AMPHIBIANS (TOADS AND FROGS)

Objectives
Describe the external features of toad or frog.
Discuss the adaptation of toad or frog to its habitat.

Amphibians (Toads and Frogs)

Phylum: Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Habitat: They live in ponds, marshes, rain forests, and other wet places.
They spend part of their life in water and part on land. They are poikilothermic (cold-blooded)
vertebrates, meaning; their body temperature depends on the temperature of their environment.
Structure of a Toad
The body of toad consists of only head and trunk. It has short, round neckless body with dry skin
and no tails.
It has large flat head with wide mouth and sticky tongue, prominent bulging eyes and a pair of
nostrils above the mouth.
Each eye has movable lower eyelid. The lower lid has a transparent fold of skin called nictitating
membrane. This moves over the eye to clean, moisten and protect it.
Behind the eyes are circular ear drums or tympanum. The eardrums pick up sound vibrations in
air and in water, which enable the toad to hear.
Two pairs of limbs arise from the trunk. The forelimbs are shot and stout with four digits which
are not webbed. The forelimbs absorbs the shocks of landing after hopping. The hind limbs are

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longer and more muscular with five webbed digits. They push and lift the toad off the ground when
hopping. The webbing offers a large surface area to push against water when swimming.
At the posterior end of the body is the cloaca, for discharging feces, sperms or eggs.

Nutrition in Toads
Toads are a carnivores. The food is mainly worms, slugs, spider, beetles and other insects. They
have elongated, sticky tongue hinged at the front end of the lower jaw. They flick the tongue out
to catch an insect resting on a leaf or even in flight and redraw it back into the mouth. They
swallow the prey whole without much chewing.

Locomotion in Toads
The feet have adaptations for movement both on land and in water.
a. On land, Toads move by hopping or leaping and crawling. The long, muscular folded hind
limbs are straightened to push and lift the toad off the ground when hopping. The forelimbs

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absorb the shocks of landing after hopping. The toads usually move by crawling with the limbs
moving diagonally.
b. In water, toads swim by using the powerful hind limbs. The webbed feet increase the surface
area that pushes against the water. The forelimbs are used in steering.

Excretion in Toads
Ammonia, excess salts and water are excreted by the kidney in urine through the cloaca. Carbon
dioxide is excreted from the body through the lungs, buccal cavity or skin by diffusion.
Respiration in Toads
Gaseous exchange occurs through the skin (cutaneous respiration), lining of the mouth (buccal
respiration) and lungs (pulmonary respiration)

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□ Cutaneous Respiration: In water toads obtain oxygen by absorbing it through the skin. The
skin is highly vascularized; a network of blood capillaries and remains moist to allow diffusion of
oxygen at high rate. Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the blood capillaries in the reverse direction.

□ Buccal Respiration: This is employed when they are at rest on land. The mouth is closed and
the floor of the buccal cavity is lowered. Toads takes in large volume of air into the buccal cavity
through the nostrils. Gaseous exchange occurs through the mucus lining of the buccal cavity.
□ Pulmonary Respiration: This respiration occurs when toads are active and requires a lot of
oxygen. The mouth is closed and the floor of the buccal cavity is lowered. Toads draws air in
through there nostrils and pumps it into the lungs by movements of the mouth floor. Gaseous
exchange takes place in the lungs. The floor of the buccal cavity is then raised, which force carbon
dioxide out through the nostril.
Reproduction in Toads
Egg: During the breeding season, the male croak loudly to attract a female. The male mounts on
the back of a female, gripping her under the arms with his forelimbs. In this way, he is carried
around in the water by the female, sometimes for many days. The female lays eggs, the male
releases sperms to fertilize them. Fertilization is external. The eggs are surrounded by a transparent
gelatinous layer or a string of jelly. The eggs are hatch into free-living larvae called tadpole. A
string of toads eggs covered with a jelly is called? toad’s spawn.

Functions of the jelly

□ It protects the eggs from mechanical injury.
□ It protects the eggs from drying up.
□ It protects the egg from bacterial infection.
□ The jelly is very slippery and distasteful, protecting the eggs from predators.
□ It enables the eggs to float on the water surface.
□ It prevents overcrowding of eggs / allows room for development / better circulation of air

Tadpole

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It has oval body, cartilaginous skeleton, gills and large flattened tails with fins for swimming.
Tadpole develops gill pouches that cover the gills. It has a relatively long, spiral shaped intestine.
Tadpole undergoes some changes during development into adult by a process called
metamorphosis. At metamorphosis, the spiral‐ shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is
reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. It develops a large jaw, and its gills and gill sac disappear.
Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. The tail is reabsorbed by apoptosis.

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 Differences between Tadpole and Tilapia

Structural similarities between Tadpole and Tilapia

o Stream-line shape
o Presence of opercula
o Possession of mouth
o Possession of eye and nostril
o Possession of tail
o Presence of gills
Adaptation of Toad to Its Environment
¨ The mucous glands secrete sticky and distasteful or toxic to cover the skin.
¨ The prominent eyes give toad a wide angle of vision.
¨ The webbed hind limbs allow the toad to swim in water easily.
¨ The nictitating membrane cleans, moisten and protect the eye when the toad is on land.
¨ The eardrums pick up sound vibrations in air and in water, which enable the toad to hear.
¨ The vascularized and moist skin allows gaseous exchange in water.
¨ Presence of lungs for respiration on land.
¨ Streamlined body for easy movement in water.
¨ The presence of powerful hind limbs for leaping or hopping.
¨ Croaking noise is made by males to attract the females for mating.
¨ The long sticky tongue for catching insects.
¨ The color change of the skin gives toad the ability to camouflage itself against predators.

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 REPTILES (Agama Lizard)
Objectives
Describe the external features of lizard (Agama).
Relate the structural features of the lizard to their functions.
Reptiles: Agama Lizard (Agama agama)
Phylum: Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Reptilia
Habitat: Lizards live in desert, grassland, rainforest, around homes, building, trees and rocks.
Agama lizard is sometimes called rainbow lizard because of the colorful displays put on by the
adult male. Agama show sexual dimorphism (difference in appearance among male and female).
The female possesses brown head with green spots and brown body with yellow patches. The
dominant male (adult male) has bright red or yellow head, dark blue body and the tail with different
colors.
Structure of Agama Lizard
The body is covered by dry, horny, overlapping scales. It has a triangular head separated from the
trunk by a short neck, a long tail and two eyes. Each eye is protected by movable eyelids; a
transparent fold of skin called nictitating membrane and a ridge of hard scales. Behind the eyes
are well-developed circular ear-drums or tympanum.
It has a terminal mouth with homodont dentition. Above the mouth is a pair of nostrils.
The male possesses a fold of skin called gular fold, below the chin, which is lowered during
courtship or frightened. It also has a scaly growth of skin called nuchal crest above the neck. It is
raised during fighting.
Two pairs of limbs arise from the trunk. The limbs are shot and stout with five digits which are
not webbed. The hind-limbs are longer than the fore-limbs.
The trunk terminates in a long tapering tail. Many lizards can detach their tails to escape from
predators, an act called autotomy, but this ability is not shared by all lizards.

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Movement in Agama Lizard
Agama lizard can run, climb and cling using strong, clawed digits of it limbs. It run quickly on its
hind limb for short distances. The tail helps in balance and movement.
The limbs are unable to support the body clearly of the ground at rest. This is because the limbs
extend out horizontally and not directly under the trunk as in mammals.
Feeding in Agama Lizard
Agama lizard is insectivores, which feed on mainly ants, grasshoppers and [Link] sits in
vegetation or in shade and wait until an insect walks by and then chase the prey. It catches the prey
using a tongue with a tip covered by mucous glands. It possesses small teeth for crushing the prey
before swallowed.
Respiration in Agama Lizard
Lizard respires by using lungs. Oxygen passes through the nostrils into the lungs. Gaseous
exchange occurs in the lungs and carbon dioxide is expired through the nostrils.
Excretion in Agama Lizards
Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. Uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste
product excreted by lizards. Reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine; this is because
they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle. The nitrogenous waste is excreted as
white, solid substance along with the faeces.
NB: The solid uric acid produced is an adaptation of water conservation in lizards.
Reproduction in Lizards
1. Courtship and Mating
The male develops dramatic colorful markings; the head, neck and tail turn bright orange, and
the body dark blue.
The male approaches the female from behind and bob the head to attract [Link] female curved
her back with the tail and head raised. The male chased, grasps and mount on her. They pair at
90 degrees in order to bring their cloacae together.
The male pushes the base of his tail onto her cloaca, inserting his hemi-penis and introduce
sperms into the female. Fertilization is internal.
2. Egg Laying and Hatching
The female lays the fertilized eggs in a hole she digs with her claws and cover the eggs with soil.
The eggs are hatch within eight to ten weeks.
The young lizards become active and immediately start eating sand, plants, and insects.

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Lizard Territory
A territory consists of one adult male, several adult females and young of both sexes. The dominant
male defends his territory.
It displays several behaviors, such challenge, threat and fighting.
The challenge display is shown in a situation where young male showing orange color (or
reproductive color) is chased out of the territory.
It challenges or fights if an intruder tries to mate with his females.
The threat is display by rapid up and down movement of the head with the gular fold fully
extended. The whole body raises and lowers.
Adaptation of the Lizard to its Environment
1. Presence of lungs for respiration.
2. Clawed digit which allows lizards to climb.
3. It has well developed eye for detecting prey.
4. Long mucous tongue for trapping prey.
5. Dry scaly skin for protection against water loss
6. Long tail for balancing while moving
Features of Evolutionary Advancement of Lizards over Frogs or Toads
1. Presence of strong legs with clawed digit for climbing and running quickly on land.
2. Lizards lay shelled eggs that for prevention of desiccation
3. Lizards are diurnal animals. They are adapted to daylight conditions, with color vision and
more advanced visual depth than in amphibians.
4. Respiration in lizards occurs only through the lung but amphibians’ respiration occurs in more
primitive structures such as the skin and mouth in addition to the lung.

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 Difference between male lizard and female lizard

Difference between the External Features of Lizard and Toad

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 DOMESTIC FOWL (Gallus domesticus)
Objectives
Describe the external features of domestic fowl.
Explain the adaptation of domestic fowl to its habitat.
Explain the different uses of the feathers of domestic fowl

Domestic Fowl (Gallus domesticus)

Classification of Domestic fowl
Phylum: Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Domestic fowls are 'warm blooded' or homoiothermic (constant temperature); that means they
maintain their body temperature at a constant level and above that of their surroundings.

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 Structure of Domestic fowl
The body consist of a head, trunk and tail. The head is small and round. The skull is extended into
two strong pointed, horny structures called beak. It has a pair of slit-like nostril, a pair of eyes,
eyelids and a nictitating membrane. Behind each eye is the ear opening hidden by feathers. It has
a red fleshy skin on the head called a comb and a pair of hanging fleshy skin below the beak
called wattles. The wattle and comb are more prominent in male than female. The head is covered
with feathers except the beak, comb and wattle.

The head is connected to trunk by a long neck. The trunk bears fore-limbs and hind-limbs. The
forelimbs are modified to form wings. The legs and toes are covered with overlapping scales. Each
leg has four digits with sharp, curved claws, three are directed forward and one back. The tail is
short and covered with quill feathers and has oil glands called preen gland under it. The preen
glands produces oil which is used to preen or groom feathers to keep them glossy and waterproof.

Feathers
The feathers are produced from the skin which is loose and dry. They are made up of protein
called keratin. Feathers consist of a shaft or rachis with rows of fine filaments on each side
called barbs. The barbs themselves have further rows of finer filaments called barbules.

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Functions of feathers
· They keep the body temperature constant
· They prevent wetting of skin (repelling water
· They are used for sexual display during courtship
· They protect the body against mechanical injury
· It gives streamlined body shape for efficient flight
Types of feathers
Flight or quills feathers: are broad and flat and offer resistance to the passage of air. It consists
of a flexible shaft running down the center. The lower part of the shaft is hollow and forms the
quill. The quill has a hole at the posterior end called inferior umbilicus, which contains a piece of
papilla tissue. The base of the quill is embedded in a small pit in the skin called the follicle. The
shaft bears a large number of a filaments called barbs. Each barb bears on each side a row of small
branches called barbules. The barbules of the upper row have hooks and those on the lower row
have grooves or ridges. The hooks on one set of barbules interlock with ridges on the other set to
form a stiff barb called the vane. The quill feathers are found on the wing and tail. They are used
for flying, steering and balancing. They are also used for sexual display during courtship.

Covert or contour feathers: are small but similar to the quill feathers in structure. It covers the
entire body except the legs. The barbs and barbules of the contour feathers are organized in a
regular way forming a smooth, water-resistant cover. They keep the body warm and also used in
sexual display during courtship.

Down feathers: the barbs and barbules are loose and fluffy. The barbules lack hooks and ridges.
They trap an insulating layer of air close to the body and so reduce heat losses.

Filoplumes: are small, hair-like and found all over the body. It consists of slender shaft with a
tuff of barb at the end. Its function is not known yet.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONTOUR AND DOWN FEATHERS

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Life Processes of Domestic fowl
Nutrition in Domestic fowl
It is omnivorous. It feeds on seeds, insects, worms and plant materials such leaves. The sharp,
strong claws are used to scratch the soil in search of food, which is picked with the sharp pointed
beak. The food is swallowed through the esophagus into the crop, where it is temporary stored. The
food enters the pro-ventriculus, the first part of the stomach, and digestive juices are secreted to
digest the food. The food then enters the gizzard, the second stomach. Churning and mechanical
breakdown of food takes place in the gizzard. The presence of small fine stones in the gizzard aids
in mechanical grinding of the food. The food enters the intestine for further breakdown and
absorption to occur. The caeca absorb water from the food. The rectum empties the undigested
food into the caeca to be eliminated as feces.

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Movement in Domestic fowl
The flight of a bird can be divided into flapping, and gliding or soaring.
Flapping: the pectoralis major muscle contracts, pulling the fore-limb down. The resistance of the
air to the wing produces an upward reaction on the wing which create a force to lift it as a whole.
In addition to the lift, forward momentum is provided by the slicing action of the wing. In the
down-stroke the secondary feathers provide much of the lifting force and the primaries most of the
forward component. The up-stroke of the wing is much more rapid than the down-stroke. The
pectoralis minor muscle contracts and raises the wing. The wing is bent at the wrist during the up-
stroke thus reducing the resistance.
Gliding or Soaring: In gliding flight the wings are outspread and used as aerofoils, the bird sliding
down a 'cushion' of air, losing height and gaining forward momentum. Sometimes upward thermal
currents or intermittent gusts of wind may be used to gain height without wing movements; in
seagulls and buzzards for example.

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 Features which adapt the bird for flying
□ The large surface area of wing feathers enables the bird to fly.
□ The streamlined body shape enables the bird fly through the air with little resistance.
□ Tips of the wing/tail feathers controls steering.
□ Large pectoral muscles for depressing the wings.
□ Keel-like extension from the sternum allows attachment of the pectoral muscles.
□ A rigid skeleton giving a firm framework for attachment of muscles concerned with flying
movements.
□ Hollow bones, which reduce the bird's weight.
□ The tail stabilizes the bird in flight and important in braking and landing.
□ Eyes placed at the side of the head enables the bird to have wide acute vision

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Reproduction in Domestic fowl
Courtship and Mating: a rooster or cockerel may dance in a circle around or near a hen called "a
circle dance". It lowers the wing and display colored feathers. The male mounts the female, applies
his reproductive openings to hers and passes sperm into her oviduct. Fertilization is internal.

Egg laying: The fertilized egg is enclosed in a layer of albumen and a shell during its passage
down the oviduct and is finally laid in the nest. Usually, one egg is laid each day and incubation
does not begin until the full clutch or group has been laid.

Incubation: The female is responsible for incubation, keeping the eggs at a temperature
approximating to her own. It covers them with her body and press them against her brooding
patches. At this temperature, the eggs develop and hatch in a week or two.

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Development: The living cells in the egg divide to make the tissues and organs of the young birds.
The yolk provides the food and the albumen is a source of both food and water. The eggshell and
shell membranes are permeable to air. Oxygen diffuses into the air space and absorbed by the
network of capillaries which spread out over the yolk and over a special sac called the allantois.
The blood carries the oxygen to the embryo. Carbon dioxide is eliminated by the reverse process
through the eggshell. When the chicks are fully developed, they break out of the shell by using
their beaks.

Parental care: The chicks are covered with down feathers and can run about soon after hatching.
They peck at objects on the ground and stay close to the hen, responding to her calls by taking
cover. The hen covers them with the body and wings and protect them against predators such as
cats and hawks.

Function of the Parts of Egg

 The amnion is a fluid-filled sac which suspends and protects the embryo.
 The allantois stores excretory products and also carries oxygen to the embryo in its
numerous blood vessels.
 The yolk sac shrinks as the embryo uses up its food store and is absorbed into the body at
hatching.
 The yolk provides proteins and lipids (fats) for developing embryo.
 The albumen provides proteins and water for developing embryo.
 The chalaza is a twisted strand of dense albumen, holds the yolk in place.
 The shell and egg membrane are permeable to air and protect the embryo.

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 Differences between Birds and Reptiles

Similarities between Birds and Reptiles

 Presence of scales
 Limbs with claws
 Nictitating membrane protecting the eyes
 Tympanum behind the eyes

BIODIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS

Objectives
 State the importance of classification of living organism.
 Outline the general characteristics of the five kingdoms of living things.
 Identify and classify organisms into their respective kingdoms.
 List the characteristics of major Phyla of Kingdoms Protoctista and Fungi.
 Describe the characteristics of the major divisions and classes of Kingdom Plantae
 Outline the major phyla and classes of Kingdom Animalia.
 Describe the characteristics of the major phyla and classes of Kingdom Animalia.
 Describe the characteristics of the major orders of Class Insecta.
 Construct identification keys using characteristics of organisms.

Classification of Living Things

Biological classification is the sorting and grouping of living things according to their common
characteristics. Biologists place organisms into groups known as taxa (singular: taxon), based on

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their characteristics. This branch of biology is referred to as taxonomy. Taxonomy is the study of
classification of organism.
Early Taxonomist
Ø Aristotle (Greece, 384–322BC) a Greek philosopher was the first to classify organisms. His
system of classification was based on mainly appearances. He classified plants as herbs, trees and
shrubs based on their size. He classified animals according to where they lived and structural
similarities. Aristotle also classified animals whether they have red blood or not.
Aristotle’s classification was used for nearly 2,000 years.
Ø John Ray (England, 1627–1705) He classified plants according to similarities and differences.
He was the first biologist to introduce the concept of species. He defined species as a group of
similar individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Ø Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) a Swedish botanist. Linnaeus system of classification was
widely accepted and is still the basic framework for all taxonomy. His system of classification is
called Binomial system. He used two Latin words to describe each species of organism (known to
as scientific name). The first name shows the genus, whilst the second name shows
the species which the organism belongs. The genus name starts with capital letter and species starts
with a small letter. Both names must be underlined separately when hand written or should be in
italic when typed.
Therefore; binomial nomenclature is a system of naming organism using two-part name.
Classification of organisms is hierarchical. There are seven main ranks (taxa) into which organisms
are placed: Kingdom, Phylum/Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
Classification of Some Living Organisms

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 Importance of Classification
o It enables scientists to communicate easily with one another.
o It shows similarities and relationships among organisms.
o It reveals evolutionary trends in different groups.
o It enables easy identification and study of organisms.
o It helps scientists in their research work such as identifying new varieties of organism.
o It avoids confusion associated with common name
o It shows geographical distribution of organisms
The Five Kingdom and Hierarchy of Classification
Classification puts all organisms into five groups:
1. Kingdom Prokaryotes (bacteria)
2. Kingdom Protoctista (protozoa and algae)
3. Kingdom Fungi (fungi)
4. Kingdom Plantae (plants)
5. Kingdom Animalia (animals)

Kingdom: Prokaryotae or Monera, Examples: Bacteria, Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria),

and Spirochetes
General Characteristics of Prokaryotes
1. unicellular organisms
2. no definite nucleus
3. no nuclear membrane
4. lack membrane-bound organelles
5. photosynthetic, chemosynthetic, or feed by absorption
6. the cell is usually surrounded by capsule or mucilage
7. reproduction is mainly by binary fission (asexual reproduction)

Kingdom: Protoctista
General Characteristics
o eukaryotic (true nucleus) and microscopic
o mostly unicellular but few are multicellular
o membrane bound organelles
o absence of tissues or organs
o some are photoautotrophs, others ingest food (heterotrophs) or (saprotrophs)
some are both autotrophs and heterotrophs (called mixotrophs)

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Phylum: Chlorophyta (Green algae). Examples: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Spirogyra
Characteristics of Chlorophytes
o live in either fresh water, marine or damp soil
o single-celled, colonial, filamentous, or multicellular
o the cell wall contains cellulose
o presence of chlorophylls and are photosynthetic
o food is store as starch inside the chloroplast some possess flagella

Phylum: Rhizopoda. Examples: Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica

Characteristics of Rhizopoda
o found in damp soil, marine, and freshwater
o unicellular, few multicellular
o movement is by cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia
o feed by phagocytosis or engulfing of prey
o reproduce asexually by fission
Phylum: Rhodophyta (Red algae). Examples: Glacillaria, Galaxaura, plumaria
Characteristics of Rhodophytes
o mainly found in marine waters
o mostly multicellular
o red color is due to red photosynthetic pigment
o the pigments are able to absorb blue and green light

o cell walls contain cellulose and agar (used as a base in culture dishes to grow microbes)
Phylum: Phaeophyta (Brown algae). Examples: Fucus, Sargassam, Laminaria
Characteristics of Phaeophytes
o multicellular found in marine habitat
o brown algae are photosynthetic
o brown color is due to carotenoid pigments
o the body (thallus) contains holdfasts for attachment

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Phylum: Ciliophora (Ciliates). Example: Paramecium, Vorticella, Didinium
Characteristics of Ciliophorans
o marine and freshwater organisms
o unicellular organisms
o the pellicle is covered with numerous of cilia
o presence of large macronucleus and a smaller micronucleus
o reproduction involves both sexual and asexual means

Phylum: Apicomplexa (Sporozoans). Examples: Plasmodium, Toxoplasma

Characteristics of Sporozoans
o Unicellular
o non-motile
o mainly parasitic
o reproduction is by sexual and asexual
o the apex of the cell contains a complex organelles used to penetrate host cell
Phylum: Euglenophyta (Euglenozoans). Examples: Euglena
Characteristics of Euglenophytes
o they are Unicellular organisms
o they are mixotrophs (photosynthetic and heterotrophic)
o possess chlorophyll and carotenoids
o presence of flagella for movement
o possess eyespot for detecting the presence of light
o reproduction is asexual

Phylum: Oomycota. (Slime mould)

Characteristics of Oomycotes
o found in damp habitat
o they are free cells or multinucleated aggregate
o possess non-septate hyphae
o they are biflagellate
o reproduced by asexual and sexual means.
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Phylum: Zoomastigina (Flagellates). Examples: Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia
Characteristics of Zoomastigina
o they are flagellated, unicellular
o Mode of feeding is heterotrophic; ingesting and absorbing food
o their reproduction is asexual
o mostly parasitic, living in the gut of animal hosts

Kingdom: Fungi. General Characteristics of Fungi

o mostly multicellular, few single-celled (e.g. yeasts)
o they are eukaryotes
o no chlorophyll (heterotrophs)
o non-motile
o most are saprotrophic, parasitic and others are mutualistic
o have cell walls are made of chitin
o vegetative body is made up hyphae (singular: hypha)
o hyphae may have internal cross walls, called septa, or lack cross walls, aseptate.
e.g. penicillium
Phylum: Zygomycota (Zygomycetes). Examples: Rhizopus, Mucor

Characteristics of of Zygomycetes
□ terrestrial
□ rhizoids anchor the organism, release digestive enzymes and absorb food
□ usually, saprotrophs but some are parasitic
□ hyphae are aseptate or non-septate (lack cross wall)
□ reproduction is by both sexual and asexual means
□ asexual reproductive structure called sporangium, produces sporangiospores
e.g bread mould

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Phylum: Ascomycota (Sac fungi). Examples: Yeasts, Molds, Morels, Truffles and many plant
pathogens
Characteristics of Ascomycetes
o the body consists of septate hyphae
o reproduce both sexually and asexually
o asexual spores called conidia form on the tips of a hyphae called condiophores
o hyphae (ascocarp) produce sexual spores called ascospores enclosed in a sac (ascus)
Phylum: Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)
Examples: Mushrooms, Toadstools, Bracket Fungi, Shelf Fungi, Puffballs, Rusts, Smuts
Characteristics of of Basidiomycetes
o mostly terrestrial
o saprophytic or parasitic
o the body consist of septa hyphae
o basidium is sexual reproductive structure that produce spores called basidiospores
o some are used as food (mushroom) and others cause crop disease (rusts & smuts)

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Kingdom: Plantae
General Characteristics
o multicellular organisms
o have true nucleus (eukaryotic)
o have cellulose cell walls
o presence of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments for photosynthesis
o store reserve food as starch
o they are non-motile

Division: Bryophyta
Examples: Mosses, Liverworts, Hornworts
Characteristics of Bryophytes
o found in damp terrestrial habitats or in fresh water
o no vascular tissues
o absence of true roots, stems, or leaves
o rhizoids are root-like structures that absorb water and nutrients
o restricted to moist areas because the flagellated sperms require water to swim to the egg
o the sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte
There are two classes under division bryophytes:
Class Musci (Mosses). Example: Funaria and Sphagnum
Characteristics of Mosses
o spirally arranged leaf-like structures
o the sporophyte consists of a foot, a stalk and a capsule containing spores

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o spores germinate into horizontal filaments called protonema
o protonema give rise to upright gametophyte and rhizoids
o rhizoids are multicellular

Class Hepaticae (Liverworts). Example: Marchantia, Pellia

Characteristics of Liverworts
o sporophytes are small and produce windblown spores
o the gametophyte is thalloid (flattened)
o single-celled rhizoids
o the thallus produces cup-shaped structures called Gemma cups containing Gemma cells

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Division: Filicinophyta. Examples: Horsetails, Ferns, Whisk ferns
Characteristics of Filicinophyta
o terrestrial plants with vascular tissues
o possesses true roots, stems and leaves
o no seed
o large compound leaves called fronds
o leaves bear sori (singular: sorus) at the underside
o leaves are megaphyllous
o gametophyte is small and heart-shaped
o the gametophyte and sporophyte are independent
o the sperm are flagellated and require water for reproduction

Division: Lycopodophyta. Examples: Club mosses, Spike mosses, Quillwort

Characteristics Lycopodophytes
o Terrestrial
o dispersed by windblown spores
o true roots, stems, and spirally arranged leaves
o the stems are horizontal with upright branches
o leaves are microphyllous
o the gametophyte and sporophyte are independent
o limited to moist areas because the flagellated sperms require water for reproduction

31
Division: Coniferophyta (Conifers). Examples: pine, cedar and redwood trees. Conifers are the
largest group of gymnosperms.
Characteristics Coniferophytes
o non-flowering, non-fruit, vascular plants with true roots, stem and leaves
o naked seeds are produced in cones
o leaves are needle-like and are adapted for dry conditions
o reproduction in pine
o heterosporous

Division: Cycadophyta (Cycads)

Characteristics of Cycadophytes
o cone-bearing palm-like plants
o long compound leaves clustered at the apex of short unbranched stem
o non-flowering plants and produce naked seeds
o vascular plants with true roots, stems, and leaves
Division: Angiospermophyta
Characteristics of Angiospermophytes
o the largest group of plants
o the seeds are covered by a fruit
o sporophyte is dominant and heterosporus
o sexual reproduction is by flowers

32
There are two main classes:
1. Class: Monocotyledonae (Monocotyledon)
E.g., Cereals (maize, barley, oats, rice or wheat), grasses, onion, palms, plantain, bamboo etc.
2. Class: Dicotyledonae (Dicotyledon)
E.g., Silk cotton, pepper, tomato, mango, orange, sunflower, flamboyant, yam etc.
Characteristics of Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon

33
Kingdom: Animalia
General Characteristics of Animals
o Multicellular
o true nucleus (eukaryotic)
o Heterotroph
o nervous system for coordination
o motile
Phylum: Porifera (Sponges).Examples: Leucosolenia, Euplectella
Characteristics of Porifera
· multicellular, lacking specialized tissues and organs
· asymmetrical
· the body is supported by spicules
· diploblastic (ectoderm and endoderm)
· absence of mouth, digestive cavity and anus
· absence of nervous system and sense organs
· reproduction is both by sexual or asexual means
Phylum Cnidaria (Cnidarians or Coelenterates). Examples: Hydra, Jellyfishes, Corals, Sea
anemones, Obelia.
Characteristics of Cnidarians
□ mostly marine, few freshwater (e.g. hydra)
□ radial symmetry
□ diploblastic (two tissue layers)
□ hydrostatic skeleton
□ they possess a gut with a single opening
□ two tissue layers are separated by mesoglea (non-living gelatinous material)
□ presence of long structures called tentacles used to capture prey
□ the tentacles contain defense stinging cells called cnidoblast or nematoblast which discharges
to trap or sting the prey.
Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flatworms). Examples: Planaria, Tapeworms
Characteristics of Platyhelminthes
o Unsegmented
o bilaterally symmetrical
o triploblastic i.e. having three germ layers
o body is dorso-ventrally flattened
o body has a definite anterior end with a concentration of nerve cells
o acoelomate; contains no internal cavity

34
o excretory organ (protonephridia with flame cells)
o circulatory and respiratory system are absent
o most are hermaphrodites

Classes of Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria, Trematoda, and Cestoda (Take serious note of this
classes.)
Class: Turbellaria, Example: Planaria
Characteristics of Turbellarians
o free living or commensal with larger animals
o mostly marine
o outer surface covered with cilia for locomotion
o absence of sucker
Class: Trematoda. Examples: Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica), Blood Fluke (Schistosoma)
Characteristics of Trematodes
o unciliated in the adult stage
o endoparasites
o possess tick cuticle with spines for locomotion
o presences of suckers for attachment to host

Class: Cestoda (Tapeworms)

Examples: Taenia saginatus, Taenia solium
Characteristics of Cestodes
o endoparasites
o no digestive system but absorbs digested nutrients from host
o no external cilia
o tick cuticle to withstand host digestive enzymes
o body consists of a head (scolex) with suckers and hooks for attachment to host
o presence of reproductive segments called proglottids behind the scolex
o hermaphrodites; the proglottids contain both male and female reproductive organs.

35
Phylum: Nematoda (Roundworms). Examples; Ascaris, Trichinella, Dracunculus, Hookworms
and Pinworms
Characteristics of Nematodes
o triploblastic
o bilaterally symmetrical
o pseudocoelomate
o cylindrical and not segmented
o the body is covered by a tough cuticle
o elongated body tapering at both ends
o possess long unbranched gut with mouth and anus
o free living or parasitic

Phylum: Annelida (Annelid worms or segmented worms)

Characteristics of Annelids
o metameric segmentation, with a round, elongated body
o bilaterally symmetrical
o lack jointed appendages
o tiny chitinous jaws (scolecodonts)
o segmentally arranged ciliated tubules called nephridia, for excretion
o bristle-like structures called chaetae for locomotion
Class: Polychaeta (Marine worms)
Examples: Nereis (rag worm), Arenicola (lugworm)
Characteristics of Polychaetes
o Marine
o distinct head
o numerous pair of chaetae
o chaetae protrude on lateral projections called parapodia
o no clitellum and do not produce cocoon

Class: Oligochaeta (Earthworms), Examples: Lumbricus, hyperiodrilus, libiodrilus

36
Characteristics of Oligochaetes
o freshwater worms or earthworms
o no distinct head with few chaetae
o no parapodia
o hermaphroditic
o clitellum present (specialized cocoon secreting region)
Class: Hirudinea (Leeches). Example: Hirudo (Medical leech)
Characteristics of Leeches
o ectoparasitic
o no distinct head, no chaetae or parapodia
o have no clitellum
o few body segments

Phylum: Mollusca, Examples: Clams, Snails and Cephalopods

Characteristics of Molluscs
o free living aquatic forms (freshwater or marine), some amphibious
o bilaterally symmetrical
o body is soft and unsegmented except monoplacophora
o coelom is reduced to a pericardial cavity around the heart
o body differentiated into three regions - head, visceral hump and foot
o visceral hump is covered by a thin, fleshy fold called mantle
o mantle secretes a calcarious shell, which may be external or internal
o presence of toothed tongue, the radula, composed of chitin
o reproduction is sexual (either unisexual or bisexual)
Class: Gastropoda. Examples: Snails, periwinkles, abalone, slugs
Characteristics of Gastropods
o both salt and fresh water and on land
o the largest group of mollusks
o distinct head with sensory tentacles
o possess either a single shell or no shell

37
o foot is muscular
Class: Cephalopoda (the “head-foots”)
Examples: Nautilus, Squid, Octopus
Characteristics of Cephalopods
o all marine
o large head with conspicuous eyes
o mouth surrounded by tentacles bearing suckers
o shell is internal in squid but absent in octopus
o radula and horny beak or jaws for feeding
Class: Pelecypoda or Bivalvia
Examples: Clams, Oysters, Scallops, Mussels
Characteristics of Pelecypods
o the shell is made up of two equal valves
o have no radula
o lack defined head with no tentacles
o foot is present but laterally compressed
o sessile and sedentary
o filter feeder
Phylum: Arthropoda (Arthropods)
The largest phylum in the animal kingdom (Examinable)
Characteristics of Arthropods
o bilateral symmetrical
o coelomate
o three segmented bodies; the head, thorax, and abdomen
o the head and thorax may be fused to form a cephalothorax
o chitinous exoskeleton
o shed their exoskeleton
o jointed appendages
o ventral nerve chord

38
Classes of arthropods include;
Class: Arachnida
Examples: Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks
Characteristics of Arachnids
o Terrestrial
o the body is fused into a cephalothorax or prosoma and abdomen or opisthosoma
o the cephalothorax bears four pairs of walking legs
o only simple eyes
o absence of antennae
o presence of pedipalps; second pair of appendages, used for feeding
o respiration occurs through book lungs (NB)
o have poison glands

Class: Diplopoda (Millipedes)

Characteristics of Diplopods
o terrestrial and mainly herbivorous
o elongated cylindrical body with numerous segments
o a pair of antennae and 3 pairs of mouthparts
o absence of poisonous jaws
o two pairs of legs on each segment
o slow-moving and nonaggressive scavenger

39
Class: Chilopoda (Centipedes)
Characteristics of Chilopods
o terrestrial
o fast-moving carnivores
o body is dorso-ventrally flattened
o two body divisions; a distinct head and elongated trunk
o head bears one pair of poison jaws and a pair antenna
o each body segment has one pair of walking legs
Class: Crustacea (Crustaceans). Examples: lobsters, crayfish, and crabs), prawn, copepods and
krill, barnacles
Characteristics of Crustaceans
o mostly aquatic
o the head and thorax are fused into a cephalothorax
o possess pair of compound eyes
o two pairs of antennae
o five pairs of legs on the cephalothorax
o body is covered with calcified (calcium) exoskeleton (carapace)
Class: Insecta (Insects)
Characteristics of Insects
o found in all habitat both aquatic and terrestrial
o three segmented bodies; the head, thorax, and abdomen
o the thorax is divided into three segments; prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax
o three pairs of legs and many have one or two pairs of wings
o presence a pair of antennae
o both simple and compound eyes
o Malpighian tubules are excretory organs for removing nitrogenous wastes
Some orders of class Insecta are
Order: Coleoptera. Examples: Beetles and Weevils
o chewing mouthparts (located at the tip of a beak or snout)
o have a hard, dense exoskeleton that covers and protects the body
o the fore wings, known as elytra, are hard and form protective covers over the hind wings
Order: Diptera. Examples: Mosquito, Housefly, Tsetsefly
o piercing or sucking mouthparts
o one pair membranous forewing
o hind wings are reduced to form halteres
o metamorphosis is complete

40
Order: Hemiptera (bugs). Examples: Bedbugs, Cotton Stainer, Aphids, Whiteflies
o piercing and sucking mouthparts
o hindwings are membraneous
o forewings are basal half hardened and tough with outer half membraneous
o metamorphosis is incomplete

Order: Isoptera. Examples: Termites

o primarily tropical; nest in ground
o antennae beaded and straight
o chewing mouthparts
o social insects with workers and soldiers
o metamorphosis is incomplete

Order: Hymenoptera. Examples: Ants, Bees and Wasps

o narrow waist between thorax and abdomen
o forewings are larger than hind wings
o forewings are joined to the hind wings by series of hooks
o many species are social insects
o metamorphosis is complete
Order: Lepidoptera. Examples: Butterfly and Moth
o body and wings are covered with powdery scales
o maxillae modified into long proboscis for sucking liquids
o proboscis curled when not in use
o metamorphosis is complete
Order: Odonata, Examples: Dragonflies and Damselflies
o large compound eyes
o very elongate thin thorax and abdomen
o long legs and narrow membranous wings
o often brightly colored
o incomplete metamorphosis

Order: Dictyoptera .Examples: Cockroaches, Praying mantis

o biting and chewing mouthparts
o forewings are tough (tegmina) and covers membranous hind wings
o forelimbs are modified for grasping
o metamorphosis is incomplete

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Order: Orthoptera. Examples: Grasshoppers, Crickets, Locust
o herbivores common in vegetation
o forewings are elongated and thickened
o pronotum "collar" of thorax
o legs modified for jumping or running
o structure to make and receive sound
o metamorphosis is incomplete

Phylum: Echinodermata (Echinoderms). Examples: Sea stars (starfishes), Sea urchins, Sea
cucumbers
Characteristics of Echinoderms
□ all are marine
□ radially symmetrical but larva is bilaterally symmetrical
□ body has five-part organization
□ possess tube feet with five suckers
□ possess an internal skeleton
□ contain separately sexes and carry out external fertilization
□ able to regenerate lost body parts

Classes of echinoderms include;

Class: Stelleroidea or Asteroidea (Sea Stars). Examples: Starfishes, Brittle stars
Characteristics of Stelleroidea
o dorso-ventrally flattened
o star shaped with five arms radiating from the central disc
Class: Echinoidea (Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars)
Characteristics of Echinoidea
o have globular, heart shaped or flattened body with long spines
o lack arms
o have calcareous plates in body wall

42
Phylum: Chordata (Chordates)
General characteristics of Chordates
o triploblastic, bilateral symmetry, coelomate
o presence of segmented muscle blocks (myotomes)
o a dorsal, hollow nerve cord (spinal cord)
o a dorsal supporting rod called a notochord; (this is replaced by a vertebral column in
vertebrates)
o the body is covered by scales, feathers or hairs
o respiration is by means gills or lungs
o presence of post anal tail

Classes of Chordates include;

Class: Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fish). Examples: Sharks, Dogfishes, Skates, Rays
Characteristics of Chondrichthyes
o Marine
o fertilization is internal
o absence of operculum
o mouth is ventral
o tail is heterocercal
o endoskeleton composed of cartilage
o body is covered with small tooth like or placoid scales
o absence a swim bladder but have oil-storing capacity for buoyancy
o fast-swimming predators or filter feeders

43
Class: Osteichthyes (bony fish). E.g.: Tilapia, Goldfish, Tuna, Salmon
Characteristics of Osteichthyes
o skeleton made of bones
o gills are covered by opercula
o mouth is terminal
o tail is homocercal
o a swim bladder used for buoyancy
o fins supported by rays
o skin is covered by overlapping scales
o Presence of lateral line
Class: Amphibia (Amphibians). E.g.: Frogs, Toad, Salamanders, Newts
Characteristics of Amphibians
o both aquatic and terrestrial
o thin loose, moist skin with no scales
o mostly tetrapods (four limbs)
o lungs and moist skin are used for gaseous exchange
o reproduce in water because sperm require water to swim
o larva is aquatic but adult adopts an amphibious lifestyle
o larvae (tadpoles) use gills for respiration
o poikilothermic or cold-blooded
Class: Reptilia (Reptiles). E.g.: Lizards, Snakes, Turtles, Crocodilians
Characteristics of Reptiles
o pentadactyl limbs with clawed digit except snakes
o homodont dentition
o no external ear and possess bony skeleton
o body covered with dry horny scales
o respiration is through lungs
o fertilization is internal
o lay eggs with leathery shells
o ectothermic or cold blooded
Class: Aves (Birds). E.g.: Duck, Vulture, Chicken (Domestic fowl), Weaver bird
Characteristics of Birds
o forelimbs are modified into wings
o presences of feathers
o presence of strong beak
o enlarged breastbone for attachment of flight muscles
o the eggs have calcareous shells

44
o absent of teeth and jaws
o horny scales on legs
o endothermic or warm blooded
Class: Mammalia (Mammals)
E.g.: Human, Cat, Cow, Whale, bat, Dolphin
Characteristics of Mammals
o skin is covered with fur or hair
o presence of mammary glands
o possession of external ears or pinnae
o four-chambered heart
o presence of sweat glands
o different kinds of teeth in mouth
o brain is well developed
o reproduction is viviparous (bring forth young alive)
o fertilization is internal
o endothermic or homeothermic
Subclass: Prototheria/Monotremata (Monotremes)
E.g: Duck billed platypus, Spiny anteater
o lay eggs which the female incubates
o absence of nipples; milk is secreted to the surface of the skin
Subclass: Metatheria/Marsupiala (Marsupials)
E.g.: Kangaroos, Koalas, Opossums
o the young are born immature and crawl into the mother's marsupium (pouch)
o in the pouch it feeds, grows and develops
Subclass: Eutheria (True mammals or Placental Mammals)
E.g.: human, Goats, Sheep, Horses, Pigs, Cats, Dogs
o well-developed placenta for nutrient and waste exchange
o they give birth to a fully developed live young

45
 GENETIC AND EVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
Genetics is the study and understanding of the phenomena of heredity and variation. It is a
branch of biology concerned with the structure, transmission and expression of hereditary
information.
Genetic Terminology
 Heredity: is the transmission of traits or characters from one generation to the next,
i.e., from parents to their offspring.
 Chromosome: is thread-like structures in the nucleus of a cell. It consists of
chromatin and carry genetic information arranged in a linear sequence. It is
comprised of a double stranded DNA molecule with associated histone proteins

 o Chromosome Number: is the total number of chromosomes in a somatic cell. It
is fixed for any particular species. E.g. Man has 46; garden pea has 14 etc.

 o Homologous chromosome: is identical pair of chromosomes in the nucleus of a
cell, having equal size and shape. One of each pair is inherited from each parent.

 o Gene: is a unit of inheritance for a given character or trait and is located in the
chromosome. Or is the basic functional unit of heredity that carries information
from parent to offspring.

 o Locus: is the site on a chromosome occupied by a gene.

 o Allele: An alternative form of a gene that occurs at the same locus on homologous
chromosomes e.g., A, B, and O genes are alleles.

 o Character or Trait: any detectable phenotypic property of an organism.

 o Genome: is the total genetic material of an organism.

 o Genotype: genetic constitution of an organism. Or the sum of all the alleles
present in a genome.

 o Phenotype: the external (morphological) appearance of an individual due to gene
action or interaction with the environment e.g., skin color, body size, ability to roll
the tongue, intelligence, blood group etc.


46
 o Diploid: is when nucleus of an organism consists of a full set of genetic material
(or two set of chromosomes). It represented by a symbol 2n. E.g., human has 46
chromosomes in somatic cells.

 o Haploid: is when a nucleus of an organism consists of a single set of
chromosomes. It represented by a symbol n. E.g., human has 23 chromosomes in sex
cells

 o Homozygous: the situation in which allelic genes are identical, e.g., KK or kk.

 o Heterozygous: the situation in which allelic genes are different, e.g., Kk.

 o Dominant: an allele is dominant if its effect can be observed in the phenotype of a
heterozygote. That is an allele/gene/character which expressed in the appearance of
organism (phenotype) even though there is the presence of alternate
allele/gene/character.

 o Recessive: allele/gene/trait is member of a pair of alleles that does not show its
characteristic in the phenotype in the presence of any other allele. That is allele
whose effect can only be seen when it is homozygous. e.g., hh genes.

 o First Filial (F1) generation: the progeny or offspring produced from a cross
between two homozygous parents (P1).

 o Second Filial (F2) generation: progeny produced by crossing the F1 generations.

 o Hybrid: offspring produced by crossing two different species (i.e., pure
breeding).

 o Monohybrid cross: the cross between two parents differing in a single pair of
contrasting characters.



 o Dihybrid cross: the cross between two parents in which two pairs of contrasting
characters are studied simultaneously for the inheritance pattern. The F1 offspring
is described as dihybrid or double heterozygous.



 o Albinism: is condition in human where there is failure to produce skin pigments.

47
 


 o Polygenetic inheritance: is the determination of a character controlled by many
genes each having an effect on the phenotype. Such character shows continuous
variation.

 o Crossing over: The exchange of genetic material between members of a pair of
homologous chromosomes.

 o Mutation: is spontaneous change in a gene or chromosome of an organism.

 o Codon: A sequence of three bases in DNA or RNA that code for a single amino
acid. It enables specific proteins to be made by specific genes

Mendelian Inheritance
Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was an Austrian monk. He investigated nature of inheritance in pea
plants (Pisum sativum) and published his results in 1866. They were ignored at the time, but
were rediscovered in 1900, and Mendel is now recognized as the "Father of Genetics".
Mendel chose garden pea as plant material for his experiments, since it had the following
advantages

Ø well defined characters,

Ø bisexual flowers,

Ø are capable of self-fertilization,

Ø easy hybridization

Mendel began his experiments using a set of pure-breeding pea plants. He performed
monohybrid crosses.
Mendel’s Experiments

48
Monohybrid Inheritance

Initially, Mendel concentrated only on the inheritance of a single pair of contrasting characters.
This type of inheritance is called monohybrid. Mendel selected several varieties of garden pea
plants with one pair of contrasting characters or traits such as:

□ seed texture (round & wrinkled)

□ seed color (green & yellow)

□ flower color (white & purple)

□ growth habit (tall & dwarf or short)

v In one experiment, Mendel crossed or cross-pollinated pure breeding tall pea plants with dwarf
plants. He collected the seeds from this cross and allowed them to germinate. All the resulting
plants (F1 generation) were found to be tall.

v Mendel then allowed the tall plants of the F1 generation to undergo self-pollination. In the
next generation (F2 generation), these seeds gave rise to both tall plants and dwarf plants,
approximately in the ratio 3:1. This is known as monohybrid ratio.
When the experiment was repeated for other contrasting traits (seed color; green verses yellow,
seed texture; round verses wrinkled etc.), the results were similar what was obtained for the tall
and short.
Mendel’s Explanation

v Based on these results, Mendel came to the conclusion that in a cross-involving two
contrasting characters, only one character expresses itself in the next generation.

49
v Mendel called the character, which expressed it effect as dominant character and the character,
which failed to express, as recessive character. This idea came to be known as the principle of
dominance.

Mendel came to the conclusion that certain factors (now called genes or alleles) are involved in
the expression of each contrasting characters. He presumed this plant should have contained two
factors, one responsible for tallness and the other responsible for dwarfness.

v He represented his ideas by using letters of English alphabet. He represented the factor for
dominant character by a capital letter and the factor for recessive character by a small letter
Step One

Factor for tallness = T

Factor for dwarfness = t

Parental genotype

Pure breeding tall plant = TT

50
Pure breeding short plant = tt

Step Two (self-pollination of F1 Plants)

Genotypic ratio: 1TT : 2Tt : 1tt i.e. ([Link])

Phenotypic ratio: 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf

(i.e ratio 3 : 1; probability ¾ , ¼; percentage 75% , 25% )

51
v Based on these results. Mendel formulated a law, which is known as the law of inheritance or
law of segregation or the law of purity of gametes. The law states that inherited character or trait
is controlled by a pair of genes and that each pair of the gene segregate (separate) during the
formation of gametes.

According to Mendel, each sexually reproducing organism possesses two genes for each
character; one gene is inherited from male parent and the other factor is inherited from the
female parent. These two genes for a particular character are called alleles. When an offspring
receives identical alleles from both parents, it is called homozygous (e.g TT). On the other hand,
when the offspring receives dissimilar alleles from two parents, it is called heterozygous (e.g.
Tt).
Test Cross or Back Cross
Test cross is a simple method devised by Mendel to verify the genotype of the F1 hybrid. When
the F1 hybrid is crossed with the homozygous recessive parent, it is called a test cross. Thus, test
cross is used to determine whether and organism is heterozygote or a homozygote. Since, the F1
is crossed back with one of the parents, it is also called a back cross.

In test cross, if the phenotypically dominant individual is homozygous for the dominant
character, all the offspring will show the dominant character. If the individual is heterozygous for
the dominant character, a ratio 1:1 of the dominant and recessive character will be obtained.
First crossing
Parental phenotypes: Unknown Tall X Homozygous Short

52
All the offspring are tall, therefore unknown is homozygous with genotype TT

Second Cross
Parental phenotypes: Unknown Tall X Homozygous Short

The ratio indicates that the unknown is heterozygote dominant with genotype Tt.
The Punnett Square or Chequer Board
Alternative form of solving genetic crosses is using punnet square which is also helpful.
Example
Parental phenotype: Tall X tt
Parent genotype TT X tt

53
F1 genotype: Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 phenotype: all Tall

54