ions into the cell.
3. Energy production: The membrane contains proteins that
are involved in energy production, including electron transport
and proton pumping for ATP synthesis.
4. Cell signaling: The membrane contains receptors that
receive signals from the environment and transmit them to the
cell's interior.
5. Maintaining cell shape: The cytoplasmic membrane is
attached to the cell wall, which helps to maintain the shape
and rigidity of the cell.

Overall, the cytoplasmic membrane is a critical component of

bacterial cells, responsible for controlling what enters and
exits the cell, energy production, cell signaling and
maintaining the shape of the cell.
13.Structure and meaning of flagellums.
Flagella are whip-like appendages that extend from the surface
of bacteria and enable them to move through their
environment. These structures are composed of a protein
called flagellin and are anchored in the bacterial cell
membrane and cell wall.
Structure:
Flagella are long, filamentous structures that are composed of
many individual protein subunits called flagellin. The subunits
are arranged in a helical pattern around a central axis to form a
long, thin structure. The flagellum consists of three main parts:
the basal body, the hook, and the filament.
The basal body is anchored in the bacterial cell envelope and
is responsible for rotating the flagellum. The hook connects
the basal body to the filament and allows for a flexible
connection. The filament is the long, helical part of the
flagellum that extends out from the cell surface and is
responsible for generating movement.
Meaning:
Flagella are essential for bacterial motility, allowing bacteria
to move toward nutrients, avoid harmful substances or
environments, and interact with other bacteria. Bacterial
motility is important in several ways, including:
1. Nutrient acquisition: Flagella help bacteria move towards
nutrients such as sugar, amino acids and other metabolites.
2. Defense: Flagella can aid bacteria in avoiding harmful
substances by propelling them away from such substances.
3. Colonization: Flagella aid bacteria in interacting with and
colonizing host tissues.
4. Interactions with other bacteria: Flagella allow bacteria
to interact with other bacteria, including competing for
resources or forming symbiotic or antagonistic relationships.

In summary, flagella are critical structures for bacterial

motility, allowing bacteria to move through and interact with
their environment, including acquiring nutrients, avoiding
harmful substances, colonizing host tissues, and interacting
with other bacteria.
14.How does the bacteria are classified depending on an
amount and location of flagellums.
Bacteria can be classified into four main categories based on
the amount and location of their flagella:

1. Atrichous bacteria - These bacteria do not have flagella

and are unable to move.
2. Monotrichous bacteria - These bacteria have a single
flagellum at one end of the cell, which allows them to move in
a straight line.

Lophotrichous
o Multiple flagella coming from one polar end of
bacteria
o Example: Pseudomonas

3. Amphitrichous bacteria - These bacteria have a single

flagellum at each end of the cell, which enables them to move
in a more flexible manner.

4. Peritrichous bacteria - These bacteria have multiple

flagella distributed over their entire surface, allowing them to
move in any direction.

The presence and arrangement of flagella in bacteria can be

used as a diagnostic tool in microbiology, as it can help
identify different species and strains of bacteria.
15.What does the phenome of plazmoliz consist in?
Practical use.
The phenomenon of plasmolysis is the process in which the
cytoplasm of a cell shrinks and pulls away from its cell wall
due to the loss of water. It occurs when a cell is exposed to a
hypertonic solution, meaning that the concentration of solutes
outside the cell is higher than the concentration inside the cell.

The practical use of plasmolysis is in science and research,

specifically in studying the effects of different solutions and
solutes on cell structures. Plasmolysis is used to determine the
tonicity of a solution and to study the permeability of cell
membranes. It is also used in the production of dried or
dehydrated food, where plasmolysis of bacterial and fungal
cells helps to preserve the food by preventing microbial
growth. Additionally, plasmolysis can be used to assess the
effectiveness of different herbicides by determining their
impact on plant cells.

16.Principle of method by Grame staining

The Gram staining method is a differential staining technique
used to differentiate bacterial species into two distinct groups
based on the differences in their cell wall structures.

The principle of the Gram staining method is based on the

ability of bacteria to retain crystal violet stain in their cell wall
when exposed to a series of different staining solutions. The
process involves the following steps:

1. A bacterial smear is heat-fixed onto a glass slide.

2. The slide is treated with crystal violet dye, which stains all
bacteria purplish-blue.
3. The slide is rinsed with a decolorizing agent, usually
alcohol or acetone, which dehydrates the cell walls and
removes the stain from some bacterial species.
4. The slide is treated with a counterstain, usually safranin or
fuchsin, which stains the decolorized bacteria red.
5. The slide is rinsed with water, air-dried, and viewed under a
microscope.
The outcome of the staining method depends on the cell wall
structure of the bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick
peptidoglycan layer in their cell walls, which retains the
crystal violet stain even after decolorization, resulting in
purple-blue colored cells. Gram-negative bacteria have a
thinner peptidoglycan layer with an outer lipopolysaccharide
membrane, which does not retain the crystal violet stain, but
picks up the red counterstain, resulting in red-colored cells.

Therefore, the Gram staining method is useful for identifying

and differentiating between different bacterial species based
on their cell wall structures.

17.Differences of Gr+ and Gr- of bacteria

18.Spirochetes (treponema, borreliya, leptospira). Features

of morphology and structure
(envelope, fibrils, blepharoplast), mobility. Staining by
Romanovsky-Giemsa.
Spirochetes are a group of bacteria that are characterized by
their unique spiral-shaped morphology. The most well-known
genera of spirochetes are Treponema, Borrelia, and
Leptospira.

Morphology and Structure:

Spirochetes are elongated, helically coiled bacteria that range
in size from 0.1 to 0.5 micrometers in diameter and from 5 to
more than 100 micrometers in length. They have a
characteristic axial filament or endoflagella, which runs the
length of the cell between the outer membrane and the
cytoplasmic membrane. The axial filaments of spirochetes are
helical in nature, which creates the distinctive corkscrew-like
morphology of the cells. In addition to the axial filament,
some spirochetes have an outer envelope layer called the
sheath. The sheath is thought to protect the cell and aid in
motility.

Spirochetes also have a specialized structure called a

blepharoplast or kinetoplast, which is located at the base of the
flagellum. The blepharoplast is a dense area of cytoplasmic
material that is thought to be involved in the assembly and
maintenance of the flagellum.

Mobility:
The axial filaments of spirochetes allow for motility by
rotation or twisting of the cell body. This unique form of
motility allows spirochetes to move through viscous
environments, such as mucus and blood, and to penetrate host
tissues.

Staining:
Spirochetes can be stained using various techniques, including
Romanovsky-Giemsa staining. This staining method uses a
combination of basic and acidic dyes to produce a range of
colors that highlight the structures of the cell. In spirochetes,
the axial filament and sheath are typically more visible with
this staining method.

In conclusion, the distinctive spiral shape, axial filaments, and

special structures like blepharoplasts make spirochetes unique
among bacteria. Their ability to move through viscous
environments and penetrate host tissues may contribute to
their ability to cause disease in humans and other animals.
19. Morphological features of rickettsia, chlamydia and
mycoplasmas.
Rickettsia, Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma are three genera of
bacteria that share some unique morphological features:

Rickettsia:
Rickettsia are small, gram-negative intracellular bacteria.
They are typically rod-shaped or oval and range in size from
0.3 to 0.5 micrometers in width and 0.5 to 2 micrometers in
length. They are often pleomorphic, meaning they can assume
different shapes, such as coccobacilli or bacilli. Rickettsia
have a rigid cell wall that stains weakly with Gram stain, and
an outer membrane. They can be observed using a light
microscope, but are usually too small to be seen with a
standard light microscope.
Chlamydia:
Chlamydia are small, gram-negative intracellular bacteria.
They are typically spherical or ovoid and range in size from
0.2 to 1 micrometer in diameter. They have a distinctive
extracellular body structure called an elementary body (EB)
which is the infectious form of the bacterium. The EBs are
small, dense and are equipped with only limited biosynthetic
capabilities. Chlamydia also has an intracellular form called
the reticulate body (RB). The RBs is larger and metabolically
active as compared to the EBs. The EBs are taken up inside a
host cell within a special membrane-bound vacuole, called an
inclusion.
Mycoplasma:
Mycoplasma are small, pleomorphic, gram-negative bacteria
that are unique among bacteria in that they have no cell wall.
They are usually smaller than other bacteria, ranging in size
from about 0.1 to 0.3 micrometers in diameter. This makes
them difficult to detect using a standard light microscope.
Mycoplasma have a plasma membrane and an outer
membrane that is less rigid than typical gram-negative
bacteria. They also have a distinctive serrated or corrugated
surface appearance due to the presence of surface proteins.

In conclusion, Rickettsia, Chlamydia and Mycoplasma are

three genera of bacteria with unique but variable
morphological features. Rickettsia are rod-shaped or oval,
Chlamydia are spherical or ovoids with distinctive
extracellular bodies while Mycoplasma are pleomorphic with
no cell walls. These differences in morphology may be
associated with differences in their life cycles and
pathogenicity.

20.Actinomycetes, morphology. Air and substrate

mycelium, druses.
Actinomycetes are a group of gram-positive bacteria that are
filamentous and show a complex morphological structure.
They are commonly found in soil and decomposing organic
matter. The following are some of their morphological
features:
Mycelium:
Actinomycetes have a complex morphological structure that
includes the growth of filamentous hyphae. The hyphae form
a thick, branched network called mycelium. The mycelium
can be either aerial or substrate.
Air mycelium:
The aerial mycelium grows above the surface and is easily
visible to the naked eye. It can be identified as a fuzzy
appearance on the agar surface. This mycelium is formed
during the sporulation stage of the Actinomycetes' growth
cycle.
Substrate mycelium:
The substrate mycelium grows within the agar and is not
visible to the naked eye. This mycelium is responsible for the
nutrient acquisition and growth of the Actinomycetes.
Druses:
Druses are small, spherical or ellipsoidal structures that occur
in the hyphae of Actinomycetes. These structures are
composed of calcium oxalate crystals that are formed inside
the hyphae. They are often observed in older cultures or in
cultures under stress conditions.
In conclusion, Actinomycetes are filamentous, gram-positive
bacteria with a complex morphological structure. They form a
branched network of hyphae called mycelium that can be
either substrate or aerial. They also possess unique structures
called druses, which are composed of calcium oxalate
crystals. These structures are important in identifying
Actinomycetes in culture.
21. Sporulation. A concept about bacilli and clostridiums.
Identification of spores by Ozheshko's method.
Sporulation is a process of bacterial reproduction that
occurs in bacilli and clostridiums when conditions become
unfavorable for growth or survival. During sporulation, a
dormant, highly resistant structure called a spore is formed
within the bacterial cell. This spore is capable of surviving in
harsh environments for extended periods of time, waiting for a
more favorable environment to resume growth.

To identify spores, one method is Ozheshko's method.

This method works by staining the spores with malachite
green, a stain that is taken up by the spore membrane. The
stained spores can then be visualized under a microscope.

To perform Ozheshko's method, the bacterial sample

(usually a solid culture) is first fixed with heat or a fixative
solution. The sample is then flooded with malachite green
stain and heated again to facilitate penetration of the stain into
the spores. After staining, the sample is decolorized with a
solution of water and alcohol to remove excess stain from the
vegetative cells. Finally, the spores are counterstained with
safranin, which stains the vegetative cells but not the spores,
allowing them to be easily distinguished.
Ozheshko's method is a simple and reliable method for
spore identification. It is commonly used in microbiology
laboratories to distinguish between spore-forming and non-
spore-forming bacteria, as well as to assess the quality of food
and environmental samples for bacterial contamination.
22. Structure of a cell of fungi. Main forms of fungi: yeast,
yeast-like fungi, filamentous fungi. Hypha, mycelium.
Dimorphism of fungi. Features of structure of a
cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall. Mechanism of
reproduction of fungi: budding, formation of spores.
The structure of a fungal cell is similar to that of a plant cell
but with some differences. Fungal cells have a cell wall that is
made up of chitin and cellulose substances. The cell
membrane of fungi contains sterols, which are absent in
bacterial membranes. It also has numerous cytoplasmic
extensions called hyphae.

There are three main forms of fungi: yeast, yeast-like fungi,

and filamentous fungi. Yeasts are single-celled fungi that
reproduce by budding. Yeast-like fungi are similar to yeasts,
but they grow as multicellular aggregates. Filamentous fungi,
also known as molds, are multicellular organisms that form
visible colonies on solid media.

Hyphae are the basic structural units of multicellular fungi,

and they are responsible for the growth and spread of the
fungus through their branching and extension. A mass of
interwoven hyphae is called a mycelium.

Dimorphism of fungi is the ability of some fungal species to

exhibit two distinct forms of growth. Under certain conditions,
these fungi can exist as both a yeast-like form and a
filamentous form.

The cytoplasmic membrane of fungi is a phospholipid bilayer

that regulates the flow of nutrients into and out of the cell. The
cell wall of fungi provides rigidity and structure to the cell,
and it protects the fungi from the environment.

Fungi reproduce through various mechanisms, including

budding and spore formation. Budding is the process of a
small yeast cell developing on the surface of a larger parent
cell. Spore formation is the process of a fungi developing
asexual or sexual reproductive structures that produce spores,
which can then spread, germinate, and grow into new fungal
organisms.
23. Vegetative spores, endospores, exospores, sexual
spores.
Fungi can reproduce by producing different types of spores.
These include vegetative spores, endospores, exospores, and
sexual spores.

Vegetative spores are produced by some fungi, such as yeasts

and molds, during their growth and development cycle. They
are small, asexual spores that are formed through the process
of mitosis. Vegetative spores can be produced through a
number of different means, including fragmentation, budding,
and the production of sporangia.

Endospores are a type of spore that is produced by some fungi

as a means of survival. Endospores are formed by the fungi in
response to environmental stress, such as a lack of nutrients or
exposure to toxic substances. The endospore is a highly
resistant structure that protects the genetic material of the
fungus during periods of adverse conditions.

Exospores are a type of spore that is formed outside the parent

cell. They are produced by fungi that are capable of producing
fruiting bodies, such as mushrooms or puffballs. Exospores
are released from the fruiting body and can travel through the
environment, allowing the fungus to spread and colonize new
areas.
Sexual spores are formed through sexual reproduction and are
produced by the fusion of two different types of cells, known
as gametes. Sexual spores are often more resistant to adverse
conditions than asexual spores and can provide the basis of
genetic diversity in fungal populations.

Overall, spore formation plays an important role in the life

cycle of fungi, allowing them to spread and colonize new
areas, as well as providing a means of survival during periods
of environmental stress.
24. Methods of studying the morphology of fungi.
1. Light Microscopy: This is the most common method used
for studying the morphology of fungi. It involves the use of a
microscope to observe the structures of the fungi such as the
hyphae, spores, and reproductive structures. Various staining
techniques are used to enhance the visibility of the structures
observed.

2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): This method

involves the use of an electron microscope to study the
morphology of fungi at a much higher resolution than that
which is possible with light microscopy. SEM provides
detailed images of the surfaces of the fungal structures,
allowing for the analysis of the fine details, surface features,
and cell arrangements.

3. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): This method

involves the use of an electron microscope, which allows
researchers to study the internal structures of the fungi. TEM
provides detailed images of the cellular ultrastructure,
revealing the subcellular components and details of the fungal
cells.
4. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy: This is a modern
imaging technique thatuses a laser to scan the fungi at
different depths, producing high-resolution images that can be
used to create a 3D model of the fungal structures being
studied. The advantage of this method is its ability to provide
detailed information about the spatial relationships between
different structures and the cell types within the fungi.

5. Fluorescence Microscopy: This method involves the use of

fluorescent dyes that bind to specific structures or molecules
within the fungi, making them visible when viewed under a
fluorescent microscope. This allows researchers to study the
distribution and localization of specific molecules or structures
within the fungi, such as the distribution of chitin in fungal
cell walls.

6. X-ray Diffraction: This is a technique that can be used to

study the molecular structure of compounds within the fungi,
such as the chitin, cellulose, and glucans in fungal cell walls.
X-rays are directed at the fungal samples, and the pattern of
diffraction produced is analyzed to identify the molecular
structure of the compound.
25. Acid-resistant bacteria - studying methods.
Acid-resistant bacteria are a group of microorganisms that can
survive and thrive in acidic environments. These bacteria are
of great importance in food microbiology, pathogen control,
soil microbiology, and biotechnology. To study acid-resistant
bacteria, the following methods can be used:

1. pH Tolerance Tests: This involves exposing the bacteria to

different pH levels and then observing their growth or
survival. The pH value at which the bacteria can still grow or
survive can be used as a measure of the bacteria's acid
resistance.

2. Microscopy: The morphology and structure of acid-resistant

bacteria can be observed under a microscope. This method can
provide valuable information about the shape and size of the
bacteria and also help in the identification of the species.

3. Culture Methods: Acid-resistant bacteria can be isolated and

cultured on different types of media that have different pH
levels. This method helps to identify different species of acid-
resistant bacteria and also helps to understand their growth
characteristics.

4. DNA Sequencing: DNA sequencing can be used to identify

the genetic basis of acid resistance in bacteria. This method
helps to understand the molecular mechanisms that make the
bacteria acid-resistant.

5. Proteomics: By analyzing the proteins present in acid-

resistant bacteria, researchers can gain a deeper understanding
of the molecular basis of their acid resistance. Mass
spectrometry can be used to identify the proteins present in
bacteria.

6. Metagenomics: By analyzing the DNA sequences present in

a microbial population in a specific environment, researchers
can obtain a comprehensive understanding of the microbial
community, including acid-resistant bacteria. Metagenomic
analysis can also help to identify previously uncultivable acid-
resistant bacteria.
26. Inclusions in microorganisms, their biological role and
methods of detection.
Inclusions in microorganisms are structures that are found
within the cytoplasm of bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic
cells. These structures serve as storage sites for metabolic
intermediates and energy reserves. The most common types of
inclusions are:

1. Glycogen Inclusions: These are storage inclusions that

store glucose monomers that can be used to provide energy for
the cell.

2. Polyphosphate Inclusions: These inclusions store

phosphate groups and are used for functions such as DNA
synthesis, energy storage, and regulation of pH.

3. Lipid Inclusions: These inclusions store lipids and are used

for membrane synthesis and energy storage.

4. Sulfur Granules: These inclusions store elemental sulfur

and are used for energy storage and oxidation of sulfite.

5. Magnetosomes: These inclusions are unique to certain

bacteria and are used to orient the cell along magnetic fields.

The biological role of inclusions in microorganisms is to store

energy reserves and essential nutrients that may be required
later when conditions are unfavorable for growth. In some
cases, inclusions may also act as reservoirs that are involved in
the detoxification of certain compounds.

Methods of detection of inclusions in microorganisms can

vary depending on the type of inclusion. They can be observed
by light microscopy using stains that either destroy or preserve
the inclusion. For example, Lugol's iodine stain can be used to
visualize glycogen inclusions, whereas Sudan black or Nile
red stains can be used to visualize lipid inclusions.
Polyphosphate inclusions can be detected using the von Kossa
stain technique. Sulfur granules can be detected using Gram
stain or specific staining techniques such as the modified
Steiner or Warthin-Starry stain.

Other techniques such as electron microscopy, fluorescence

microscopy, and molecular biology techniques can also be
used to detect and analyze different types of inclusions in
microorganisms. The detection of inclusions in
microorganisms is important for understanding their biological
functions and their roles in various metabolic pathways.

27. Features of a metabolism and energy in bacteria

(intensity of metabolism, a variety of types of metabolism,
metabolic plasticity, excess synthesis of metabolites and
energy). Constructive and energetic metabolism, their
interrelation.
Bacteria have a wide range of metabolic pathways which are
dependent on the environment in which they grow. The
intensity of metabolism in bacteria can vary greatly depending
on the availability of nutrients, oxygen, and other factors.
Bacteria can also utilize different types of metabolism such as
aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative anaerobic metabolism to
generate energy.
Bacterial metabolism is highly plastic, meaning that bacteria
can adapt and change their metabolic pathways in response to
changes in their environment. This metabolic plasticity is an
important survival mechanism for bacteria, allowing them to
adjust their metabolism to optimize the use of available
resources.
Bacteria are capable of excess synthesis of metabolites and
energy, which can be stored for later use. These stored
metabolites and energy can be used to support growth, repair
cellular damage, and respond to environmental changes.
Constructive metabolism involves the biosynthesis of complex
molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and
polysaccharides. This process requires energy and building
blocks such as amino acids, nucleotides, and sugars. Energetic
metabolism involves the breakdown of nutrients to generate
energy in the form of ATP. This energy is used to power
cellular processes such as biosynthesis, movement, and
communication.
The interrelation between constructive and energetic
metabolism is essential for bacterial survival. Constructive
metabolism provides the necessary building blocks for
energetic metabolism to convert nutrients into energy. At the
same time, energetic metabolism provides the necessary
energy for constructive metabolism to synthesize complex
molecules. Together, these two processes ensure the growth,
survival, and adaptation of bacteria in different environments.
28. Nutrition of bacteria. Sources of nitrogen, carbon,
mineral substances and growth factors. Autotrophs and
heterotrophs. Mechanisms of transfer of nutrients to the
bacteria cell: non-volatile (simple and facilitated diffusion),
volatile (active transport), value of enzymes of a periplasm
and permease. Classification of bacteria by the nutrition
type.
Bacteria require various forms of nutrients for their growth
and survival. The three main sources of nutrients for bacteria
include carbon, nitrogen, and mineral substances.

Carbon is obtained by bacteria in the form of organic

compounds such as glucose or through carbon dioxide fixation
in the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen is obtained from
sources such as ammonia, nitrites, or nitrates. Mineral
substances like phosphorus, sulfur, and potassium are required
by bacteria in smaller quantities, but they are essential for
various cellular processes.

Bacteria can be classified into two groups based on their

nutritional requirements: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs are organisms that can synthesize their own
organic compounds using inorganic substrates like carbon
dioxide and inorganic salts. Heterotrophs, on the other hand,
rely on organic compounds from their environment for their
growth and survival.

The mechanisms of transfer of nutrients to bacterial cells can

be non-volatile, which includes simple and facilitated
diffusion, or volatile, which involves active transport. Simple
diffusion is the process of passive movement of small
molecules across a concentration gradient, while facilitated
diffusion is the diffusion of molecules through channels or
pores in the membrane. Active transport involves the
movement of molecules against their concentration gradient,
requiring energy in the form of ATP.

The periplasmic enzymes and permeases play an essential role

in the uptake and utilization of nutrients by bacteria. The
enzymes of the periplasm help in breaking down larger
molecules into smaller ones, which can be further transported
into the cell. The permeases act as membrane transporters,
partially responsible for the uptake of nutrients.

Classification of bacteria by nutrition type includes autotrophs

and heterotrophs. Autotrophs, as mentioned earlier, are further
classified into photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
Photoautotrophs harness light energy to drive carbon dioxide
fixation, while chemoautotrophs use energy from inorganic
electron donors for the fixation of carbon dioxide.
Heterotrophs can be further classified into photoheterotrophs,
which utilize light energy and organic carbon sources for their
growth, and chemoheterotrophs, which consume organic
compounds for their growth and development.

29. Respiration of bacteria. Energy needs of bacteria.

Sources and paths of obtaining energy in photoautotrophs,
chemoautotrophs.
Bacterial respiration is a process by which bacteria generate
energy by using organic or inorganic molecules as electron
donors and electron acceptors. Bacteria require energy to carry
out various metabolic processes, including biosynthesis and
active transport.

The energy needs of bacteria depend on various factors such

as their growth rate, metabolic activity, and environmental
conditions. Bacteria can obtain energy from a wide range of
sources, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, organic acids,
and inorganic compounds. The energy is released during the
breakdown of these compounds, which is then used for ATP
synthesis.

Photoautotrophs are bacteria that use light energy to carry out

carbon dioxide fixation, producing ATP through the process of
photosynthesis. They obtain energy from sunlight in the form
of photons, which are captured by specialized pigments like
chlorophyll or bacteriochlorophyll. The energy is then used to
generate an electrochemical gradient across the membrane,
which powers ATP synthesis through photophosphorylation.

Chemoautotrophs are bacteria that obtain energy from

inorganic electron donors, like hydrogen, sulfur, or iron. This
energy is used to drive carbon dioxide fixation through the
process of chemolithotrophy, generating ATP through
oxidative phosphorylation. Chemoautotrophs do not require
sunlight as an energy source and can grow in environments
like deep-sea hydrothermal vents or sulfur springs.

In addition to autotrophic bacteria, there are heterotrophic

bacteria that rely on organic compounds for energy production
via respiration. These can be aerobic or anaerobic respiration
based on the electron acceptor used by the bacteria.

Overall, bacteria have diverse ways of obtaining energy and

rely on different metabolic pathways depending on their
nutritional needs and environmental conditions.

30. Types of biological oxidation of a substratum and ways

of obtaining energy in hetero - chemoorganotrophs:
oxidizing metabolism; rotting - as set of an anaerobic and
aerobic proteolysis; the fermentative metabolism and its
products; nitrate respiration. Aerobes, anaerobe,
facultative anaerobe, microaerophiles.
Biological oxidation refers to the process by which living
organisms convert substrates into energy, which is utilized to
perform various cellular functions. In hetero-
chemoorganotrophs (organisms that rely on an external
organic source of carbon and energy), this process involves
the following types of biological oxidation:

1. Oxidative metabolism: This involves the oxidation of

organic compounds in the presence of oxygen (aerobic
conditions). The energy released during this process is utilized
to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Aerobic
bacteria are capable of carrying out oxidative metabolism.

2. Rotting: This is a set of anaerobic and aerobic

proteolytic processes that occur during the decomposition of
organic matter. Anaerobic rotting occurs in the absence of
oxygen, and involves the conversion of organic matter into
simpler compounds, such as organic acids, alcohols, and
gases, such as methane. Aerobic rotting occurs in the
presence of oxygen, and involves the oxidation of organic
matter to produce carbon dioxide and water, as well as
energy in the form of ATP.
 3. Fermentation: This is a type of anaerobic respiration
that occurs in the absence of oxygen. It involves the
conversion of organic compounds, such as glucose, into
simpler compounds, such as ethanol, lactate, or other organic
acids. Fermentation yields ATP as a result of substrate-level
phosphorylation.

4. Respiration: This refers to the overall process of

cellular respiration, which involves both the process of
biological oxidation and the synthesis of ATP. It can either be
aerobic (oxygen-dependent) or anaerobic (oxygen-
independent). In aerobic respiration, organic substrates are
oxidized by electron transport through a series of redox
reactions, which eventually leads to the production of ATP
through oxidative phosphorylation. In anaerobic respiration,
which occurs in the absence of oxygen, the final electron
acceptor is an inorganic molecule rather than oxygen.

31. Enzymes of bacteria and their classification. Constitutive

and inductive enzymes, genetic regulation. Specificity of
effect of enzymes. Exo - and endoenzymes. Use of microbes
and their enzymes in biotechnology for receiving amino
acids, peptides, organic acids, vitamins, hormones,
antibiotics, fodder protein, for processing of food and
productive products, a biological sewage disposal, receiving
liquid and gaseous fuel.
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in
living organisms. Bacteria produce a wide variety of enzymes
that are involved in many biological processes.
Classification of bacterial enzymes:
Bacterial enzymes are classified based on their function and
molecular structure. They can be broadly categorized into six
groups:
1. Oxidoreductases – These enzymes catalyze redox
reactions.

2. Transferases – These enzymes catalyze the transfer of

functional groups between molecules.
3. Hydrolases – These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of
various bonds.
4. Lyases – These enzymes catalyze the cleavage or synthesis
of various bonds.
5. Isomerases – These enzymes catalyze the conversion of
one isomer to another.
6. Ligases – These enzymes catalyze the joining of two
molecules.
Constitutive and Inductive enzymes:
Constitutive enzymes are always present in the bacterial cell
and their expression is not regulated. Inductive enzymes, on
the other hand, are produced only when their substrate is
present in the environment. Inductive enzymes are controlled
by specific regulatory genes that respond to environmental
changes.
Genetic regulation of enzymes:
The expression of bacterial enzymes is regulated by genetic
mechanisms. Enzyme production is up-regulated when a
substrate is present in the environment, and down-regulated
when the substrate is absent. This regulatory mechanism is
controlled by specific genes that respond to changes in the
environment.

Specificity of enzymes:
Enzymes are highly specific, which means that each enzyme
catalyzes a specific chemical reaction. This specificity is due to
the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which allows
it to interact only with specific molecules.
Exo- and Endoenzymes:
Exoenzymes are enzymes that are secreted by the bacterial
cell and act outside the cell. Endoenzymes are enzymes that
are produced inside the bacterial cell and act on substrates
within the cell.
Use of microbes and their enzymes in biotechnology:
Microbes and their enzymes are widely used in biotechnology
for various applications, such as:
1. Production of amino acids, peptides, organic acids,
vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, and fodder protein.
2. Processing of food and productive products.
3. Biological sewage disposal.
4. Production of liquid and gaseous fuel.
Overall, bacterial enzymes play a vital role in many biological
processes and have numerous applications in biotechnology.
32. Definition of viruses, as special forms of the organization
of alive.
Viruses are infectious agents that are too small to be seen
under a light microscope. They are composed of a small
amount of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) surrounded
by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an
outer lipid membrane layer called an envelope. Unlike living
organisms, viruses cannot reproduce on their own and
require a host cell to reproduce. Once inside the host cell, the
virus uses the host’s cellular machinery to replicate itself and
spread to other cells. Viruses cause a wide range of diseases
in humans, animals, and plants.
33. Difference of the structural organization and chemical
composition of virions from bacteria.
Virions and bacteria are both microscopic in size, but they
have some significant differences in their structural
organization and chemical composition.
1. Structural Organization:
Bacteria are unicellular organisms that are structurally more
complex than virions. They are composed of a cell wall, a
plasma membrane, and various internal organelles, such as
ribosomes, DNA, and cytoplasm. On the other hand, virions
are considered as non-living entities because they lack any
cellular structure. They are comprised of a protein coat or
capsid, which encloses genetic material, either DNA or RNA.
2. Chemical Composition:
Bacteria are made up of numerous chemicals, such as lipids,
proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. They also have
unique biomolecules such as peptidoglycan and
lipopolysaccharides in their cell walls, which provide
structural stability and protection. In contrast, virions are
genetically simple, containing only a small amount of genetic
material (either DNA or RNA) that is wrapped in a protein
coat. Some viruses also have an outer lipid envelope.
Another significant difference between the structural
organization of virions and bacteria is that bacteria can carry
out metabolic and other physiological activities on their own
because they are unicellular organizations, while virions can
only replicate inside host cells because they lack any cellular
machinery of their own.
In summary, bacteria are cellular organisms with a variety of
complex structures and chemical components, while virions
are considered as non-living entities and have a
comparatively simple structure and chemical composition.
34. Reproduction of viruses. The main types of interaction of
a virus with a cell of the owner.
Viruses replicate by infecting host cells and using the host
cell's machinery to produce new virus particles. There are
several main types of interaction between a virus and a host
cell during replication:
1. Attachment: The virus attaches to specific receptors on the
surface of the host cell.
2. Entry: The virus enters the host cell by either fusing with
the cell membrane or being engulfed by the cell through
endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The virus releases its genetic material into the
host cell and sheds its outer layer.
4. Replication: The virus uses the host cell's machinery to
replicate its genetic material and produce new virus particles.
5. Assembly: The replicated viral genetic material and protein
components assemble to form new virus particles.
6. Release: The new virus particles are released from the host
cell either by lysis (breaking open the cell) or by budding
(exiting the cell through the cell membrane without killing the
cell).
The type of interaction between a virus and a host cell can
vary depending on the type of virus, the host cell, and the
stage of infection. Some viruses can insert their genetic
material into the host cell's genome, leading to a long-term
infection or even transformation of the host cell. Other
viruses can cause the host cell to produce viral proteins that
can change the behavior of the cell or stimulate the host's
immune system. Overall, the interaction between a virus and
a host cell is complex and can have long-lasting effects on
both the virus and the host.
35. Bacteriophages, features of their interaction with a
bacteria cell. Lysogenize phenomenon. Conversion of
phages.
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. Their
interaction with a bacterium cell involves the following steps:
1. Attachment: The bacteriophage attaches to specific
receptors on the surface of the bacterial cell.
2. Penetration: The bacteriophage injects its genetic material
into the bacterial cell.
3. Replication: The bacteriophage uses the host's machinery
to replicate its genetic material and produce new virus
particles.
4. Assembly: The new virus particles assemble and mature
inside the bacterium, eventually causing it to burst (lysis) and
release the new virus particles.
The lysogenize phenomenon occurs when the genetic
material of the bacteriophage becomes integrated into the
host bacterium's genome. This integrated genetic material is
called a prophage, and the bacterium is said to be lysogenic.
The lysogenic bacterium continues to grow and divide
normally and can pass the prophage on to its progeny. Under
certain conditions, such as exposure to ultraviolet light or
certain chemicals, the prophage can become activated and
cause the lytic cycle to begin, resulting in lysis of the bacterial
cell and production of new virus particles.
Bacteriophages can also undergo a phenomenon called
conversion. This occurs when the bacteriophage genes that
are integrated into the host bacterium's genome are
expressed and alter the phenotype of the bacterium. For
example, a bacterium that is normally non-pathogenic may
become pathogenic if it acquires bacteriophage genes that
code for virulence factors.

Overall, bacteriophages play a significant role in modulating

the growth and evolution of bacterial populations. They can
transfer genetic material between bacteria, alter bacterial
phenotypes, and control bacterial populations through the
lytic cycle.
36. Practical application of a phage. Phage diagnostic
(RNTF), a phage prophylaxis and therapy.
Bacteriophages have several practical applications, including
phage diagnostics, prophylaxis, and therapy
1. Phage diagnostics: Rapid phage-based diagnostic tests,
such as the rapid nucleic acid testing format (RNTF), can
detect specific bacterial pathogens in patient samples. This
method relies on the phage's ability to infect and lyse
bacteria and can provide results within hours.
2. Phage prophylaxis: Prophylaxis involves the use of
bacteriophages to prevent bacterial infections. This method is
particularly useful in situations where antibiotic use is limited,
such as in the treatment of multidrug-resistant bacterial
infections.
3. Phage therapy: Phage therapy involves the use of
bacteriophages to treat bacterial infections. This method has
been used for decades in some countries, such as Georgia
and Poland, and is gaining renewed interest due to the global
increase in antibiotic-resistant infections.

Phage therapy can be administered in several ways, including

topical application, oral ingestion, or injection. Phages can
also be combined with antibiotics or other antimicrobial
agents to enhance their efficacy.
Overall, the use of bacteriophages in diagnostic, prophylactic,
and therapeutic applications shows great potential in
addressing the growing problem of antibiotic resistance and
improving patient outcomes. However, further research and
development are needed to fully exploit the potential of this
technology.
37. Methods of cultivation of viruses in cell cultures, in a
chicken embryo and in an organism of animals.
There are three main methods of cultivation of viruses:
1. Cell culture: Viruses can be grown in cell cultures derived
from animals or humans. The cells are grown in a nutrient-
rich media and are infected with the virus. The virus then
infects the cells, causing them to release more virus particles.
The virus is then harvested from the cell culture and purified.
2. Chicken embryo: Some viruses can be grown in chicken
embryos. The virus is injected into the egg and allowed to
grow for several days. The embryo is then harvested and the
virus is purified.
3. Animal models: Some viruses can be grown in living
animals. The virus is injected into the animal and allowed to
grow. The animal is then sacrificed and the virus is harvested
from the organs and tissues.

Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages.

Cell culture is a simple and widely used method, but it may
not accurately mimic the conditions of the human body.
Chicken embryo and animal models may provide more
accurate information, but they are more complex and
expensive.
38. Methods of detection (indication) of viruses by
cytopathogenic effect (CPE).
The cytopathogenic effect (CPE) is the damage that viruses
cause to the cells they infect. This damage is a characteristic
of viral infections and can be used as an indicator of the
presence of virus. There are several methods of detection of
viruses by CPE, including:
1. Microscopy: Cells infected with virus can be examined
under a microscope to look for changes in the cell's
appearance or loss of cell viability. This can give an indication
of the presence of virus and the severity of infection.
2. Immunofluorescence: The virus can be detected by using
antibodies that specifically bind to the virus. The antibodies
are labeled with a fluorescent dye, which makes it possible to
visualize the virus-infected cells under a microscope.
3. ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay): ELISA tests
use antibodies to detect viral proteins or genetic material in
cell cultures. This method is sensitive and can be used to
detect low levels of viral infection.

4. PCR (polymerase chain reaction): PCR is a method for

amplifying viral genetic material in cell cultures. This method
can detect very small amounts of viral material and can be
used to identify specific viral strains.
All of these methods have their advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of method will depend on the
specific virus being detected and the resources available for
testing.
39. Reactions of a hemagglutination and hemadsorption,
intracellular inclusions.
Hemagglutination (HA) and hemadsorption (HAd) are
laboratory techniques used to detect the presence of viruses
in biological specimens.
Hemagglutination: Hemagglutination is a process where virus
particles agglutinate or clump together red blood cells,
leading to the formation of visible clumps. This process is due
to the interaction between viral proteins on the surface of
the virus particles and receptors on the surface of the red
blood cells. Hemagglutination assay can be used to detect the
presence of virus in a sample by observing the amount of
agglutination that occurs.
Hemadsorption: Hemadsorption is a process where cells
infected with certain viruses develop the ability to adsorb, or
stick to, red blood cells or other specialized cells like chicken
erythrocytes. This process is due to the presence of viral
proteins or spikes on the surface of infected cells that bind to
receptors on the surface of the red blood cells or chicken
erythrocytes. Hemadsorption assay can be used to detect the
presence of virus in a sample by observing the number of red
blood cells or chicken erythrocytes adsorbed to the surface of
infected cells.
Intracellular inclusions: Intracellular inclusions are structures
or bodies found inside host cells that are associated with viral
infections. These inclusions are often composed of viral
proteins, nucleic acids, or other viral products that
accumulate inside host cells as a result of viral replication.
Intracellular inclusions can be visualized by staining infected
cells with specific dyes or antibodies and observing them
under a microscope. Inclusion bodies can be classified based
on their shape, location, and composition, and can help
identify the specific virus causing the infection. Examples of
viral inclusion bodies include Negri bodies, which are found in
rabies virus-infected neurons, and Cowdry type A and B
bodies which are found in herpes simplex virus-infected cells.
40. Methods of identification of viruses.
1. Electron Microscopy: Electron microscopy is a powerful
tool that can be used for the identification of viruses. This
technique uses electron microscopes to visualize virus
particles or any other cellular components that may interact
with the virus.
2. Immunological Assays: Immunological assays are designed
to detect the presence of specific viral antigens or antibodies.
These tests can be used to identify the viral antigen or
antibody in blood or other body fluids and are particularly
useful for diagnosing viral infections.

3. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): PCR is a molecular

technique that amplifies small amounts of viral DNA or RNA
from a sample to detect the presence of a virus. This method
is particularly useful for identifying viruses that are difficult to
culture or that are present in low amounts.
4. Serology: Serology is the study of antibodies in the blood
serum. It is used to identify the viral antigens or antibodies in
blood or other body fluids. This method is particularly useful
for diagnosing viral infections and can also be used in vaccine
development.
5. Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS): NGS is a powerful tool
that sequences massive amounts of viral genomes. This
method can identify new viruses and also identify existing
viruses that are difficult to detect using traditional
techniques.
6. Cell Culture: Cell culture is a process by which viral
particles are cultivated in vitro. This method allows for the
isolation and culturing of viruses, which can be identified and
characterized based on their morphology, behavior, and
ability to infect specific cell types.
41. Compare sterilization with disinfection and sanitization.
Describe the relationship of the concepts of sepsis, asepsis,
and antisepsis.
Sterilization, disinfection, and sanitization are all related
concepts that are used to eliminate or reduce the presence of
microorganisms. However, there are differences between
these concepts.
Sterilization refers to the complete removal or destruction of
all microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
spores. The goal of sterilization is to make an object or
environment completely free of any living microorganism.
Disinfection is the process of reducing the number of
microorganisms to a level where they are no longer a threat
to health. Disinfection typically involves the use of chemicals
or physical agents to kill or inactivate microorganisms in areas
that do not require complete sterility.
Sanitization refers to the reduction of visible debris, dirt, and
dust from surfaces, which can be a breeding ground for
microorganisms. Sanitization can be achieved through the use
of cleaning agents and other methods, but it does not
necessarily guarantee the elimination of all microorganisms.
Sepsis is a medical condition that occurs when the body's
response to an infection causes damage to its own tissues
and organs. An object can be described as septic if it is
contaminated with microorganisms that can cause sepsis.
On the other hand, asepsis is the absence of microorganisms,
while antisepsis refers to the use of antiseptic agents to
reduce or eliminate microorganisms on living tissue, such as
skin or wound surfaces, to prevent infections.
In summary, sterilization aims to eliminate all
microorganisms, disinfectants reduce the number of
microorganisms, sanitizers reduce visible debris and are not a
guarantee of complete sterility, sepsis refers to a medical
condition, asepsis is the absence of microorganisms, and
antisepsis is the use of antiseptic agents on living tissue.
42. Precisely what is microbial death? Why does a
population of microbes not die instantaneously when
exposed to an antimicrobial agent?
Microbial death refers to the permanent loss of reproductive
capability of microorganisms due to exposure to an
antimicrobial agent. It occurs when the agent interferes with
the life-sustaining metabolic processes of the
microorganisms, leading to their destruction.
A population of microbes does not die instantaneously when
exposed to an antimicrobial agent because of several
reasons:
1. Microbial growth occurs in phases, and different
microorganisms are in different growth phases during
exposure to the agent. The agent may not affect all the
microorganisms simultaneously, leading to a time lag in the
death of the population.
2. Some microorganisms have more resistance to
antimicrobial agents than others, either because of their
inherent capabilities or due to previous exposure to the
agent. These resistant microorganisms may survive despite
exposure to the agent, leading to a delay in the death of the
population.

3. The concentration of antimicrobial agent and the duration

of exposure also influence the speed of microbial death. A
higher concentration or longer duration of exposure may
accelerate the death of the population.
4. Some microorganisms have mechanisms such as spore
formation or biofilm formation that allow them to survive the
action of antimicrobial agents. In such cases, the agent may
not completely eliminate the entire population, leading to a
time lag in the death of the population.
Therefore, the time required for microbial death depends on
the type of microorganism, the concentration and duration of
exposure to the antimicrobial agent, and the presence of
innate or adaptive resistance mechanisms.
43. Describe four modes of action of antimicrobial agents,
and give a specific example of how each works.
1. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis: Antibiotics such as
penicillin and cephalosporins work by preventing the
formation of bacterial cell walls, thereby leading to the lysis
of bacteria.
2. Inhibition of protein synthesis: Antibiotics such as
tetracyclines and macrolides work by preventing protein
synthesis in bacteria. This inhibits bacterial growth and
reproduction, eventually leading to eradication of the
bacteria.
3. Inhibition of DNA synthesis: Antibiotics such as quinolones
and metronidazole work by inhibiting DNA synthesis in
bacteria, which results in bacterial death.
4. Disruption of membrane function: Antimicrobial agents
such as polymyxins work by disrupting the cell membrane of
bacteria, leading to leakage of cell contents and bacterial
death.
44. Summarize the nature, mode of action, and
effectiveness of moist and dry heat.
Nature:
Moist heat refers to the use of water or other liquids to
transfer heat energy to an object. In contrast, dry heat uses
air or radiation to transfer heat energy.
Mode of action:
Moist heat works by denaturing proteins and enzymes in
microorganisms, leading to their death. This can be achieved
through boiling or autoclaving. In contrast, dry heat works by
causing dehydration, oxidation, and charring of
microorganisms, which eventually leads to their death. This
can be accomplished through baking, flaming, or incineration.
Effectiveness:
Moist heat is typically more effective than dry heat at
sterilizing objects. This is because it is better at penetrating
materials and reaching all areas, even those that are difficult
to access. For example, autoclaving can achieve a 100% kill
rate for microorganisms, making it the most effective method
for sterilization.

However, dry heat can be more effective than moist heat for
certain applications. For example, it is often used for the
sterilization of sharp objects, such as needles or scalpels,
because it does not cause them to become dull or rust.
In summary, both moist and dry heat can be effective for
sterilization, but their effectiveness varies depending on the
application.
45. Compare the effects of moist and dry heat on vegetative
cells and spores.
Moist heat and dry heat have different effects on vegetative
cells and spores:
Vegetative Cells:
Moist heat is very effective against vegetative cells. The
moisture allows heat to easily penetrate the cell wall, causing
denaturation or coagulation of the cellular proteins, which
leads to cell death. Boiling or autoclaving at high pressure and
temperature are effective methods for killing vegetative cells
through moist heat.
Dry heat is less effective against vegetative cells. Dry heat
causes dehydration of the cells, which may lead to a
metabolic shut down but typically is not sufficient to cause
complete killing of the cells. As a result, dry heat is primarily
used for sterilization of non-living objects that are not
affected by the heat, such as surgical instruments or
glassware.

Spores:
Spores are much more resistant to heat treatment than
vegetative cells, and different methods must be employed to
reach an adequate kill rate.
Moist heat is the most effective method for spore
destruction. It can achieve spore killing rates of up to 100% in
some cases, but it requires high pressure and temperature.
Autoclaving is the most common method used to kill spores.
Dry heat is less effective against spores, with rates of spore
killing usually below 100%. It can, however, be used to reduce
spore populations on surfaces. For example, an exposed
surface can be heated in a dry oven to a temperature of
160°C for at least two hours to destroy spores.
In summary, moist heat is more effective in killing both
vegetative cells and spores as compared to dry heat.
46. How can the temperature of steam be raised above
100°C?
The temperature of steam can be raised above 100°C by
increasing the pressure in the container or boiler where the
steam is generated. This is because the temperature of steam
is directly proportional to its pressure. By increasing the
pressure, the boiling point of water also increases, allowing
the water to reach a higher temperature before it turns into
steam. This is the principle behind the operation of pressure
cookers and steam engines, which rely on high-pressure
steam to generate heat and power.
47. What do you see as a basic flaw in tyndallization? b. In
boiling water devices? c. In incineration? d. In ultrasonic
devices?
a. Basic flaw in tyndallization: Tyndallization is a time-
consuming process and requires multiple cycles to ensure the
complete elimination of all microorganisms. Additionally, it is
not effective against all types of microorganisms and may not
be suitable for certain types of materials or products.

b. Basic flaw in boiling water devices: Boiling water devices

can only sterilize water and heat-resistant materials. They
may not be effective against all types of microorganisms and
are not suitable for sterilizing delicate or heat-sensitive
materials.

c. Basic flaw in incineration: Incineration is not suitable for all

types of materials and may produce hazardous byproducts or
pollutants. Additionally, it requires specialized equipment and
may be prohibitively expensive for certain applications.

d. Basic flaw in ultrasonic devices: Ultrasonic devices may not

be effective against all types of microorganisms and may not
penetrate deeply or evenly into certain types of materials.
Additionally, they may cause damage or alteration to certain
types of delicate or sensitive materials.
48. What do yuo know about a chemotherapy and
chimioprophilaxise.
Chemotherapy is a treatment method that uses drugs to kill
cancer cells in the body. It works by targeting rapidly dividing
cancer cells in the body, but it can also affect healthy cells
that divide rapidly, such as those found in the hair, skin, and
digestive tract, leading to side effects like hair loss, nausea,
and diarrhea.
Chemoprophylaxis, on the other hand, is a method of
preventing the spread of an infectious disease by the use of
chemical agents. It involves the administration of drugs or
chemicals that kill or prevent the spread of disease-causing
microorganisms. Chemoprophylaxis is commonly used to
prevent the spread of diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria,
and HIV.
In some cases, chemoprophylaxis may also be used in cancer
treatment to prevent or reduce the risk of cancer recurrence
or metastasis. For example, in breast cancer, the drug
tamoxifen may be used to prevent the development of
hormone-receptor-positive breast cancer in women who are
at high risk of developing the disease.
49. Properties chimiotherapic preparations. Chemotherape
index.
Chemotherapeutic preparations are medications used in the
treatment of cancer. These medications have potent chemical
compounds that kill cancer cells or prevent their growth.
Some properties of chemotherapeutic preparations include:

1. Potency: Chemotherapeutic preparations are highly potent

and can kill cancer cells at low doses.
2. Selectivity: Chemotherapeutic preparations are selective in
their action and target cancer cells specifically.
3. Toxicity: Chemotherapeutic preparations can be highly
toxic and can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair
loss, and anemia.
4. Route of administration: Chemotherapeutic preparations
can be administered through various routes, such as
intravenous, oral, or topical.
Chemotherapeutic preparations are classified into several
categories based on their chemical structure and mode of
action. The chemotherapeutic index is a measure of the
therapeutic effectiveness of a chemotherapeutic agent,
calculated as the ratio of the toxic dose to the effective dose.
A high chemotherapeutic index indicates that a drug is highly
effective against cancer and has minimal toxicity.
50. A concept is "antibiotics". History of opening of
antibiotics
Antibiotics are medicines that are used to treat bacterial
infections. They work by killing or stopping the growth of
bacteria that cause diseases. The discovery of antibiotics is
considered one of the most important milestones in medical
history.

The history of antibiotics dates back to the late 19th century

when a French scientist named Louis Pasteur observed that
some bacteria produce substances that inhibit the growth of
other microorganisms. However, it was not until the early
20th century that antibiotics were discovered.
In 1928, Alexander Fleming, a Scottish scientist, accidentally
discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin. He noticed that a
mold called Penicillium notatum had contaminated one of his
petri dishes, and the bacteria in the dish near the mold did
not grow. After further research, he discovered that the mold
produced a substance that inhibited the growth of some
bacteria. This substance was named penicillin.
The development of antibiotics continued over the next few
decades, and many different types of antibiotics were
discovered. In the 1940s, several new antibiotics, such as
streptomycin and tetracycline, were discovered, which
helped to treat a wider range of bacterial infections.
The discovery of antibiotics revolutionized the medical
industry, as they were effective in treating previously fatal
bacterial infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and
sepsis. Antibiotics also played a crucial role in treating
soldiers during World War II.
In recent years, the overuse and misuse of antibiotics have
led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which
has become a major public health concern. Therefore, there
is now a greater focus on developing new antibiotics and
using them more responsibly to prevent the spread of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
51. Classification antibiotics originally. Examples.
Antibiotics can be classified into several groups based on
their chemical structure, mechanism of action, or spectrum of
activity. Here are some common classes of antibiotics and
examples of antibiotics belonging to each class:
1. Beta-lactam antibiotics: This group includes penicillins,
cephalosporins, and carbapenems. They work by inhibiting
bacterial cell wall synthesis. Examples include Penicillin G,
Amoxicillin, Cephalexin, and Imipenem.
2. Macrolide antibiotics: These antibiotics bind to the
bacterial ribosome and inhibit protein synthesis. Examples
include erythromycin, azithromycin, and clarithromycin.
3. Aminoglycoside antibiotics: These antibiotics work by
binding to the bacterial ribosome and inhibiting protein
synthesis. Examples include gentamicin, tobramycin, and
streptomycin.
4. Tetracycline antibiotics: These antibiotics bind to the
bacterial ribosome and prevent protein synthesis. Examples
include doxycycline, minocycline, and tetracycline.
5. Fluoroquinolone antibiotics: These antibiotics work by
inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV,
preventing DNA replication. Examples include ciprofloxacin,
levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin.
6. Sulfonamide antibiotics: These antibiotics work by
inhibiting a bacterial enzyme involved in folic acid synthesis,
which is required for bacterial growth. Examples include
sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.

Overall, there are many different types of antibiotics, and

each class has different mechanisms of action and spectrum
of activity. The appropriate antibiotic for a particular infection
depends on the causative organism, the site of the infection,
and other factors such as patient age and immune status.
52. Classification antibiotics into the mechanism of action.
To make examples.
There are several ways to classify antibiotics based on their
mechanism of action. One common approach is to group
antibiotics into categories based on their primary target
within bacteria. Below are some examples:
1. Cell wall synthesis inhibitors: These antibiotics prevent
bacteria from building their protective cell walls. Examples
include penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems.
2. Protein synthesis inhibitors: These antibiotics target the
bacterial ribosomes responsible for making proteins.
Examples include macrolides, tetracyclines, and
aminoglycosides.
3. DNA synthesis inhibitors: These antibiotics interfere with
the replication or transcription of bacterial DNA. Examples
include fluoroquinolones and sulfonamides.
4. Membrane disruptors: These antibiotics disrupt the
bacterial cell membrane, causing leakage of cellular
components. Examples include polymyxins and daptomycin.

5. Enzyme inhibitors: These antibiotics target specific

enzymes within bacteria that are essential for bacterial
survival. Examples include rifampin and metronidazole.
For example, amoxicillin is a cell wall synthesis inhibitor that
interferes with the bacteria's ability to build a protective cell
wall. Tetracycline is a protein synthesis inhibitor that targets
the bacterial ribosomes responsible for making proteins.
Ciprofloxacin is a DNA synthesis inhibitor that interferes with
bacterial DNA replication. Polymyxin is a membrane disruptor
that causes leakage of cellular components from the bacterial
cell membrane. Rifampin is an enzyme inhibitor that targets a
specific bacterial enzyme involved in DNA transcription.
53. Classification antibiotics into a spectrum of action.
Antibiotics can also be classified based on their spectrum of
action, which refers to the range of microorganisms they are
effective against. Antibiotics can be broad-spectrum, meaning
they have activity against a wide range of bacteria, or narrow-
spectrum, meaning they are effective against only a limited
range of bacteria. Below are some examples:
1. Broad-spectrum antibiotics: These antibiotics are effective
against a wide range of bacteria, including both gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria. Examples include
fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines.
2. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics: These antibiotics are
effective against a limited range of bacteria, either gram-
positive or gram-negative bacteria only. Examples include
penicillins, which are more effective against gram-positive
bacteria, and aminoglycosides, which are more effective
against gram-negative bacteria.
3. Anti-anaerobic antibiotics: These antibiotics are effective
against anaerobic bacteria, which do not require oxygen to
survive. Examples include metronidazole and clindamycin.
4. Anti-mycobacterial antibiotics: These antibiotics are
effective against mycobacteria, which are responsible for
diseases such as tuberculosis and leprosy. Examples include
isoniazid and rifampin.
For example, ciprofloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that
is effective against a wide range of bacteria, both gram-
positive and gram-negative. Penicillin G is a narrow-spectrum
antibiotic that is effective primarily against gram-positive
bacteria. Metronidazole is an anti-anaerobic antibiotic that is
effective against anaerobic bacteria only. Isoniazid is an anti-
mycobacterial antibiotic that is effective against
mycobacteria, such as those that cause tuberculosis.
54. The concept of normal micro-flora: its role and functions
in the body.
Normal micro-flora, also known as the microbiota, are the
microorganisms that live in and on the human body without
causing harm. These micro-flora are found in various parts of
the body, such as the skin, mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and
urogenital tract.
The role of normal micro-flora in the body is complex and
multifaceted. Here are some of the key functions:

1. Protection against pathogens: Normal micro-flora compete

with harmful bacteria and fungi for space and nutrients,
making it more difficult for them to establish themselves in
the body.
2. Immune system development: Normal micro-flora play a
crucial role in educating and training the immune system to
differentiate between harmless and harmful microorganisms.
This helps the immune system to mount an appropriate
response to pathogens and prevent autoimmune diseases.
3. Digestion and nutrient absorption: Normal micro-flora in
the gut assist in breaking down complex carbohydrates and
fibers that are indigestible by humans. They also produce
vitamins and other nutrients that are important for human
health.
4. Regulation of metabolism: Normal micro-flora help
regulate metabolism by affecting the absorption and storage
of nutrients, which can have an impact on energy balance and
body weight.
5. Production of antimicrobial compounds: Some normal
micro-flora produce antimicrobial compounds that can help
protect against harmful microorganisms.
In summary, normal micro-flora play an important role in
maintaining human health and preventing disease. It is
essential to maintain a healthy balance of these
microorganisms for optimal health. Imbalances in the
microbiota, or dysbiosis, have been linked to a range of
health problems, including digestive disorders, allergies, and
obesity.
55. The concept of biotope microbiocenosis of the
microecological system of the human body.
Biotope microbiocenosis refers to the complex and dynamic
relationship that exists between the microbiota and their
host in a given environment (in this case, the human body).
The microbiota of the human body refers to the diverse
communities of bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other
microorganisms that inhabit various body sites such as the
gut, skin, respiratory, and reproductive systems.
The human body is a highly complex and diverse habitat that
provides unique ecological niches for various microorganisms
to thrive. These microorganisms coexist in a symbiotic
relationship with their host and play essential roles in
maintaining overall health and well-being.
The microbiota of the human body plays a vital role in many
physiological functions, such as digestion, immune
modulation, and metabolism. Imbalances in this microbial
community can lead to various health issues, including
autoimmune diseases, obesity, and mental health disorders.
Understanding the biotope microbiocenosis of the human
body helps in identifying the microbial communities'
interactions and their role in maintaining homeostasis under
optimal health conditions.

Therefore, the management of the biotope microbiocenosis

of the microecological system of the human body is crucial to
achieving optimal health outcomes. Effective interventions
such as probiotics, prebiotics, diet, and hygiene practices can
help maintain a healthy microbiota and prevent the
development of chronic diseases.
56. Name of scientists that are associated with the doctrine
of the normal microflora.
The doctrine of the normal microflora is a scientific concept
that acknowledges the role of microorganisms in human
health. Several scientists have contributed to this field of
research.
Here are some of the scientists who are associated with the
doctrine of the normal microflora:
1. Louis Pasteur
2. Robert Koch
3. Elie Metchnikoff
4. Ilya Mechnikov
5. Bernard Naessens
6. Sergei Winogradsky
7. Vincenzo Tiberio
8. Martinus Beijerinck
9. Justin-Léonard Clément Langeron
10. Frederick Griffith

These scientists contributed to the understanding of the

normal microbial flora and its role in human health and
disease. Their work has laid the foundation for the
development of modern microbiology and the study of the
human microbiome.
57. Gnotobiology. Its importance in medical Microbiology
and immunology.
Gnotobiology is the study of germ-free or specific-pathogen-
free (SPF) animals, which are animals that are free of any
microorganisms or that are colonized by a known and defined
microbial community. Gnotobiology is an important area of
research in medical microbiology and immunology for several
reasons:
1. Research on germ-free animals helps to understand the
role of microorganisms in host physiology, metabolism, and
immune function. By studying the differences between germ-
free animals and conventional animals, we can learn how the
microbiome affects human health.
2. Gnotobiology is also important for studying the
interactions between microorganisms and the host immune
system. With germ-free animals, researchers can study the
immune system in the absence of microorganisms and then
gradually introduce specific microorganisms to determine
how they affect the immune response.

3. Gnotobiology is important for developing new therapies

for infectious diseases. By studying the interactions between
microorganisms and the immune system, researchers can
develop new treatments to enhance immune function or
modulate the microbiome to prevent or treat diseases.
4. Gnotobiology is also important for studying the effects of
probiotics and prebiotics on the microbiome and the host
immune system. By introducing specific microorganisms into
germ-free animals, researchers can study their effects on the
host immune system and determine if they have therapeutic
potential.
In summary, gnotobiology is an important area of research in
medical microbiology and immunology that helps to
understand the role of microorganisms in host physiology,
metabolism, and immune function, and can help develop new
therapies for infectious diseases.
58. The concept of biotechnology.
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms or their products
in a variety of applications, ranging from medical and
pharmaceutical to agricultural and environmental. The term
biotechnology encompasses a range of techniques and
technologies, such as genetic engineering, gene editing, tissue
engineering, and bioprocessing.
The primary goal of biotechnology is to create useful
products or applications that will benefit human society,
through the manipulation of living organisms, their cells, or
their biomolecules. For example, genetic engineering can be
used to produce crops that are resistant to pests or have
higher nutritional value, or to develop therapies for genetic
diseases by modifying DNA.
The potential for biotechnology to revolutionize various
industries has led to rapid advancements in the field, leading
to new applications and discoveries. However, the use of
living organisms and their products raises ethical and safety
concerns that must be addressed. Despite these challenges,
biotechnology is a promising field with numerous possibilities
for improving human health, food production, and
environmental sustainability.
59. Autochthonous and allochthonous microflora of the
human body.
Autochthonous microflora of the human body refers to the
microorganisms that are naturally present in the body and
have co-evolved with the host over time. These
microorganisms are found in various parts of the body, such
as the skin, mouth, gut, and urogenital tract. Some examples
of autochthonous microflora include lactobacilli in the female
reproductive tract, bifidobacteria in the gut, and
staphylococci on the skin.
Allochthonous microflora, on the other hand, refers to
microorganisms that are not typically found in the body and
have been introduced through external sources, such as food,
water, or the environment. These microorganisms may be
transient or can establish themselves as part of the microflora
for a limited duration or longer periods. Some examples of
allochthonous microflora include Escherichia coli from
contaminated food, Streptococcus pneumoniae from
respiratory infections, and Candida albicans from sexual
partners.
The balance between autochthonous and allochthonous
microflora is important for the health and well-being of the
host. Disruption of this balance, such as through the use of
antibiotics or a weakened immune system, can lead to
overgrowth of pathogenic microorganisms and cause disease.
Maintaining a healthy and diverse autochthonous microflora
is essential for maintaining a functional immune system,
proper digestion, and other bodily processes.
60. Microflora of the skin, respiratory tract, digestive and
urogenital systems.
The human body is colonized by a diverse community of
microorganisms called the microbiota, which includes
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other organisms. The microbiota
serves many essential roles in human health and disease,
including aiding in digestion, enhancing the immune system,
and protecting against pathogens. Below are some examples
of microflora present in different parts of the body:
Skin microflora: The skin is home to a vast array of
microorganisms such as Staphylococcus, Corynebacteria,
Propionibacterium, and Acinetobacter. These bacteria play
important roles in protecting against infections, regulating
sebum production, and maintaining skin homeostasis.

Respiratory tract microflora: The respiratory system is

colonized by various microorganisms such as Streptococcus,
Staphylococcus, and Haemophilus species. These microflorae
help in maintaining the health of the respiratory tract and
protect against invading pathogens.
Digestive system microflora: The digestive system harbors a
large and diverse microbiota, with the most abundant
colonizing species being Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and
Actinobacteria. The gut microbiota plays a critical role in the
digestion of food, the metabolism of nutrients, and the
production of vitamins.
Urogenital system microflora: The urogenital system is home
to a range of microorganisms, including bacteria such as
Lactobacillus and Streptococcus, which help to maintain
optimal pH levels and prevent colonization by pathogenic
bacteria. Infections of the urogenital system can occur, but
these infections are usually transient or self-limiting due to
the natural defense mechanisms provided by the microbiota.
The composition and diversity of microflora in each part of
the body vary depending on various factors such as age, diet,
genetics, hygiene habits, and health status. Dysbiosis
(imbalance) in microflora can lead to disease symptoms,
including allergies, autoimmune diseases, metabolic
disorders, and cancer.
61. Dynamics of normal microflora in human ontogenesis.
The human body is colonized by a diverse group of
microorganisms, collectively known as the human microbiota
or microbiome. These microorganisms, which include
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes, play a critical
role in maintaining human health.
The dynamics of the normal microflora in human
ontogenesis, or the development of an individual from
conception through adulthood, are complex and influenced
by a variety of factors, including genetics, diet, environmental
exposures, and host immune function.
During fetal development, the human gastrointestinal (GI)
tract is sterile, but it becomes colonized with microorganisms
soon after birth. The composition of the gut microbiota in
infants is influenced by a variety of factors, including the
mode of delivery (vaginal vs. caesarean section), feeding
practices (breast milk vs. formula), and antibiotic use.
The gut microbiota of infants is characterized by a
predominance of Bifidobacterium and other lactic acid
bacteria, which are thought...
62. The concept of colonization resistance and its role in
infectious pathology.
Colonization resistance refers to the ability of the human
body's microbiota to prevent the establishment and growth
of potentially pathogenic microorganisms. The human body's
microbiota, which includes bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other
microorganisms, colonizes various niches in the human body,
such as the skin, digestive tract, respiratory tract, and
urogenital tract.

The mechanisms of colonization resistance involve a

combination of physical, chemical, and immunological
barriers that prevent the colonization and overgrowth of
potentially pathogenic microorganisms. For instance,
commensal microorganisms can occupy ecological niches,
compete for nutrients, and produce protective substances,
such as bacteriocins, which can inhibit the growth of
pathogenic microorganisms. Moreover, the microbiota can
modulate the host's immune response, leading to the
production of antimicrobial peptides, cytokines, and other
immune factors that can protect against infections.
In infectious pathology, the disruption of colonization
resistance plays a critical role in the development of
infections. For example, the use of antibiotics can alter the
microbiota composition, reduce bacterial diversity, and
create ecological niches that can be exploited by pathogenic
microorganisms, leading to infections. Similarly, underlying
conditions, such as immunodeficiency, malnutrition, and
chronic diseases, can compromise the host's immune
response and promote the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms.
Thus, understanding the mechanisms of colonization
resistance and its role in infectious pathology can inform the
development of strategies for preventing and treating
infections. This includes measures such as reducing the use of
antibiotics, promoting a healthy microbiota through diet and
lifestyle changes, and developing novel therapies that target
the microbiota and immune system to enhance colonization
resistance.
63. Goiter (conditions of occurrence, and consequences of
the development, classification and localization of the
pathogen).
Goiter is a medical condition characterized by enlargement of
the thyroid gland, which is a butterfly-shaped organ located
in the neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that
regulate the body's metabolism, growth, and development.
Goiter can occur due to a variety of factors, including
nutritional deficiencies, autoimmune disorders, and genetic
mutations.
Conditions of Occurrence:
- Iodine deficiency: Iodine is an essential nutrient required for
the production of thyroid hormones. When there is a lack of
iodine in the diet, the thyroid gland becomes enlarged in an
attempt to compensate for the deficiency. Iodine deficiency is
the most common cause of goiter worldwide.
- Autoimmune disorders: Certain autoimmune disorders, such
as Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Grave's disease, can lead to
inflammation of the thyroid gland and enlargement of the
gland.
- Genetics: Some genetic mutations can increase the risk of
developing goiter.

Consequences of Development:
- Difficulty breathing and swallowing
- Hoarseness
- Coughing
- Thyroid nodules or lumps
- Thyroid cancer (rare)
Classification:
- Diffuse goiter: Enlargement of the entire thyroid gland.
- Nodular goiter: Enlargement of one or more nodules on the
thyroid gland, which may be benign or cancerous.
- Multinodular goiter: Enlargement of multiple nodules on the
thyroid gland.
Localization of the Pathogen:
- Endemic goiter: Occurs in regions where there is a
deficiency of iodine in the soil and the diet.
- Sporadic goiter: Occurs in individuals who have a genetic
predisposition or other risk factors for goiter, regardless of
where they live.
Treatment options for goiter depend on the underlying cause
and the severity of the enlargement. Mild cases of goiter may
not require any treatment, while more severe cases may
require medication, surgery or radioactive iodine treatment
to reduce the size of the thyroid gland. Iodine supplements
can be used to treat goiter caused by iodine deficiency.
64. Methods of diagnosis, rehabilitation, correction of
dysbacteriosis.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of dysbacteriosis involves analyzing the bacteria
present in the gastrointestinal tract. Fecal analysis and stool
culture are common methods used to diagnose
dysbacteriosis. Blood tests may also be conducted to
measure levels of enzymes and markers associated with gut
inflammation. Additionally, imaging tests like ultrasounds and
endoscopies can help detect inflammation or abnormalities in
the digestive tract.
Rehabilitation and Correction:
- Probiotics: Probiotics are live bacteria and yeasts that are
good for gut health. Taking probiotic supplements or
consuming probiotic-rich foods, such as yogurt and kefir, can
restore the balance of good bacteria in the gut.
- Prebiotics: Prebiotics are indigestible fibers that promote
the growth of good bacteria in the gut. These can be found in
foods such as onions, garlic, and bananas.
- Antibiotics: If dysbacteriosis is caused by harmful bacteria,
antibiotics may be necessary to eliminate the harmful
bacteria.
- Diet modification: Avoiding foods that irritate the gut, such
as spicy or processed foods, and increasing fiber-rich foods
can help restore the balance of gut bacteria.
- Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT): FMT is a procedure
where a healthy person's fecal matter is transplanted into the
gut of an individual with dysbacteriosis. This procedure can
help restore a balanced gut microbiome.

In summary, the methods of diagnosis for dysbacteriosis

include fecal analysis, stool culture, blood tests, and imaging
tests. Rehabilitation and correction of dysbacteriosis can be
achieved through the use of probiotics and prebiotics,
antibiotics (if necessary), diet modification, and fecal
microbiota transplantation (FMT).
65. Eubiotics and probiotics to restore the normal microflora
of the human body. The mechanism of action.
Eubiotics and probiotics are dietary supplements used to
restore and maintain the natural microflora in the human
body. The microflora is a diverse population of
microorganisms that reside in different parts of the body,
including the gut, mouth, skin, and reproductive system. The
microflora plays a crucial role in maintaining health by
helping to digest food, producing essential vitamins, and
protecting against harmful pathogens.
Eubiotics are a type of dietary supplement that contains
ingredients that enhance the growth and activity of beneficial
microorganisms in the gut. These ingredients include
prebiotics, which are non-digestible fibers that feed the
beneficial microorganisms, and postbiotics, which are
metabolic byproducts produced by the microorganisms.
Eubiotics support the growth of beneficial microorganisms
and help to maintain a healthy balance of microflora in the
gut.

Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when consumed in

sufficient quantities, improve the health of the host.
Probiotics are found in fermented foods, such as yogurt and
sauerkraut, and in dietary supplements. Probiotics work by
directly interacting with the gut microflora, either by
replacing or supporting the activity of the beneficial
microorganisms. Probiotics may also stimulate the immune
system and improve gut barrier function, which helps to
prevent the entry of harmful pathogens.
The mechanism of action of eubiotics and probiotics is based
on the principles of symbiosis and competition. The beneficial
microorganisms in the gut form a symbiotic relationship with
the host, providing essential services such as digestion and
protection against pathogens. When the microflora is
disrupted, harmful microorganisms can grow, leading to a
range of health problems. Eubiotics and probiotics help to
restore the balance between beneficial and harmful
microorganisms, promoting health and preventing disease.
Overall, eubiotics and probiotics are effective dietary
supplements for restoring the normal microflora of the
human body. They work by promoting the growth and activity
of beneficial microorganisms, which helps to maintain a
healthy balance of microflora in the gut. Through their
symbiotic and competitive interactions, eubiotics and
probiotics help to improve health and prevent disease.
66. Scientific problem of the Department of Microbiology of
the DSEA.
microbiology is a field that constantly grapples with new
challenges that arise from global epidemics, antibiotic
resistance, and new infectious diseases. One of the significant
scientific problems that the Department of Microbiology of
any organization may face is the identification and
characterization of newly emerging pathogens, especially
those that cause diseases with no available vaccines or
therapies. Other potential scientific problems in microbiology
research could include developing new diagnostic tools or
finding novel approaches to combatting antibiotic resistance.
Additionally, microbiology research may need to explore the
interactions between microorganisms and different
environments, such as soil or water, to better understand the
spread and transmission of diseases. Ultimately, the
challenges in microbiology research and the Department of
Microbiology will depend on the current state of scientific
knowledge, emerging trends of diseases, and ongoing
technological developments in the field.
67. Sanitary Microbiology, object, tasks. The value of
sanitary Microbiology in the activities of the doctor.
Sanitary microbiology is a branch of microbiology that deals
with the detection, characterization, and control of
microorganisms that can cause diseases in humans, animals,
and plants. The main object of sanitary microbiology is to
protect public health by maintaining the quality of drinking
water, food, and the environment.
The tasks of sanitary microbiology include:

1. Identification of pathogenic microorganisms that can cause

diseases and the sources of contamination.
2. Developing appropriate methods and techniques for the
detection, isolation, and characterization of microbes.
3. Evaluating the effectiveness of disinfection and sterilization
methods for controlling microbial growth.
4. Monitoring the microbiological quality of drinking water,
sewage, and other environmental samples to prevent the
spread of diseases.
5. Providing guidance and recommendations for preventing
and controlling the spread of infectious diseases.
The value of sanitary microbiology in the activities of the
doctor is significant. Doctors rely on the results of
microbiology tests to diagnose and treat diseases caused by
microorganisms. Sanitary microbiologists provide critical
information on the presence, identity, and source of
infectious agents to health providers supervising patient care.
Based on this data, doctors can prescribe appropriate
antibiotics or other treatments to manage the patient's
condition effectively. Sanitary microbiologists also play a
critical role in public health, as they help to identify and
mitigate the spread of outbreaks of infection, and work to
prevent the transmission of infectious diseases in the
population.
68. Sanitary indicative microorganisms, their requirements,
their importance for the characteristics of the
environmental objects.
Sanitary indicative microorganisms are specific types of
microorganisms that can be used as indicators of the hygiene
and sanitation status of environmental objects such as water,
soil, and food. These microorganisms are useful in
determining whether the environment is contaminated with
harmful pathogens that can cause disease or illness. The
commonly used sanitary indicative microorganisms include:
1. Escherichia coli (E. coli): This bacterium is used as an
indicator of recent fecal contamination in water and food. E.
coli is commonly found in the intestines of humans and
animals, so its presence in water or food indicates the
potential presence of pathogenic organisms.
2. Salmonella: This bacterium is commonly found in animal
feces and can cause serious illness in humans. Its presence in
water or food indicates poor sanitation and presents a health
hazard.
3. Enterococcus: This bacterium is commonly found in the
gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals and is used as
an indicator of water quality. Its presence in water can
indicate fecal contamination and the potential presence of
harmful organisms.
The requirements for these microorganisms vary depending
on the specific type of microorganism. For example, E. coli
requires a moist environment with a neutral pH, while
Salmonella can survive in a wide range of pH levels and
environmental conditions.

The importance of understanding and monitoring the

presence of sanitary indicative microorganisms in
environmental objects cannot be overstated. These
microorganisms provide valuable information about the
hygiene and safety of water, soil, and food. By monitoring
their presence, we can identify potential risks and take
appropriate measures to prevent the spread of pathogens
and protect public health.
69. Sanitary bacteriological control of drinking water
quality. Requirements of the state standard for drinking
water. Sanitary - indicative microorganisms, which are used
in assessing water quality.
Sanitary bacteriological control of drinking water quality is a
crucial process to ensure safe drinking water for human
consumption. The state standard for drinking water in most
countries sets the requirements for the physical, chemical,
and microbiological parameters of water.
The state standard for drinking water specifies the maximum
allowable concentration of microorganisms in drinking water.
Sanitary-indicative microorganisms are commonly used to
assess water quality. These microorganisms are typically
associated with fecal contamination and can cause illness in
humans if consumed in high levels.
The most common sanitary-indicative microorganisms used
for water quality assessment include total coliforms, fecal
coliforms, and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Total coliforms are a
group of bacteria commonly found in the gastrointestinal
tract of humans and animals. Fecal coliforms are a type of
total coliforms that are commonly found in fecal matter. E.
coli is a specific type of fecal coliform that is highly associated
with fecal contamination and is considered a more reliable
indicator of fecal contamination.
The presence of these microorganisms in drinking water
indicates that there may be a risk of waterborne diseases
such as cholera, typhoid fever, and hepatitis A. Therefore, it is
important to monitor the levels of these microorganisms in
drinking water and take appropriate measures to ensure safe
drinking water.
Water treatment processes such as filtration, disinfection,
and chlorination are commonly used to remove or inactivate
microorganisms in drinking water. Regular water quality
testing and monitoring are also important to ensure that the
treatment process is effective in producing safe drinking
water.
Overall, sanitary bacteriological control of drinking water is a
critical process to safeguard public health and prevent the
transmission of waterborne diseases.
70. Microflora of the water. The factors of self-purification
of water. Survival of pathogenic microorganisms in the
water. The role of water in transmission of infectious
diseases.
Microflora of water refers to the diverse group of
microorganisms present in freshwater bodies such as rivers,
lakes, and streams. These microorganisms play a vital role in
the self-purification of water by breaking down organic
compounds and converting them into less harmful
substances. Some of the common microorganisms found in
water include bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa.
Factors that contribute to the self-purification of water
include the physical, chemical, and biological parameters.
Physical factors such as temperature, flow rate, and
turbulence contribute to the mixing of water and increase the
contact between microorganisms and organic matter, making
it easier for the microorganisms to decompose it. Chemical
factors such as dissolved oxygen, pH, and nutrients also play a
role in the self-purification of water. For example, high levels
of dissolved oxygen indicate good water quality and supports
the growth of aerobic microorganisms that decompose
organic matter.
Pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and
protozoa can survive in water for extended periods, making it
an important mode of transmission for infectious diseases.
Ingestion of contaminated water can cause illnesses such as
cholera, typhoid fever, and hepatitis A. The survival of
pathogenic microorganisms in water depends on factors such
as water temperature, pH levels, and the presence of other
microorganisms that compete for resources.
In conclusion, monitoring the microflora of water and
maintaining appropriate physical and chemical parameters
are essential in maintaining the quality of water and
preventing the spread of infectious diseases.
71. Methods of sanitary bacteriological examination of
water and their evaluation.
Sanitary bacteriological examination of water is critical in
determining its quality and safety for consumption. There are
several methods used to perform bacterial examination of
water, including:
1. Membrane filtration method: This method involves filtering
water through a membrane with a known pore size that
captures bacteria. The membrane is then placed on a culture
medium that encourages growth, and after incubation, the
resulting bacteria colonies are counted and evaluated.
2. Multiple tube fermentation method: Also known as the
most probable number (MPN) method, this involves diluting
water samples and inoculating them into tubes containing
culture media that encourage the growth of bacteria. The
number of tubes showing bacterial growth is then used to
estimate the number of bacteria in the original sample.
3. Presence-absence method: This method determines the
presence or absence of coliform bacteria in water. It involves
inoculating a water sample into a culture medium and
examining it for the presence or absence of gas production,
which indicates the presence of coliform bacteria.
The evaluation of bacterial examination of water involves
comparing the results obtained to the standards set by
regulatory authorities. In many countries, the maximum
acceptable level of coliform bacteria in drinking water is zero
or very low. The presence of other bacteria species within the
limits of acceptable concentrations is typically acceptable.
The evaluation of the methods mentioned above and others
is essential in providing accurate and reliable data on the
quality of water, which can inform actions to be taken to
minimize exposure to waterborne pathogens.
72. The microflora of the soil. The role of soil in transmission
of infectious diseases. Factors that affect the survival of
pathogens in the soil. Sanitary-indicative microorganisms,
which are used in the assessment of soil contamination.
Methods of sanitary-microbiological study of soil.
The microflora of the soil refers to the diverse community of
microorganisms present in the soil, including bacteria, fungi,
viruses, and protozoa. These microorganisms play an
important role in maintaining soil health by decomposing
organic matter, cycling nutrients, and aiding in plant growth.
However, soil can also serve as a reservoir for infectious
agents and can be a potential source of transmission for
pathogens that cause human and animal diseases. Soil-borne
diseases can be transmitted through direct contact with
contaminated soil or through indirect exposure, such as
consuming contaminated food or water.
Factors that affect the survival of pathogens in the soil
include temperature, moisture, pH, and exposure to sunlight.
Some soil microorganisms, such as Bacillus anthracis, can
survive for years in the soil, while other pathogens, such as
Salmonella, can only survive for a short period of time.
Sanitary-indicative microorganisms, such as fecal coliforms,
are used to assess soil contamination and indicate the
potential presence of harmful pathogens. These
microorganisms are commonly found in the feces of humans
and animals and can be used to monitor the level of
contamination in the soil.
Methods of sanitary-microbiological study of soil include the
collection of soil samples for analysis in a laboratory setting.
Techniques such as culture and molecular methods can be
used to identify and quantify microorganisms present in the
soil. These methods can help identify potential sources of
contamination and assess the risk of transmission of soil-
borne diseases.
73. Microflora of air, its characteristics. The role of air in the
transmission infectious diseases.
The microflora of air refers to the diverse community of
microorganisms that are present in the air, including bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and other microbes. These microorganisms can
be carried by air currents and dispersed through the
environment.
The majority of microorganisms present in the air are
harmless, or even beneficial to human health, as they help to
decompose organic matter, cycle nutrients, and aid in plant
growth. However, certain microorganisms can pose a risk to
human health, by causing respiratory infections, allergic
reactions, and other health problems.
Airborne microorganisms can be transmitted through a
variety of mechanisms, including coughing, sneezing, and
talking, as well as through contact with contaminated
surfaces and materials. Certain infectious diseases, such as
tuberculosis, influenza, and COVID-19, can also be
transmitted through airborne droplets.
The transmission of airborne diseases is influenced by factors
such as population density, air circulation, and the duration
and proximity of exposure to an infected individual. Effective
measures to prevent the transmission of airborne diseases
include wearing masks, maintaining physical distance,
improving ventilation systems, and disinfecting surfaces.
In summary, while the microflora of air can contribute to
environmental health and biodiversity, it is also important to
take measures to prevent the transmission of airborne
diseases, as well as to monitor and control the quality of
indoor and outdoor air.
74. Bacterial count and sanitary indicative microorganisms
of air enclosed spaces, methods of determining their rating.
The microflora of air refers to the diverse community of
microorganisms that are present in the air, including bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and other microbes. These microorganisms can
be carried by air currents and dispersed through the
environment.
The majority of microorganisms present in the air are
harmless, or even beneficial to human health, as they help to
decompose organic matter, cycle nutrients, and aid in plant
growth. However, certain microorganisms can pose a risk to
human health, by causing respiratory infections, allergic
reactions, and other health problems.

Airborne microorganisms can be transmitted through a

variety of mechanisms, including coughing, sneezing, and
talking, as well as through contact with contaminated
surfaces and materials. Certain infectious diseases, such as
tuberculosis, influenza, and COVID-19, can also be
transmitted through airborne droplets.
The transmission of airborne diseases is influenced by factors
such as population density, air circulation, and the duration
and proximity of exposure to an infected individual. Effective
measures to prevent the transmission of airborne diseases
include wearing masks, maintaining physical distance,
improving ventilation systems, and disinfecting surfaces.
In summary, while the microflora of air can contribute to
environmental health and biodiversity, it is also important to
take measures to prevent the transmission of airborne
diseases, as well as to monitor and control the quality of
indoor and outdoor air.
75. Sanitary Virology, subject, tasks, importance of sanitary
Virology in the activities of the doctor.
Sanitary virology is a branch of microbiology that focuses on
the study of viruses and their impact on public health. Its
main objective is to understand the mechanisms of viral
diseases transmission and to develop strategies to prevent or
control their spread.
Tasks of Sanitary Virology:

1. Identifying new and emerging viral diseases, and studying

their pathogenesis, transmission, and epidemiology.
2. Developing diagnostic tests and tools to detect viral
infections.
3. Evaluating and validating new antiviral drugs and
treatments.
4. Investigating outbreaks of viral diseases and implementing
control measures.
5. Conducting research on the effectiveness of vaccines and
the development of new vaccines.
Importance of Sanitary Virology in the activities of the
doctor:
1. Early detection and timely diagnosis: Sanitary virology plays
a crucial role in the early detection and diagnosis of viral
infections, which is essential for the timely initiation of
treatment.
2. Prevention of outbreaks: Doctors can rely on the
information generated by sanitary virology to prevent
outbreaks of viral diseases through vaccination, public
education, and implementation of control measures.
3. Treatment of viral infections: Antiviral drugs and
treatments are an important component of the treatment of
viral infections. Sanitary virology develops and validates these
drugs and treatments, providing doctors with effective tools
to manage viral infections.

4. Research: Sanitary virology is the basis of scientific

research on viral diseases, allowing doctors to improve their
understanding of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of viral
infections and to develop new treatments and prevention
options.
Overall, sanitary virology is an essential discipline in the
activities of a doctor to prevent, diagnose and treat a wide
range of viral infections, and to advance public health.
76.The role of water, soil, air in the transmission of
pathogens of viral infections. The viruses that most often
found in the environment.
Sanitary virology is a branch of microbiology that focuses on
the study of viruses and their impact on public health. Its
main objective is to understand the mechanisms of viral
diseases transmission and to develop strategies to prevent or
control their spread.
Tasks of Sanitary Virology:
1. Identifying new and emerging viral diseases, and studying
their pathogenesis, transmission, and epidemiology.
2. Developing diagnostic tests and tools to detect viral
infections.
3. Evaluating and validating new antiviral drugs and
treatments.
4. Investigating outbreaks of viral diseases and implementing
control measures.
5. Conducting research on the effectiveness of vaccines and
the development of new vaccines.
Importance of Sanitary Virology in the activities of the
doctor:
1. Early detection and timely diagnosis: Sanitary virology plays
a crucial role in the early detection and diagnosis of viral
infections, which is essential for the timely initiation of
treatment.

2. Prevention of outbreaks: Doctors can rely on the

information generated by sanitary virology to prevent
outbreaks of viral diseases through vaccination, public
education, and implementation of control measures.
3. Treatment of viral infections: Antiviral drugs and
treatments are an important component of the treatment of
viral infections. Sanitary virology develops and validates these
drugs and treatments, providing doctors with effective tools
to manage viral infections.

4. Research: Sanitary virology is the basis of scientific

research on viral diseases, allowing doctors to improve their
understanding of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of viral
infections and to develop new treatments and prevention
options.

Overall, sanitary virology is an essential discipline in the

activities of a doctor to prevent, diagnose and treat a wide
range of viral infections, and to advance public health.
77.Sanitary-virologic research of water. Sampling, methods
of concentration. Viruses, bacteriophages in drinking and
wastewater. Positioning methods.
Sanitary-virologic research of water involves the detection
and quantification of viral pathogens in water sources to
identify potential health risks to humans. Water sampling for
virologic research is typically done in accordance with
regulatory guidelines and requires specific methods of
concentration to allow for the detection of low levels of viral
particles that may be present in the water.
Water sampling: Water samples must be taken carefully to
avoid contamination and must be representative of the water
body being tested. Typically, samples are collected from
different points in the water source, including the intake and
the outlet. Water sampling may be done manually or with
automated sampling equipment.
Methods of concentration: Concentration methods help to
increase the sensitivity of viral detection in water samples.
The most commonly used methods are membrane filtration,
ultrafiltration, and adsorption–elution methods. In
membrane filtration, the water sample is filtered through a
small-pore sized filter to remove particles larger than the
pore size of the filter. In ultrafiltration, a high-pressure pump
is used to force water through a membrane filter with a
smaller pore size, enabling removal of viruses too small to be
captured by membrane filtration. Adsorption-elution
methods use specific filters coated with polymers that
selectively concentrate viruses and bacteriophages from the
water sample.
Viruses and bacteriophages in drinking and wastewater: Viral
pathogens are present in both drinking and wastewater, and
their detection and quantification are essential to guarantee
that the water is safe for consumption. The most commonly
detected viruses in water samples are enteroviruses,
noroviruses, hepatitis A virus, adenoviruses, and rotaviruses.
Bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria, are
commonly used as indicators of fecal contamination in water
sources.
Positioning methods: Positioning methods are used to detect
and quantify viruses and bacteriophages in water samples.
These include quantitative PCR (qPCR), plaque assays, and
fluorescent focus assay (FFA). Quantitative PCR is a molecular
biology technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences of
viruses and bacteriophages for quantification. Plaque assays
are used to determine the number of infective virus particles
in a sample by infecting cells and counting the resulting
visible plaques. FFA methods use fluorescent antibodies to
detect the virus and determine the number of infectious
particles in a water sample.
In conclusion, sanitary-virologic research of water is essential
to identify potential health risks associated with water
sources. Sampling, methods of concentration, and positioning
methods are key components of this research and are used to
detect and quantify viral pathogens in water samples.
78.The role of air pollution in the spread of causative agents
of respiratory VI-rusna infections. Methods of sampling air
and indication of respiratory viruses.
Air pollution can play an important role in the spread of
respiratory viruses, as it can act as a carrier and vehicle for
airborne particles that conta-in the virus. These particles can
be breathed in by humans, allowing the viruses to infect the
respiratory system and cause illness.
Sampling air to detect respiratory viruses can be done using
various methods, such as swabbing surfaces, air filtration, or
collection of exhal-ations. One commonly used method is the
use of bioaerosol samplers, which can collect air samples and
analyze them for the presence of viral particles.
Indication of respiratory viruses can be done using different
tests, such as PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), ELISA
(Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay), or rapid antigen
tests. These tests can identify specific genetic or protein
markers of the virus, allowing for accurate detection and
diagnosis.
Overall, understanding the role of air pollution in the spread
of respiratory viruses is important for developing strategies to
prevent and control their transmission. This includes
improving air quality standards, using proper personal
protective equipment, and conducting regular surveillance
and monitoring of air and respiratory infections.